Antenna lectures 1-5

EE 513

Antennas

Lecture 1
Abdullah Aiad Abograin /University of Tripoli / 2021
Topics to be covered in this part of the course:
• Introduction and fundamental parameters of
antennas.
• Radiation integrals and auxiliary potential
functions.
• Linear wire antennas.
• Loop antennas.
• Linear antenna arrays.
• Travelling wave antennas.
• Aperture antennas.
• Microstrip antennas.
• Reflector antennas.
• Other antennas. (Folded dipole, Yagi-Uda,
Helical, and Log periodic antennas).
 Chapter 1

Introduction and
fundamental
parameters of antennas
Antenna is :
a means for radiating or receiving radio waves.
the transitional structure between free-space and a guiding device.

Source Guided wave Antenna Radiated wave

Wire antennas
Aperture antennas
Microstrip antennas
Array antennas
Array antennas
Reflector antennas
Lens antennas
Antenna selection depends on many factors. For example
consider:
• Frequency and bandwidth.
• Radiation pattern.
• Gain.
• Polarization.
• Side lobe level.
• Power handling capability.
• Shape and size.
• weight.
•Wind speed.
• Cost.
 Radiation pattern
It is a mathematical function or a graphical representation of the
radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space
coordinates. In most cases, the radiation pattern is determined in the
far-field region and is represented as a function of the directional
coordinates. Radiation properties include power flux density,
radiation intensity, field strength, directivity, phase or polarization.
Field pattern in linear scale typically represents a plot of the
magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as a function of the
angular space.
Power pattern in linear scale typically represents a plot of the
square of the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as a
function of the angular space.
Power pattern in dB represents the magnitude of the electric or
magnetic field, in decibels, as a function of the angular space.
The beamwidth of a pattern is defined as the angular separation between two
identical points on opposite side of the pattern maximum. In a plane containing
the direction of the maximum of a beam, half power beam width HPBW is the
angle between the two directions in which the radiation intensity is one-half value
of the beam. First null beam width FNBW is the angular separation between the
first nulls of the pattern.
A radiation lobe is a portion of the radiation pattern bounded by
regions of relatively weak radiation intensity.
Isotropic radiator
An isotropic radiator is defined as a hypothetical lossless antenna
having equal radiation in all directions.
Directional radiator
A directional antenna is one having the
property of radiating or receiving
electromagnetic waves more effectively in
some directions than in others. This term is
usually applied to an antenna whose
maximum directivity is significantly greater
than that of a half-wave dipole.

Omnidirectional radiator
having an essentially nondirectional pattern
in a given plane and a directional pattern in
any orthogonal plane.
 Field regions of an antenna
D3
R1 = 0.62

2
2D R2
R2 =


D R1

Reactive near field

region

Radiating near field

(Fresnel) region

Far field (Fraunhofer) region

 Field regions of an antenna
Reactive near-field region is defined as that portion of the near-
field region immediately surrounding the antenna wherein the
reactive field predominates.
Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region is defined as “that region of
the field of an antenna between the reactive near-field region and
the far-field region wherein radiation fields predominate and
wherein the angular field distribution is dependent upon the
distance from the antenna.
Far-field (Fraunhofer) region is defined as “that region of the field
of an antenna where the angular field distribution is essentially
independent of the distance from the antenna.
 Radian and steradian
The measure of a plane angle is
a radian. One radian is defined
as the plane angle with its
vertex at the center of a circle
of radius r that is subtended by
an arc whose length is r.
Since the circumference of a
circle of radius r is C = 2𝜋r,
there are 2𝜋 rad in a full circle.
The measure of a solid angle is a steradian. One steradian is
defined as the solid angle with its vertex at the center of a sphere
of radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to
that of a square with each side of length r.
Since the area of a sphere of radius r is A = 4𝜋r², there are 4𝜋 sr in
a closed sphere.
Example:
For a sphere of radius r, find the solid angle Ω A (in square radians
or steradians) of a spherical cap on the surface of the sphere
defined by spherical angles of 0    30 , 0    360 .
o o


2 6

A =   sin  d  d  = 2  − cos  0 6 = 2 ( 0.134 ) = 0.8418 st
=0 =0
 Radiation density

Later, it will be shown that the power density associated with

the electromagnetic fields of an antenna in its far-field region is
predominately real and will be referred to as radiation density.
Example:
The electric field radiated by an antenna in the far field is given by:
sin  − jkr
E = a E 0 e
r
Find the radiated power density.
E E 0 sin  − jkr
H = ar  = a e
  r
E 02 sin 2 
= ar
2 r 2
2  
E 02 sin 2  E 2
Prad =   ar  a r 2
sin  d  d  = 0
( )  d 
2 sin 3

2 r 2
2 r
 =0  =0 0

( )

 E 02  2
sin  (1 − cos  ) d  =
E  
=  − cos  0 + 3 cos 
2 0 1 3

 0  0

4 E 02
=
3 
 Radiation intensity
Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as “the power
radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle.” The radiation
intensity is a far-field parameter, and it can be obtained by simply
multiplying the radiation density by the square of the distance.
Example:
Find the half power beam width of the antenna having the radiation
intensity:
U = cos ( 3 )
2
0    30
o
0    360o 0

U max = 1 at  = 0 o 30 30

1
U h = U max at: 60 60

2
cos2 ( 3 h ) = 0.5 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
90 90

 h = 15o
Because of symmetry: 120 120

HPBW = 2  m −  h

= 30o 150 150

180
Example:
Find the first null beam width of the antenna having the radiation
intensity:
U = cos ( 2 ) cos ( 3 )
2 2
0    90 o
0    360o
0

30 30

U max = 1 at  = 0o
60 60

The radiation intensity has

nulls at: 1 0.8 0.6 0.4

2 n = 90   n = 45
0.2
o o 90 90

3 n = 90o   n = 30o
120 120

FNBW = 2  m −  n = 60o
150 150

180
Half power beam width in two
perpendicular planes

1

2
Example:
Find the half power beam width in two perpendicular planes for
the antenna having the radiation intensity given by:
U = sin  sin 2  0    180 o
0    180o
U max = 1 at  m = 90o and m = 90o

Elevation
plane

Azimuth
plane
END of lecture 1

Abdullah Aiad Abograin /University of Tripoli / 2021

 EE 513

Antennas

Lecture 2
Abdullah Aiad Abograin /University of Tripoli / 2021
 Directivity
Directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a
given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged
over all directions. The average radiation intensity is equal to the
total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4𝜋. If the direction
is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation intensity is
implied. Stated more simply, the directivity of a nonisotropic
source is equal to the ratio of its radiation intensity in a given
direction over that of an isotropic source.
The directivity of an isotropic source is unity since its power is
radiated equally well in all directions. For all other sources, the
maximum directivity will always be greater than unity, and it is a
relative “figure of merit” which gives an indication of the
directional properties of the antenna as compared with those of an
isotropic source.
For example, the directivity of a half wavelength dipole is plotted
(D = 1.67sin³θ) in comparison with the hypothetical isotropic
radiator (D = 1).
Example
An antenna generates the electric field:
10cos3  − jkr 
E = a e V/m, 0    , 0    2
r 2
Calculate the directivity.
E cos3  − jkr
H = a r  = a 0.0265 e A/m
 r
1

Wav = Re E × H*
2

1  10cos3  − jkr cos3  jkr 
= Re a e  a 0.0265 e 
2  r r 
0.133cos6 
= ar W/m 2

r2
U = r 2W av = 0.133cos6  W/sr
The normalized radiation intensity:
U = cos6 

4 (1)
D0 = 
2 2

 
=0 =0
cos6  sin  d  d 

4 4
=  = = 14
1
  ( 2 )
 cos   2 2
7

 − 7   0 7
 0
Example
Find the directivity of the antenna having the radiation intensity:
U = sin  sin 2  0    180o 0    180o

4 (1) 4
D0 =  
=
 2
 
  sin  sin d  d    sin  d  
2 2 2

=0 =0   =0 

4 16
= = = 5.09
( 2)
 
2
Example
An antenna has a radiation intensity given by:
 cos2  0    30o

(
U =  43 1 − sin ( − 30o ) ) 30o    60o
 60o    180o
 0
Find the directivity.
 
2 6 2 3
Prad =   cos2  sin  d  d  +   (1 − sin ( −
3
4

) ) sin  d  d 
6
=0 =0 =0  =
6

= 1.9794
4 (1)
D0 = = 6.35
1.9794
Approximate formulas used for directive patterns
The radiation intensity for a directive antenna is given by:

And it has the maximum value:

The radiated power can be written as:

The exact directivity which is independent of B₀ is found by the

definition:
The beam solid angle ΩA is defined as the solid angle through
which all the power of the antenna would flow if its radiation
intensity is constant (and equal to the maximum value of U) for all
angles within ΩA.
For antennas with one narrow major lobe
and very negligible minor lobes, the beam
solid angle is approximately equal to the
product of the half-power beamwidths in
two perpendicular planes.

Known as Kraus approximation.

If the beamwidths are given in degrees:

Another approximation (Tai and Pereira) can be used:

(Beamwidths in radians)

(Beamwidths in degrees)
Example
An antenna generates the electric field:
10cos3  − jkr 
E = a e V/m, 0    , 0    2
r 2
Calculate the directivity using :
a) Kraus approximation.
b) Tai and Pereira approximation.
U max = 1 at  m = 0o
U h = 0.5 at cos6  h = 0.5   h = 27o
1d = 2d = 2  m −  h = 54o
41253
a) D 0 = 2
= 14.1
54
72815
b) D 0 = = 12.5
54 + 54
2 2
Approximate formulas used for omnidirectional
patterns
The approximate directivity formula for an omnidirectional pattern
as a function of the pattern half-power beamwidth (in degrees) can
be found using on of the following approximations:

(McDonald)

(Pozar)

The approximate formula of McDonald should, in general, be more

accurate for omnidirectional patterns with minor lobes, while the
formula of Pozar should be more accurate for omnidirectional
patterns with minor lobes of very low intensity (ideally no minor
lobes).
Example
The normalized intensity of a λ/2 dipole is approximated by:
U = sin 3  0     0    2
Find the directivity using:
a) Exact formula.
b) Formula of McDonald.
c) Formula of Pozar.
a) 2  
Prad =  
=0 =0
sin 4  d  d  = 2 
=0
sin 4  d 

1 n −1
 
n −1 n −2
sin n
xdx = − cos x sin x + sin xdx
n n

 1 3

  3   3 2
Prad = 2  − cos  sin 3  +  sin 2  d   = 2  0 +   =
 4 0 4  =0   4 2 4
 4 16
D0 = = = 1.698
3 2 3
4
b)
U max = 1 at  = 90o

U h = 0.5 at  h = sin −1 ( 3
)
0.5 = 52.53o
HPBW = 2 ( 90o − 52.53o ) = 74.93o

= 1.6897

c)
= 1.75
 Efficiency
Associated with an antenna are a number of efficiencies and can
be defined using the figure below. The total antenna efficiency e₀
is used to take into account losses at the input terminals
(reflection losses) and within the structure of the antenna
(conductor and dielectric losses).

Where:
e 0 : total efficiency
e r : reflection efficiency
ecd : antenna radiation efficiency
 Gain
Gain of an antenna in a given direction is defined as the ratio of
the intensity, in a given direction, to the radiation intensity that
would be obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were
radiated isotropically. The radiation intensity corresponding to
the isotropically radiated power is equal to the power accepted
(input) by the antenna divided by 4𝜋.

gain does not include losses arising from impedance mismatches

(reflection losses) and polarization mismatches (losses).
 Beam efficiency

If 𝜃₁ is chosen as the angle where the first null or minimum

occurs then the beam efficiency will indicate the amount of
power in the major lobe compared to the total power.
Example
The radiation intensity of an antenna is given by:

 sin  4 ( cos  − 1) 

2

U =  0  0    2
 4 ( cos  − 1) 
Find:
a) The null angles.
b) The FNBW.
c) The exact directivity.
d) The HPBW.
e) The directivity using Kraus approximation.
f) The beam efficiency.
  sin  4 ( cos  − 1) 
2

U = 
 4 ( cos  − 1) 
2
 sin X 
Let: 4 ( cos  − 1) = X  U =  
 X 
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
U(X)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
X
-4π -3π -2π -π π 2π 3π 4π
a)
U is maximum at X = 4 ( cos  m − 1) = 0   m = 0
U = 0 at X = 4 ( cos  n − 1) =  n , n = 1, 2,3,...
 n
 n = cos  1 − 
−1

 4
 n = 41.41o , 60o , 75.52o , 90o , 104.48o , 120o , 138.59o , 180o

b)

FNBW = 2  m −  n = 2 0 − 41.41o = 82.82o

c)
For: X = 4 ( cos  − 1) we have dX = −4 sin  d 
 sin  4 ( cos  − 1) 
2
2  −8
 −1   sin X 
2

 =0 =0  4 ( cos − 1)  sin  d  d  = ( )   

2  dX
   4  0  X 
1

8 2
 sin X 
0.9

1
 Ud  = 2 X=0  X  dX
0.8

0.7

0.6

U(X)
0.5

0.4

 2
 sin X 
0.3

1
  
0.2

 dX 0.1

2 X =0  X  0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0
X
5 10 15 20

 1    
=    =
 2  2  4
4 (1)
D0 = = 16

4
d) 2
 sin X  sin X
U max = 1 at  = 0 U h = 0.5 =    = 0.707
 X  X

X  1.39
 4 ( cos  h − 1) = 1.39
 h = cos −1 ( 0.889 ) = 27.2o

HPBW = 2  m −  h = 2 0 − 27.2o = 54.4o

e)
41253
D0 = = 13.9
( 54.4 )
2

f)
2  n

  Ud 
=0 =0
BE = 2 
= 0.9144 (Using MATLAB)

  Ud 
=0 =0
END of lecture 2

Abdullah Aiad Abograin /University of Tripoli / 2021

 EE 513

Antennas

Lecture 3
Abdullah Aiad Abograin /University of Tripoli / 2021
 Polarization
Polarization of an antenna in a given direction is defined as the
polarization of the wave transmitted (radiated) by the antenna.
Polarization of the radiated wave is the curve traced by the end
point of the vector representing the instantaneous electric field.
The field must be observed along the direction of propagation.
In practice, polarization of
the radiated energy varies
with the direction from the
center of the antenna, so
that different parts of the
pattern may have different
polarizations. When the
direction is not stated, the
polarization is taken to be
the polarization in the
direction of maximum
gain.
Given the electric field of a plane wave:
E ( z , t ) = a x E mx cos (t − kz + x ) + a y E my cos (t − kz + y )
We have three types of polarization.

Polarization

Linear Circular Elliptical

Single component E mx = E my If it is neither
or and linear nor circular
 = y − x = n  is an odd
n = 0,1, 2,... multiple of  2
Example
Find the polarization of the following waves:
a) E = a x 15e − jky + az j 12e − jky

b) E = a x 2e − jkz + a y (1 + j ) e 4 e − jkz
j

c) E = a y ( −10 + j 10 ) e jkx + az (15 − j 15) e jkx

a) This can be rewritten as:

j
E = a x 15e − jky + az 12e 2 e − jky
The phase difference is 90° but the amplitudes are not equal.
Hence, the polarization in elliptic.
 z

The polarization is right hand elliptically polarized (RHEP).

b) This can be rewritten as:
 
j j
E = a x 2e − jkz + a y 2e 4 e 4 e − jkz

j
E = a x 2e − jkz + a y 2e 2 e − jkz
The phase difference is 90° and the amplitudes are equal.
Hence, the polarization in circular.
 x

The polarization is left hand circularly polarized (LHCP).

c) This can be rewritten as:
− j 45o
E = a y 14.14e j 135o
e jkx
+ az 21.2e e jkx
The phase difference between the two components is 180°.
Hence, the polarization is linear.
Polarization loss factor
In general, the polarization of the receiving antenna will not be
the same as the polarization of the incoming (incident) wave.
This is commonly stated as (polarization mismatch). The
amount of power extracted by the antenna from the incoming
signal will not be maximum because of the polarization loss.
Assuming that the electric field of the incoming wave can be
written as:
Ei = ai E i
and the polarization of the electric field of the receiving antenna
can be expressed as:
EA = a A E A
the polarization loss can be taken into account by introducing a
polarization loss factor (PLF). It is defined, based on the
polarization of the antenna in its transmitting mode, as:
PLF = ai  a A
2
 Graphical example of the PLF for a linear wire antenna:
p

PLF = ai  a A = 1
2
PLF = ai  a A
2
PLF = ai  a A = 0
2

= cos2  p
Example
A circularly polarized wave is incident on a linearly polarized
receiving antenna. Find the polarization loss factor.
For a circularly polarized wave:
a x  ja y
ai =
2
For a linearly polarized antenna:
A ax  B a y
aA =
A2 + B2 2
A  jB
PLF = ai  a A =
2

2 A +B2 2

( )
2
1 1
= A +B
2 2
=
2 (A 2 + B 2 ) 2
Example
A 300MHz uniform plane wave, traveling along the x-axis in the
negative x-direction, whose electric field is given by:
Ei = E 0 ( ja y + 3az ) e jkx
where Eo is a real constant, impinges upon a dipole antenna that
is placed at the origin and whose electric field radiated toward
the x-axis in the positive x-direction is given by:
EA = E A ( a y + 2az ) e − jkx
where Ea is a real constant. Determine the following:
a) Polarization of the incident wave.
b) Polarization of the antenna.
c) Polarization loss factor.
a) Polarization of the incident wave: z
ja y + 3az
ai =
10
The wave is LHEP.
y
b) Polarization of the antenna:
a y + 2a z
aA =
5
The antenna is linearly polarized because the phase difference
is zero.
c) Polarization loss factor:
2
j + 6  1 + 36 
2

PLF = ai  a A =
2
=  = 0.74
50  50 
 Input impedance
It is defined as the impedance presented by an antenna at its
terminals or the ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of
terminals or the ratio of the appropriate components of the
electric to magnetic fields at a point.
Transmitting mode

Where:
Based on this model, antenna efficiency can be written as:
Power delivered to the radiation resistance
ecd =
Total delivered power
I g2 R r Rr
= =
I g2 ( R r + R L ) Rr + RL

Receiving mode
 Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the range of frequencies
within which the performance of the antenna, with respect to some
characteristic, conforms to a specified standard.
The bandwidth can be considered to be the range of frequencies, on
either side of a center frequency where the antenna characteristics
(such as input impedance, pattern, beamwidth, polarization, side
lobe level, gain, beam direction, radiation efficiency) are within an
acceptable value of those at the center frequency.
For broadband antennas, the bandwidth is usually expressed as the
ratio of the upper-to-lower frequencies of acceptable operation. For
example, a 10:1 bandwidth indicates that the upper frequency is 10
times greater than the lower.
For narrowband antennas, the bandwidth is expressed as a
percentage of the frequency difference (upper minus lower) over
the center frequency of the bandwidth. For example, a 5%
bandwidth indicates that the frequency range of acceptable
operation is 5% of the bandwidth center frequency.
 Vector effective length
The vector effective length (also known as effective height) is a
quantity that is used to determine the voltage induced on the open-
circuit terminals of the antenna when a wave impinges upon it.

It is a far-field quantity and it is related to the far-zone field Ea

radiated by the antenna, with current Iin in its terminals, by:
Example
The field radiated by a half wavelength dipole is given by:

where Io is the maximum current. Determine the

(a) vector effective length
(b) maximum value of the vector effective length. Specify the
angle.
(c) ratio of the maximum effective length to the physical length l.
a) We have:
2  cos ( 2 cos  ) 
le = −a
  sin 


b) The maximum value of the vector effective length occurs at θ = π/2.
2
le = −a

c)
2
e
= = 0.637

 Maximum effective area
The effective aperture is the area which when multiplied by the
incident power density gives the power delivered to the load.
When the antenna is matched to the load connected to its
terminals (conjugate matching) the effective area is maximum.
The maximum effective area is related to the physical area of the
antenna using the aperture effeciency εap :

For aperture type antennas, such as waveguides, horns, and

reflectors, the maximum effective area cannot exceed the physical
area but it can equal it (Aem ≤ Ap or 0 ≤ 𝜀ap ≤ 1).
The maximum effective area is related to the directivity using:
If there are losses associated with an antenna, the antenna is
mismatched with the feeding line, and the incoming is polarization
mismatched with the antenna, a more general expression for the
maximum effective area is:
Example
A lossless antenna is operating at 100 MHz and its maximum
effective aperture is 0.7162 m² at this frequency. The input
impedance of this antenna is 75 ohms, and it is attached to a 50
ohm transmission line. Find the directivity of this antenna if it is
polarization-matched.
75 − 50
= = 0.2
75 + 50
3  108
= = 3m
100  10 6

 2

0.7162 = (1) (1 − 0.22 ) 
3
 D 0 (1)
 4 

D 0 = 1.042
END of lecture 3

Abdullah Aiad Abograin /University of Tripoli / 2021

 EE 513

Antennas

Lecture 4
Abdullah Aiad Abograin /University of Tripoli / 2021
 Friis transmission equation
The Friis Transmission Equation relates the power received to the
power transmitted between two antennas separated by a distance
R > 2D² ∕ λ, where D is the largest dimension of either antenna.

Let us assume that the transmitting antenna is initially isotropic. If

the input power at the terminals of the transmitting antenna is Pt,
then its isotropic power density W0 at distance R from the antenna is:
For a nonisotropic transmitting antenna:

The effective area of the receiving antenna is given by:

From the incident power density and its effective area, the power
delivered by the antenna to a conjugately matched load:
 2 Dt (t , t ) D r ( r , r ) Pt
= et e r at  a r
2

( 4 R )
2

Finally, the Friis equation is given by:

( )(1 −  )   
2
Pr
= ecdt ecdr 1 − t  Dt (t , t ) D r ( r , r ) at  ar
2 2 2

 4 R 
r
Pt
Example
A 3GHz communication system uses two linearly polarized
antennas for both sides (assumed to be aligned), which are
separated by 10km. The transmitting antenna has an input
impedance 80 + j50 Ω and it is connected to a 75Ω coaxial
cable. The 10dB receiving antenna produces a standing wave
ratio on its connecting line. If the transmitted power is 100W,
find the transmitting antenna gain if the received power at the
receiver side is 3.5nW.
PLF = 1  = c / f = 0.1m
ZA −Z0 80 + j 50 − 75
t = = = 0.309
ZA +Z0 80 + j 50 + 75
V SWR r − 1 3 − 1
r = = = 0.5
V SWR r + 1 3 + 1
 ( )(1 −  )   
2
Pr
= 1 − t  Gt G r at  a r
2 2 2

 4 R 
r
Pt
−9
3.5  10
2
 0.1 
= ( 0.905)( 0.75)  3 
Gt (10 )
100  4  10  10 
Gt = 8.14 = 9.1dB
 Radar range equation
Definition:
Radar cross section is defined as the area intercepting that amount
of power which, when scattered isotropically, produces at the
receiver a density which is equal to that scattered by the actual
target.
Radar range equation relates the power Pr (delivered to the receiver
load) to the input power Pt (transmitted by an antenna), after it has
been scattered by a target with a radar cross section of 𝜎.
The power captured by the target is given by:

From the definition of the RCS, the power density at the receiver is:
The received power found by multiplying the receiving antenna’s
effective area by the incident power density. Using the relation
between the directivity and the effective area, we have:

Finally, the radar range equation is given by:

Dt (t , t ) D r ( r , r )  
2
Pr
Pr
(
= ecdt ecdr 1 − t
2
)(
1 − r
2
) 
4


 aw  a r
 4 R1R 2 
2
Example
A radar system uses two 2m diameter parabolic antennas for
transmitting and receiving and works at 15GHz is used to detect
a target of 2m² cross section. If the transmitter’s power is 10kW,
and the receiver’s minimum detectable signal is 1nW, find the
maximum range to detect this target. (Take the aperture
efficiencies of the antennas to be 0.6).
2
G   
2
Pr GtG r    2
=   =  2 
Pr 4  4 R 1 2 
R 4  4 R 
4
G= Aem Aem =  A P A p = 1.885m 2  = 0.02m
 2

R = 10.9km
 Chapter 2

Radiation integrals and

auxiliary potential
functions
 Sources Integration Radiated fields
J,M E,H

Vector potentials
A, F

Although the electric and magnetic field intensities (E and H)

represent physically measurable quantities, while the potentials
are strictly mathematical tools. The introduction of the potentials
often simplifies the solution even though it may require
determination of additional functions. While it is possible to
determine the E and H fields directly from the source-current
densities J and M, it is usually much simpler to find the auxiliary
potential functions first and then determine the E and H.
 The vector potential A for an
electric current source J
The vector potential A (magnetic vector potential) is useful in
solving for the EM field generated by a given harmonic electric
current J.
Because   B = 0 we can write B as the curl of another vector:
(1)
Where:
(2)

Using (2) in Faraday’s equation:

(3)
Hence, EA + jωA can be written as a gradient of a scalar field:
or (4)
Taking the curl of both sides of equation (2):
(5)
Using Ampere’s law in equation (5) gives:
(6)

Using equation (4) in (6) gives:

(7)
where k 2 =  2 0 0
In (2), the curl of A was defined. Now we are at liberty to define
the divergence of A, which is independent of its curl. To simplify
equation (7) we can write:
(8)
Which is called Lorentz condition.
Now, equation (7) becomes:
(9)
Using equation (8) we can rewrite equation (4) as:

(10)

To summarize, the magnetic vector potential A is the solution of

the equation (9) and once it is known, BA can be found using (2)
and EA can be found using equation (10) or using Faraday’s
equation.
 The vector potential F for a
magnetic current source M
The vector potential F (electric vector potential) is useful in
solving for the EM field generated by a given harmonic magnetic
current M.
Although magnetic currents appear to be physically unrealizable,
equivalent magnetic currents arise when we use the volume or the
surface equivalence theorems.
Following a similar procedure gives :

(11)

(12)

(13)
Solutions of the inhomogeneous vector
potential wave equations (9) , (12)
The solution of equation (9) is:
(14)

And the solution of equation (12) is:

(15)
z (x , y ,z )
where the primed coordinates R
represent the source, the unprimed
the observation point, and R the ( x ', y ', z ' )
distance from any point on the y
source to the observation point.
x
For surface currents:
(16)

(17)

And for currents with line distribution:

(18)

(19)
 Far field radiation
For far field region, it can be shown that the far fields radiated by an
electric current source can be found form A as :

(20) (21)

For far field region, it can be shown that the far fields radiated by a
magnetic current source can be found form F as :

(22) (23)
 A procedure to find the electric and
magnetic fields for current distributions
Step 1:
Calculate A for electric currents using the appropriate equation
from (14), (16) or (18). Calculate F for magnetic currents using the
appropriate equation from (15), (17) or (19).
Step 2:
Express A and F in spherical coordinates.
Step 3:
Use equations (20), and (21) to find EA and HA (fields resulting
from electric sources) in far field region. Use equations (22), and
(23) to find EF and HF (fields resulting from magnetic sources) in
far field region.
Step 4:
Find the total fields: E = EA + EF, H = HA + HF.
Example
A thin linear dipole of length l is placed symmetrically about the z-
axis. Find the far zone spherical electric and magnetic components
radiated by the dipole whose current distribution is given by:
  2 
I 0 1 + z ' −  z '  0
   2
I z ( z ') = 
I 1 − 2 z 
0z '
 0 
'
 2
   2 
I 0 1 + z ' −  z '  0 2
   2
I z ( z ') =  I0
I 1 − 2 z 
0z '
 0 
'
 2
−
2
z
R  r (Amplitude variations) R
R  r − z ' cos  (Phase variations) r

 
0 − jk ( r − z 'cos  ) z'
 2 e 
A= az I 0   1 + z ' dz ' y
4  −   r z ' cos 
 2

− jk ( r − z 'cos  )  x
 2 e
2
+ az I 0   1 − z ' dz ' 
0   r 

  I 0e − jkr  
0
  jkz 'cos   jkz 'cos 
2
2 2
4 r  − 
A = az  1 + z ' e dz ' +  1 − z ' e dz '
  0   
 2 
0
 I 0e − jkr
e jkz 'cos 
2
0
= az
4 r

 jk cos 
+  z 'e jkz 'cos dz '
− −
2 2

jkz 'cos  2 2 
e 2  1
ax
−  z 'e jkz 'cos dz ' 
e
+  dx = a
xe ax
x − 
jk cos    a
0 0

0
 j
k
cos  −j
k
cos 
 I 0e − jkr
e
2
−e 2
2 e jkz 'cos  1 
= az +  z '− jk cos  
4 r  jk cos  jk cos   
 −
2


2 e jkz 'cos  1  2
−  z '− jk cos  
jk cos   0 

  k 
  2
sin cos   2
 I 0e − jkr   2
A = az  +
4 r  k
cos  k 2
cos 2

 2
−j
k
cos  j
k
cos  −j
k
cos  j
k
cos  
e 2
−e 2
2e 2
+e 2

+ −
jk cos  k 2 cos2  


 I 0e − jkr 2 2  k 
= az
4 r k 2 cos2   1 − cos  2 cos   
  

 I 0  k   e − jkr
Az =  1 − cos  cos   
 k cos  
2 2
 2  r
 A r   sin  cos  sin  sin  cos    A x 
  
 A  = cos  cos  cos  sin  − sin    A y 
 
 A   − sin  cos  0   A z 

A = − A z sin 
A = 0
E   − j A  j  sin  A z
j  I 0 sin    k   e − jkr
E =
 k 2 cos2   1 − cos  2 cos    r
  
E
H =

END of lecture 4

Abdullah Aiad Abograin /University of Tripoli / 2021

 EE 513

Antennas

Lecture 5
Abdullah Aiad Abograin /University of Tripoli / 2021
 Chapter 3
Dipole antenna
 Dipole antenna
Current distribution

2
Qualitative description of radiation process from dipoles:
 Infinitesimal dipole
An infinitesimal linear wire (l << λ) is positioned symmetrically
at the origin of the coordinate system and oriented along the z
axis, as shown in the figure. Although infinitesimal dipoles are
not very practical, they are used to represent capacitor-plate (also
referred to as top-hat-loaded) antennas. In addition, they are
utilized as building blocks of more complex geometries.

The spatial variation of the current z

is assumed to be constant and given R
by: 2 r
(1)
y
Since l << λ, R can be approximated
by:
−
R r (2) x 2
Radiated fields
For a source carrying an electric current we have F = 0 and:
(3)

Using equations (1) and (2) in equation (3) gives:

(4)

The vector A can be transformed to spherical system using:

(5)

(6)
(7)
H can be obtained from A using:

(8)

(9)

E can be found from either equation (10) of lecture4 or from

Ampere’s law:

(10)

(11)
(12)
Poynting vector for the radiated fields is given by:

And using equations (8 – 12) we have:

(13)

(14)

Since W𝜃, as given by (14), is purely imaginary, it will not

contribute to any real radiated power. However, it does contribute
to the imaginary (reactive) power which along with the second
term of (13) can be used to determine the total reactive power of
the antenna. The reactive power density, which is most dominant
for small values of kr, has both radial and transverse components.
It merely changes between outward and inward directions to form
a standing wave at a rate of twice per cycle.
Near field region
For kr << 1, the fields given by equations (8 – 12) can be
approximated by:

(15)

(16)

(17)

(18)

The E-field components, Er and E𝜃, are in time-phase but they are
in time-phase quadrature with the H-field component H𝜙;
therefore there is no time-average power flow associated with
them.
Far field region
For kr >> 1, the fields given by equations (8 – 12) can be
approximated by:

(19)

(20)

(21)

The ratio of E𝜃 to H𝜙 is equal to:

(22)
The E- and H-field components are perpendicular to each other,
transverse to the radial direction of propagation, and the r variations
are separable from those of 𝜃 and 𝜙. The shape of the pattern is not
a function of the radial distance r, and the fields form a Transverse
ElectroMagnetic (TEM) wave whose wave impedance is equal to
the intrinsic impedance of the medium. As it will become even more
evident in later chapters, this relationship is applicable in the far-
field region of all antennas of finite dimensions.
Radiation pattern of the infinitesimal dipole:
Directivity
Using equations (19 – 21) we can write the power density as:

(23)

And the radiation intensity:

(24)

Using the radiation intensity of equation (24) or in its normalized

form:
(25)
Radiation resistance
Integrating equation (23) on a surface of sphere of radius r, the
radiated power is given by:

(26)

But the radiated power can also be written as:

1 2
Prad = I 0 Rr (27)
2
Therefore, the radiation resistance of the infinitesimal dipole is
given by:

(28)
Vector effective length
From lecture (3) we have:

(29)

Comparing with equation (19), we have:

le = −a sin  (30)
Example
Find the radiation resistance of an infinitesimal dipole whose
overall length is l = λ ∕ 50.

2
2 1 
= 80   = 0.316
 50 

Example
For an infinitesimal dipole, find the open circuit maximum
voltage at dipole’s terminals if the incident electric field is:
Ei = −a 10mV/m is incident on the dipole of 10cm length.

le = −a sin  max

= −a at  = 90o

V oc = Ei  le = ( −a 10−2 )  ( −a 0.1) = 1mV

 Finite length dipole
(31)

Dividing the dipole into a large number of infinitesimal dipoles:

z R (32)

r (33)
z'
 (34)
y
z 'cos  R  r (Amplitude variations)
(35)
x R  r − z ' cos  (Phase variations)
(36)
Instead of following the procedure of chapter2 to find the radiated
fields, we can find the radiated fields by summing the contribution
of all the infinitesimal dipole elements constituting the dipole.
Element factor Space factor

(37)

Equation (37) is an example of pattern multiplication for continuously

distributed sources. The element factor depends on the type of current
and its direction of flow while the space factor is a function of the
current distribution along the source.

(38)
Equation (38) results in:

(39)

And the magnetic field is given by:

(40)
Radiation pattern for
some lengths
Radiation pattern for
a dipole of l = 1.25λ

As the length of the dipole increases beyond one wavelength (l > λ),
the number of lobes begin to increase.
Directivity
Using (39), the power density can be written as:

(41)

And the radiation intensity:

(42)

Using (42), the radiated power is:

(43)
After some extensive mathematical manipulations, it can be shown
that (43) reduces to:

(44)

Where C = 0.5772 is Euler’s constant, while Ci, and Si are integrals

given in tables to be introduced.
The radiation intensity in (42) can be written as:

Now, the directivity can be found:

(45)
Radiation resistance
From equation (44) we have:

(46)

Dipole reactance

(47)
Input impedance
By definition, the radiation resistance is
referred to the maximum current which
for some lengths does not occur at the
input terminals of the antenna (see the
figure). To refer the radiation resistance
to the input terminals of the antenna, the
antenna itself is first assumed to be
lossless (RL = 0). Then the power at the
input terminals is equated to the power at
the current maximum.

(48)

From equation (31) we can write the input current (at z’=0) as:

(49)
Using (49) in (48) :

(50)

Similarly, for reactance we have:

(51)
Radiation resistance, input resistance, and directivity for
thin dipoles.
Dipole reactance for different wire radius.
Input reactance of a dipole with radius a = 10¯⁵ λ.
Example
Calculate the directivity, radiation resistance, and input resistance
for a dipole of 12cm length at 835MHz. Also, find the received
power if the incident wave has a power density of 10μW/m².
c
 = = 0.3593m
f
2 1
k = = 2.0986 2k = 4.1972 k = 1.0493
 2

= 0.3233

at  = 90o , F ( ) max = 0.248

 = 1.558


Rr = Q = 19.4
2

= 25.8

2
Aem = D 0 = 0.016m 2
4

Pr =W i Aem = 0.16 W
 Half wavelength dipole
One of the most commonly used antennas is the half-wavelength
(l = λ ∕ 2) dipole. Because its radiation resistance is 73 Ω, which
is very near the 50Ω or 75Ω characteristic impedances of some
transmission lines, its matching to the line is simplified
especially at resonance.
Letting l = λ ∕ 2, the radiated fields in the far field region are:

The directivity, and input resistance are given by:

D 0 = 1.643
Z in = 73 + j 42.4 
To reduce the imaginary part of the input impedance to zero, the
antenna is matched or reduced in length until the reactance
vanishes. The latter is most commonly used in practice for half-
wavelength dipoles.
Depending on the radius of the wire, the length of the dipole for
first resonance is about l = 0.47λ to 0.48λ; the thinner the wire, the
closer the length is to 0.48λ. Thus, for thicker wires, a larger
segment of the wire has to be removed from λ/2 to achieve
resonance.
END of lecture 5

Abdullah Aiad Abograin /University of Tripoli / 2021