2-Air Pollution Control
2-Air Pollution Control
2-Air Pollution Control
AIR POLLUTION
Air Pollution
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Source of Air Pollution
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Air Pollutants
Sources of pollution
All air contains natural contaminants such as : pollen, fungi spores, salt
spray,and smoke and dust particles from forest and volcanic eruptions.
Air contain also carbon monoxide from breakdown of methane (CH4),
hydrocarbons in the form of terpenes from pine trees; and hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) and methane from anaerobic decomposition of organic
matter.
The most anthropogenic five pollutants are listed in the following table:
National air pollution emission , by pollutants , 1940 to 1980.
Total Sulfur Nitrogen hydrocarbons Carbon
suspended dioxide oxide monoxide
particulates
1940 21.9 17.4 6.5 13.9 74.7
1970 17.6 27.9 18.5 27.1 110.9
1980 7.8 23.7 20.7 21.8 85.4
Unit: In million tones per year.
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Primary and Secondary Pollutants
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Sources of pollution
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Air Pollutant
Pollutant Source
Sulfur Dioxide Burning Coal & Oil
Nitrogen Oxide Burning fuel: transportation power station and other
burning
Carbon Monoxide Combustion process in low oxygen, burning wood
coal, oil
Carbon Dioxide Volcanic activity, hot spring, combustion process,
transportation, power plant
Volatile organic compound Evaporation from source, cleaning, furniture polish,
fabric softening, fuel stations, Automobiles, solvent,
vegetation, bacteria,
Particulate matter Fine particle from natural erosion, from human
activities, such as burning fuel
Ammonia Use as fertilizer, agriculture process, farm animal
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Source of Air Pollution In Malaysia
• natural sources of air pollution such as eruption of volcanoes, biological decay and lightning-
caused forest fire. Naturally, the Earth already has its own air pollution loading
• Industrial and development activities: Malaysia’s economic growth is mainly based on its
manufacturing (especially electronics), chemical and rubber industries. But higher production
rates also lead to higher emissions of organic and inorganic gases.
• the chemical industry releases emissions that contain many nitrogen and sulphur compounds
while refineries discharge sulphur dioxide and hydrocarbons. The metal working industry is
partially responsible for the emissions of sulphur dioxide and large amounts of toxic dust.
Human activities have resulted in harmful substances and polluting emissions being released
into the air.
• Motor vehicles: cars, trucks, and railways. Movement of people and goods requires energy
which relies mostly on the burning of fossil fuels, thus causing emissions and noise with
adverse local effects.
The air quality of the different transport modes depends on the kind of energy, engine
technology and the amount of energy consumed. Within the transport sector motorized road
traffic is the main emission source while public transport is environmentally friendlier than
passenger car
• Power Generation: Most of the energy is produced in conventional power plants burning fossil
fuels like natural gas, oil or coal. The effectiveness of these power plants is about 35 to 40 per
cent with the remaining chemical energy converted into heat.
At the moment, Malaysia produces 86% of its electricity in conventional power plants and 14%
in hydroelectric power plants. 10
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Air Pollution
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Air Pollutant
Source of SULFUR COMPOUNDS
All fuels used by humans (coal, oil, natural gas, wood) are
contain some sulfur.
Wood has less than 0.1%; coals have 0.5% to 3%;
During burning , all sulfur will be oxidized to sulfur dioxide
S + O2 SO2
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Air pollutant
Oxidation of SO2
SO2 + h → SO2*
SO2 + 2O2 → SO3 + O3
SO3 + H 2O → H2SO4
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Air pollutant
Oxidation of SO2
SO2 + O + M → SO3 + M
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Air pollutant
Oxidation of SO2
Sulfur transformation scheme:
several hours several days/hours
O h
H2S + O2 → SO2 + O → SO3 + H2O
O3 O2
O3
Olefin
XSO4 X + H2SO4
(Commonly NH3)
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Air pollutant
Effect of SO2 on humans
Concentration Exposure Effect
ppm time
0 –0.6 No detectable response
0.15 – 0.25 1 – 4 day Cardiorespiratory response
1.0 – 2.0 3 – 10 min Cardiorespiratory response
in healthy subject
1.0 – 5.0 Detectable responses,
tightness in chest
5.0 1h Choking and increased lung
resistance to air flow
10.0 1h Severe distress, some
noesebleeding
Grater than 20 Digestive tract affected, also
eye irritation
400 – 500 Dangerous for short period of
time 25
Air pollutant
SO2 and NO2 Concentration at Petaling Jaya
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Air pollutant
SO2 and NO2 Concentration at Tanah Rata
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Air pollutant
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Air pollutant
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Nitrogen Compounds in
atmosphere
The most important forms of reactive nitrogen in the air are nitrogen monoxide
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Nitrogen oxides are formed in the atmosphere mainly from the breakdown of
nitrogen gas (N2).
A few bacteria have developed special mechanisms to do nitrogen oxidation
producing NO2.
Vehicle engines operate at high enough temperatures and nitrogen oxides are
emitted in the exhaust fumes. Catalytic converters fitted to cars decrease the
production of these harmful compounds. Nitrogen oxides can also be formed
when biomass is burnt and during lightning.
Nitrogen oxides can also be formed when biomass is burnt and during lightning.
Ammonia is emitted from both solid and liquid livestock waste and can also
induce nitrous oxide production in soils by deposition after its initial release.
Plumes of ammonia can often be detected arising from intensive livestock
rearing facilities, such as poultry and pig farms.
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Nitrogen Oxides
The role of nitrogen oxides in some of the most important
processes in atmospheric chemistry.
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Names of nitrogen
compounds:
Formula Systematic Name Common Name
Nitrogen oxides are very important in the formation and loss of tropospheric ozone. They are
involved in catalytic cycles and continuously react and reform. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is
broken down by sunlight to form nitrogen monoxide (NO). This NO then re-reacts to form
more NO2. Ozone and unstable oxygen compounds known as peroxy-radicals can also be
involved in this cycle.
BUT, the emission far too much of these nitrogen oxides during combustion processes,
particularly from vehicles.
Other important nitrogen gases in the atmosphere include:
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Nitrogen oxides - at the centre of
atmospheric chemistry
Nitrogen oxides are at the centre of atmospheric chemistry. Most
chemical compounds which are oxidised and removed from
the air or are transformed into other chemical species come
into touch directly or indirectly with NO or NO2.
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Air pollutant
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
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Air pollutant
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
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Air pollutant
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
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Air pollutant
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
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Air pollutant
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
103
102
10
10-1
10-2
10-3
Temperature
10-4
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 (K)
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Air pollutant
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
k1CNO CNO2
CO3 = 2
k2CNO CNO
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Air pollutant
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
Are the necessary ingredient compounds for the production
photochemical smog
Sunlight
Hydrocarbon + NOx Smog
Unlike sulphur, it is not possible to reduce the nitrogen content of the fuel by physical cleaning
as it is combined within the organic matter of the fuel, and at present there are no
commercially available methods to reduce organic nitrogen. Fuel switching is also not
effective as this will only reduce the fuel NOX contribution and not the thermal NOX.
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Nitrogen Oxide Removal During Combustion
• Low NOX burners ensure that initial fuel combustion occurs within fuel rich conditions, that is with low oxygen concentrations, such that
any gaseous nitrogen produced is reduced to N2. Once initial combustion has taken place, further air is added to the combustion
chamber to ensure complete combustion of the fuel. This greatly reduces the opportunities for NOX production. Advanced low NOX
burners can reduce NOX concentration by up to 30%. Low NOX burners can be installed on either new or existing combustion plants, and
as such have been retrofitted to a number of power stations. They have also been incorporated into the design of many of the new gas-
fired power stations that are under construction or operational.
• Staged Combustion
• The combustion modifications required for staged combustion involves introducing air and fuel at different levels within the furnace. In
general a furnace contains a number of burners with similar fuel / air ratios. Staged combustion involves altering the fuel / air ratios of
individual burners whilst maintaining an overall ratio. For example, by allowing less air into the hottest part of the flame at the bottom of
the furnace, less thermal NOX is formed. Further air admitted to the coolest part of the flame at the top of the furnace allows complete
combustion of the fuel, whilst maintaining an overall ratio of fuel / air.
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Carbon Dioxide
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Carbon Cycle
• Some scientists have suggested that when the earth was new (about 4.5 billion years ago), CO2
may have made up as much as 80% of the earth's atmosphere. About 2 billion years ago, the
concentration of CO2 was likely 20 or 30%. Human life and even most life could not have
survived in such an atmosphere. With the evolution of photosynthesizing plants, the
concentration of CO2 dropped and the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere increased.
• Photosynthesis:
CO2 +H2O + energy from sun O2 + sugar
In addition, when plants and animals die, the dead organisms decay and give off CO2.
• the present amount of carbon dioxide taken out of the atmosphere every year by plants is almost
perfectly balanced by amount of carbon dioxide put back into the atmosphere by respiration and
decay. The carbon dioxide produced in this manner is part of a cycle in which new carbon does
not enter the system, but rather it keeps changing in form. They might be contained in sugars,
proteins, starches, cellulose and the list goes on and on. As living organisms undergo respiration
(the metabolism of sugars to produce energy for basic metabolic needs), or as organisms die and
decompose, the carbon compounds are broken down and add CO2 to the atmosphere. The CO2
is used by plants in the photosynthesis reaction, and the cycle keeps going.
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Unbalanced Cycle: Deforestation
• When trees die and decompose, CO2 is released. This is part of the normal
carbon cycle.
• When trees are cut down and used for fuel, the CO2 is also released. The rate at
which CO2 is released as a result of using trees for fuel is increased.
• When trees are used for building construction, furniture, etc, the carbon is not
released rapidly into the environment. One would suspect then that harvesting
trees for this purpose would result in less CO2 release into the atmosphere for
any given period. That might be correct, except that the tropical forests are
being depleted, and with a reduction in vegetation, there is a reduction in
photosynthesis. As a result, the carbon cycle is interrupted and the CO2 is not
being converted into sugars and oxygen. CO2 .
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Unbalanced Cycle
• Fossil Fuels
A third source of carbon dioxide comes from stored CO2.
The carbon found in fossil fuels was laid down over
millions of years. Because the organisms did not decay
completely, the carbon was never released into the
atmosphere as CO2. Instead, it was stored up in the
earth. Once fossil fuel has been recovered, processed
and burned, the CO2, which would normally have been
released over tens of millions of years, is suddenly all
released within a period of a few hundred years, thus
increasing the amount of CO2 in the environment.
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Effect of Carbon Dioxide
• Global Warming
Some scientists have suggested that ocean warming
is resulting in increased CO2 and not the other way
around. This is based on the idea that there is a lot of
CO2 trapped in the oceans, and as the temperature
rises, the CO2 is released, since the solubility of gases
is inversely proportional to temperature. Oceans have
long been considered to be a sink for atmospheric
carbon. If it is releasing CO2 as a result of warming
temperatures, the CO2 should be decreasing in the
oceans.
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Carbon Increasing source
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Carbon Increasing source
• There has been a decline in the 14C/12C ratio in CO2 that parallels the
increase in CO2. In 1950 a scientist named Suess discovered that fossils do
not contain 14C because they are much older than 10 half lives of 14C.
• There has been a parallel decline in 13C/12C ratio of atmospheric CO2. This
has been linked to the fact that fossil fuels, forests and soil carbon come from
photosynthetic carbon which is low in 13C. If the increased CO2 was due to
warming of the oceans, there should not be a reduction in the ratios of C-13
and C-14 to C-12.
• There are other clues that suggest the source of increased CO2 is not related
to the warming of the ocean and subsequent release of CO2 from the ocean.
• There has been a decline in the oxygen concentration of the atmosphere. If
ocean warming was responsible for the CO2 increase, It has been also
observed an increase in atmospheric O2, because O2 is also released as the
water is warmed.
• The ocean is a sink for atmospheric carbon, and the carbon content of the
oceans has increased by 118±19 PgC in the last 200 years. If the atmospheric
CO2 was the result of oceans releasing CO2 to the atmosphere, the CO2 in the
ocean should not be rising as a result of ocean warming.
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Carbon Increasing source
• There is still some resistance to the theory that the increase in CO2
results from the burning of fossil fuel, and that the increase in CO2 is
responsible for global warming. There is little pressure on the US power
plants to reduce CO2 emissions; so here it's still "Burning of fossil fuel is
good for the environment" and "the world is flat." The power plants
faced with reducing their CO2 emissions significantly by 2008 and even
more between 2008 and 2012 as required by the Kyoto Protocol, have
embarked upon a unique way to reduce the CO2 emitted into the
atmosphere.
• The technique known as carbon capture and storage (CCS) involves
siphoning off and burying the CO2 underground. While the CO2 is not
"gone," it is contained. For now they have to report it as "released CO2,"
but USA is working out plans to give industries credit for carbon
capturing and storing in the second phase, from 2008-12, of the
European carbon trading scheme. It will be interesting to see the effect
of keeping the CO2 from being emitted into the atmosphere. Of course,
the next step would be to find a way to treat the stored CO2 or find a
use for it.
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Carbon Dioxide
• Present concentration ~ >400 ppm
• Rate of rise in concentration =2 ppm yr-1
• CO2 absorbs infrared radiation and causes global warming
• Therefore CO2 is a ‘green house’ gas
• It was predicted that there will be a net increase of 0.5 C in global
mean temperature by the beginning of the millenium due to
continuous CO2 increasing in the atmosphere
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Carbon Dioxide
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Carbon Dioxide removal
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Carbon dioxide capture
• Is a form of carbon capture. It removes carbon dioxide from ambient air by carbon
dioxide scrubbing. It is a different approach to removing CO2 from the stack
emissions of large point sources, such as fossil fuel fired power stations. It is
regarded as greenhouse gas remediation, which is a branch of geoengineering.
Some commentators regard air capture as a form of carbon capture and storage, but
CCS is usually used to describe capture at source rather than capture from ambient
air.
• Air capture is not generally seen as an attractive alternative to capture at large, point
source emitters (such as power plants), as it is likely to be more efficient and cheaper
to capture and store carbon dioxide from more concentrated streams. There are,
however, some advantages of air capture as it removes the need for CO2 piping to
transport the gas to underground storage sites, and allows the use of renewable
energy and optimal storage sites. In addition, the cost of air capture, unlike capture
at power plants, likely benefits from not having to remove all, or even most, of the
CO2 it processes.
• It is particularly effective at dealing with small point sources such as domestic
heating systems and vehicle exhausts, where piping of exhaust gases is impractical.
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CO2 Ambient air removal: Proposed
methods
➢ Artificial trees
• A notable example of an atmospheric scrubbing process are the artificial trees. This
concept imagines huge numbers of artificial trees around the world to remove ambient
CO2.
• The chemistry used is a variant of that described below, as it is based on sodium
hydroxide. However, in a more recent design proposed, the process can be carried out at
only 40 °C by using a polymer-based ion exchange resin, which takes advantage of
changes in humidity to prompt the release of captured CO2, instead of using a kiln. This
massively reduces the energy required to operate the process.
➢ Scrubbing towers
A tower, 4 feet wide and 20 feet tall, with a fan at the bottom that sucks air in, which comes
out again at the top. In the process, about half the CO2 is removed from the air. This device
uses the chemical process described in detail below. The reagents are regenerated in a
separate facility. The main costs of a the full plant will be the cost to build it, and the energy
input to regenerate the chemicals and produce a pure stream of CO2.
➢ Quicklime process
Quicklime will absorb CO2 from atmospheric air mixed with steam at 400 °C, (forming
calcium carbonate) and release it at 1000 °C. This process,, can be performed using
renewable energy from thermal concentrated solar power
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Example of CO2 Scrubbing Chemistry
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Carbon Compounds
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Carbon Compounds
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Global Carbon Monoxide (Air Pollution)
Measurements
• Carbon monoxide is a gaseous byproduct from the burning of fossil fuels,
in industry and automobiles, as well as burning of forests and grasslands.
The image below was taken in the April 30, 2000, that levels of carbon
monoxide are much higher in the Northern Hemisphere, where human
population and human industry is much greater than in the Southern
Hemisphere
• The image represent levels of carbon monoxide in the lower atmosphere,
ranging from about 390 parts per billion (dark brown pixels), to 220 parts
per billion (red pixels), to 50 parts per billion (blue pixels).
2010 2015
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Toxicity of Carbon Monoxide
• Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas, but, being colorless, odorless, tasteless, and
non-irritating, it is very difficult for people to detect. Carbon monoxide is a
product of incomplete combustion of organic matter with insufficient oxygen
supply to enable complete oxidation to carbon dioxide (CO2) and is often
produced in domestic or industrial settings by motor vehicles and other
gasoline-powered tools, heaters, and cooking equipment. Exposures at 100
ppm or greater can be dangerous to human health.
• Symptoms of mild acute poisoning include headaches, dizziness, and flu-like
effects; larger exposures can lead to significant toxicity of the central nervous
system and heart, and even death. Following acute poisoning, long-term sleep
disorders often occur. Carbon monoxide can also have severe effects on the
fetus of a pregnant woman. Chronic exposure to low levels of carbon monoxide
can lead to depression, confusion, and memory loss.
• Carbon monoxide mainly causes adverse effects in humans by combining with
hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO) in the blood. This prevents
oxygen binding to hemoglobin, reducing the oxygen-carrying capacity of the
blood, leading to hypoxia. Additionally, myoglobin (monomeric heme protein
found mainly in muscle tissue where it serves as an intracellular
storage site for oxygen) and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase are thought
to be adversely affected. Carboxyhemoglobin can revert to hemoglobin, but the
recovery takes time because the HbCO complex is fairly stable.
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Air pollutant
Carbon Compounds
Other hydrocarbon and organic gases
Methane
• The most abundant hydrocarbon gas in the
atmosphere ~ 1 - 2 ppm
• Difficult to react in the atmosphere except at
concentrations above its lower flammability limit and
in the presence of an ignition source
• Also a ‘green house’ gas
• Produced mainly by decay of fallen trees in swampy
areas & gas pockets below ground
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Air pollutant
Carbon Compounds
Other hydrocarbon and organic gases
Terpene
• Including -pinene, mircene dan limonene
• Monocyclic and dicyclic organic compounds
consisting of combinations of isoprene
CH2=C-CH=CH2
|
CH3
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Air pollutant
Aerosols
• Aerosol is a gas containing suspended solid and/or
liquid particles
• Particle settling velocity is very low
• Inertial effect on particle motion could be neglected
because the ratio of inertial forces/ viscous forces is
small
• Brownian motion due to thermal agitation of gas
molecules is significant
• Ratio of particle surface area/volume is large
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Air pollutant
Aerosols
• Particle settling velocity is given by
2 p gr
2
vs =
9 f
where r = particle radius, p = particle density,
f = gas viscosity and g = gravitational constant
Inertia force/viscous force given by particle Reynolds number < 1.0
f vs d
Re =
f
Settling velocity of 10m radius particle<30cm yr-1 Settling
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velocity of 30m radius particle<10 cm yr-1
Air pollutant
Sources of Aerosol
• Dispersed material, r > 0.1 m
– Sea salts, bubble breakage
– soil / metal - dust cloud/ dust storm
• Chemical reaction and vapour condensation
– r < 0.1 m
• Photochemical reaction - smog
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Air pollutant
r (m)
Air
electricity small large
ion ion
Atmospheric
optics smog particle
Cloud
physics Active condensation nucleus
Air
Chemistry Particle that contains
the most aerosol mass
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Air pollutant
Aerosol Classification
• Aitken particle r < 0.1 m
• Large particle 0.1 < r < 1.0 m
• Giant particle r > 1.0 m
• Aitken particle is very small and diffusion effects are
significant, therefore thermal coagulation is fast
• For giant particle, diffusion effects could be neglected
and its behaviour is governed by settling due to gravity
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Air pollutant
Aerosol Classification
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Plume Rise
Air pollutant
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Air pollutant
N – Number of particles
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Time
Air pollutant
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Air pollutant
104
103
10-2
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
Radius, r (m)
10-3 10-2 10-1 1.0 10 822
10 103
Air pollutant
1 dN
N dr
= f (r ) f (r )dr = 1
Particle size distribution based on volume is given by
F (r )dr = 1
1 dV
= F (r )
V dr
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Air pollutant
= C2 r ( )
dN dN − +1
f ( ln r ) = = C1r − 2 3
d ln r dr
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Volatile Organics VOCs
• VOCs are a volatile materials emitted to atmosphere from
several sources. VOCs include a variety of chemicals, some
of which may have short- and long-term adverse health
effects. Concentrations of many VOCs are consistently
higher indoors (up to ten times higher) than outdoors.
• VOCs are emitted by a wide array of products numbering in
the thousands. Examples include: paints and lacquers, paint
strippers, cleaning supplies, pesticides, building materials
and furnishings, office equipment such as copiers and
printers, correction fluids and carbonless copy paper,
graphics and craft materials including glues and adhesives,
permanent markers, and photographic solutions.
• The major VOC source are the fuel and fuel handling such as
fuel station, storage, solvent usage transportation , storing
and application.
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