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Wave and Oscillation

Waves transfer energy through matter or space without transferring mass. There are two main types of waves: 1) Mechanical waves require a medium and can be transverse or longitudinal. Transverse waves have oscillations perpendicular to the direction of propagation, while longitudinal waves have oscillations parallel to propagation. 2) Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium and are always transverse. They include light, radio waves, microwaves, and X-rays. A progressive wave transfers energy in a single direction over time. A stationary or standing wave is formed by the superposition of two progressive waves traveling in opposite directions with the same wavelength and amplitude, resulting in areas of minimum and maximum displacement called nodes
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
171 views25 pages

Wave and Oscillation

Waves transfer energy through matter or space without transferring mass. There are two main types of waves: 1) Mechanical waves require a medium and can be transverse or longitudinal. Transverse waves have oscillations perpendicular to the direction of propagation, while longitudinal waves have oscillations parallel to propagation. 2) Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium and are always transverse. They include light, radio waves, microwaves, and X-rays. A progressive wave transfers energy in a single direction over time. A stationary or standing wave is formed by the superposition of two progressive waves traveling in opposite directions with the same wavelength and amplitude, resulting in areas of minimum and maximum displacement called nodes
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1|W AV ES

Waves
In physics, a wave is disturbance or oscillation (of a physical quantity), that travels through matter or
space, accompanied by a transfer of energy. Wave motion transfers energy from one point to
another, often with no permanent displacement of the particles of the medium—that is, with little or
no associated mass transport.

Waves are described by a wave equation which sets out how the disturbance proceeds over time. The
mathematical form of this equation varies depending on the type of wave.
2|W AV ES

Waves are classified by WHAT they move through or by HOW particles move through them

1) Electromagnetic waves

Waves that can travel through a vacuum (empty space). They don't need a medium or matter. They travel
through electrical and magnetic fields that are generated by charged particles. Examples of
electromagnetic waves include light, microwaves, radio waves, and X-rays.

2) Mechanical Waves
 Needs a Medium
 Require the particles of the medium to vibrate in order for energy to be transferred.
 Water waves, seismic waves, sound waves.

There are two main types of waves

A wave can be transverse or longitudinal depending on the direction of its oscillation.

Transverse waves occur when a disturbance creates oscillations that are perpendicular (at right
angles) to the propagation (the direction of energy transfer).

Longitudinal waves occur when the oscillations are parallel to the direction of propagation.

While mechanical waves can be both transverse and longitudinal, all electromagnetic waves are
transverse in free space.
3|W AV ES

1. Progressive Wave
If the wave generated from a source which progresses with time from one point to another through a
medium it is called progressive wave. Progressive wave can be longitudinal or transverse.

Example: When a speaker talks, he produces sound wave. These waves are longitudinal waves which
progress through air medium and reach to the listener. These waves are progressive waves.

Equation of progressive wave or simple harmonic wave

Let a progressive wave originating at O travels with velocity v along the positive X axis. So, the
displacement of the particle

y (0, t) = A sin ωt ……………. (1)

Where,

A = Amplitude of the wave



ω = Angular velocity of the particle = 2𝜋n =
T

ωt = Phase angle of the particle or simply phase

x p

B
Direction of wave motion

We know, the distance travelled by a wave is one complete vibration is called wavelength λ and the
phase difference between two particles situated at a distance λ is 2𝜋. Now, let the phase difference of
the particle at P

y = A sin (ωt - δ)
2πx
The phase difference for distance x is δ = λ
4|W AV ES


So, phase difference = × path difference For the distance or
λ

Path difference λ the phase difference is 2𝜋

The displacement of the particle at P 2𝜋


…………….. 1 …………………….
𝜆
y = A sin (ωt - δ )
2𝜋
2πx
…………… x ……………….. x
= A sin (ωt - ) 𝜆
λ

2πx
= A sin (2𝜋nt - )
λ

v 2πx
= A sin (2𝜋 λ t - )
λ


= A sin (v t - x)
λ

This equation represents a progressive wave. It gives the displacement of any particle at time t.

If the wave travels in the negative X direction, the equation of a progressive wave is
𝟐𝛑
y = A sin (v t + x)
𝛌

2. Stationary Wave or Standing wave


The resultant wave produced by the superposition of two progressive waves, having same
wavelength and amplitude, travelling in opposite direction is called stationary wave.

The stationary wave has no forward motion but remains fixed in space. In stationary waves, there are
certain points where the amplitude is zero. These points are called nodes and there are some points
where the amplitude is maximum. These points are called antinodes.
5|W AV ES

Equation of stationary wave

Let a progressive wave move along positive X- axis. The equation of this wave

Y1 = A0 sin ( v t - x)
λ

Along negative X-axis



Y2 = A0 sin ( v t + x)
λ

Here, A0 is the amplitude of the wave and y1 and y2 are the displacements of a particle of the wave at
a distance x from the source at time t.

According to the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement of the particle

y = y1 + y2
2π 2π
= A0 sin (v t - x) + A0 sin (v t + x) A+B A−B
λ λ sin A + sin B = 2 sin cos
2 2
2π 2π
= 2 A0 sin vt cos x And
λ λ

= 2 A0 cos

x sin

vt ω = 2𝜋f
λ λ


= A sin vt
λ

= A sin 2𝜋ft

= A sin ωt


Here, A = 2 A0 cos x, displacement of the particle of wave at x.
λ

This equation represents a simple harmonic vibration of same wavelength λ as the superposing
waves. It should be mentioned that this simple harmonic vibration does not represent a progressive
wave since its phase does not contain term like (vt - x). So, this equation represents a stationary or
standing wave.

Variation of amplitude with x



Nodes: The amplitude of the stationary wave is A = 2 A0 cos x. It depends on the position of the
λ
particle. The points where A =0, i.e., amplitude zero, nodes will be formed.

Now, condition for A = 2 A0 cos x = 0 is
λ


cos λ
x=0
6|W AV ES

2π π 3π 5π
or, x= 2, , , … … ….
λ 2 2

λ 3λ 5λ
Or, x= , , , … … ….
4 4 4

3λ λ λ
These are points of nodes. Distance between two successive nodes = −4 =2
4

Antinodes: The points where amplitude A is maximum, antinodes are formed. So, condition for
maximum amplitude are

A = 2 A0 cos 𝑥 = ±2𝐴0
λ


𝑜𝑟, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = ±1
λ

𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = 0, π, 2π, 3π … … …
λ
λ 2λ 3λ
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = 0, , , , … … … … …
2 2 2
These are points of antinodes.
2λ λ λ
The distance between two successive antinodes= − 2 = 2.
2

The distance between a node and an adjacent


λ
antinode is . Between two nodes there exists an
4
antinode.

Phase Velocity:

The phase velocity is the velocity at which the phase of any one frequency component of the wave will
propagate.
7|W AV ES

Group Velocity:

The Superposition principle

If several waves of different wavelengths (frequencies) and phases are superposed together, one would get a
resultant which is a localized wave packet.
8|W AV ES

Problems:

1. The displacement (in meters) of a particle executing simple harmonic motion at any instant of time is
given by, 𝑦 = 0.2sin2π(350t − 0.30). Calculate i) the amplitude, ii) wave velocity, iii) wave length,
iv) frequency.
2. A sinusoidal travelling wave in x-direction has amplitude of 15 𝑐𝑚, wavelength of 40 𝑐𝑚 and the
frequency of 8 𝐻𝑧. The vertical displacement at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑡 = 0 is 15 𝑐𝑚. Find (i) Wave number (ii)
Time period (iii) Wave speed, and (iv) Angular frequency of wave.
𝜋
3. Wave length of a particular wave is 10cm, if the phase difference is what would be the path
6
difference?
1|Os cilla ti on s

Simple Harmonic Motion

Q. Define Periodic Motion.


If a body moves in such a way that it crosses a certain point from the same direction after a certain period of
time, the motion is called periodic motion.

Earths motion around the sun, motion of hands (hour, minute) of a clock, motion of planets are examples of
periodic motion.

Q. Define Oscillation.
When a body moves back and forth repeatedly about a mean position, its motion is called oscillation
or vibration. Alternately, if the periodic motion of an object is such that during half of its time period
it staying in one direction and during rest half in the opposite direction then that type of motion is
called oscillation or vibration.

Motion of a simple pendulum, vibration of the tuning fork, motion of a spring etc. are the examples
of oscillation or vibrations.
2|W a ves an d Os cilla ti on s

Q. Define Simple Harmonic Motion/oscillations.


If the oscillation is such that the oscillating body experiences a restoring force when it is displaced
from its equilibrium position and the restoring force is proportional to the displacement, then the
motion is called Simple Harmonic Oscillation, and the system is called Simple Harmonic Oscillator.

For example motion of a spring is a SHM, oscillations of a floating cylinder, swinging of child on
playground, simple pendulum, an electron in a wire carrying AC etc.

Mathematically, the restoring force F is given by

F  -x

F=-kx

Where, F is the restoring elastic force, k is the spring constant and x is the displacement from the
equilibrium position.

For any simple harmonic oscillator, when the system is displaced from its equilibrium position, a
restoring force which resembles Hooke's law tends to restore the system to equilibrium. Simple
harmonic motion is a special case of periodic motion.

Q. Write down the characteristics of simple harmonic motion/oscillations.


 Its motion is periodic
 At particular time interval, the motion becomes opposite
 Its motion is along a straight line
 Its acceleration is proportional to the displacement
 Acceleration is opposite to displacement
 Acceleration points toward the mean position of the object.
3|W a ves an d Os cilla ti on s

Various Parameters of Oscillator:

Equilibrium Position
An equilibrium position is a point where an oscillating object experience zero (0) resultant forces.

Complete Oscillation
An oscillation is said to be complete if vibrating or oscillating object starting from a point returns to
the same point along the same direction.

Amplitude:

Amplitude is the maximum displacement on both sides of an object from its equilibrium position.
The SI unit for amplitude is meter (m).

There are two types of amplitude


4|W a ves an d Os cilla ti on s

I) Linear amplitude denoted by A

II) Angular amplitude denoted by θ

It is the maximum displacement from the mean position. The displacement will be maximum when cos(𝜔𝑡 +
𝜙) = ±1. Hence,

Maximum displacement = ±𝐴

So, the amplitude of the oscillator is

+𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝐴.

Q. Derive the expression of displacement of a particle executing Simple


Harmonic Motion.
Let, a particle moves round a point O in a circular path of radius A at an angular velocity ω. Let at
time t, the particle is at the position P. From P, a normal is drawn on the diameter DB. Here, the
displacement of the end point of the normal is x = ON

Now, from the figure


A
ON
cos θ = OP

ON = OP sin θ

x = A cos θ

Here, x is the displacement from the origin O and OP = A = radius of the circle.

x = A cosω t [since, θ = ω t]
5|W a ves an d Os cilla ti on s

Finally,
2π 1 t
x = A cos 2𝜋 n t [ω = and T = n , T = N]
T

where, A is the amplitude of the particle which is the maximum displacement from the mean
position.

+A

-A

Graphical representation of, 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

Q. Derive the expression of velocity of a particle executing Simple Harmonic


Motion.
The rate of change of displacement is called velocity. It is denoted by v.
dx
v = dt

We know the displacement of a particle executing in SHM at any time t is given by,

𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
Hence velocity, 𝑣= = 𝑑𝑡 {𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)}
𝑑𝑡

= −𝜔𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

= −𝜔𝐴√1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

= −𝜔√𝐴2 − 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

∴ 𝒗 = −𝝎√𝐴2 − 𝒙𝟐 .

𝒐𝒓, |𝒗| = 𝝎√𝐴2 − 𝒙𝟐

This relation clearly shows that the speed is maximum at the equilibrium position (𝑥 = 0) and is zero at the
maximum displacements (𝑥 = ±𝐴)
6|W a ves an d Os cilla ti on s

When (i) x = A then v = 0 , (ii) when x= 0 then v = A ω

ωA

-ωA

Graphical representation of, 𝑣 = −𝜔𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

Q. Derive the expression of acceleration of a particle executing Simple Harmonic


Motion.
𝑑𝑣
The acceleration of a particle executing in SHM at any time t is given by, 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑡 ( 𝑑𝑡 )

𝑑
= 𝑑𝑡 (−𝜔𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)) [since, 𝑣 = −𝜔𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)]

= −𝜔2 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

∴ 𝒂 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒙. [𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]

When, (i) x = 0, a = 0, (ii) when, x =A then a = - ω2 A

ω2A

-ω2A

Graphical representation of 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

Time period:

Time Period is defined as the time required for one complete oscillation or vibration. If T is the time
t
period for completing N oscillations, then T = N

1
And n = T, where, n is the frequency.
7|W a ves an d Os cilla ti on s

We know the solution of DE of SHM is 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)


2𝜋 2𝜋
If the time is increased by 𝜔
, then 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠[ 𝜔(𝑡 + 𝜔
) + 𝜙)]

𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜋 + 𝜙)

𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 {2𝜋 + (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)}

∴ 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2𝜋 2𝜋
So it is seen that after time 𝜔
, the displacement of the particle becomes same. So 𝜔
is the time period of
SHM.

2𝜋 𝑚
∴𝑇= 𝜔
= 2𝜋√ 𝐾

Frequency:

Total number of oscillations completed by an oscillating particle in one second is called its frequency. The
frequency of a particle executing in SHM with time period T is given by,
1
𝑓=𝑇

1
𝑓= 2𝜋
𝜔

𝜔
𝑓=
2𝜋

𝟏 𝒌
∴ 𝒇 = 𝟐𝝅 √𝒎

Phase
The state of motion of a vibrating particle at any instant is called its phase at that instant. State of
motion of a vibrating particle at any instant is determined by its displacement, velocity and
acceleration at that instant.
8|W a ves an d Os cilla ti on s

The term (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) is called the phase of oscillator. It determines the displacement as well as the direction of
motion for simple harmonic oscillator.

Phase constant:

The constant 𝜙 in the solution of SHM is called phase constant. This constant define the initial state (i.e. the
position at 𝑡 = 0) of the particle undergoing SHM.

At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙

If 𝜙 = 0, 𝑥=𝐴

It means that the simple harmonic oscillation begins at the maximum displacement.
𝜋
If 𝜙 = 2
𝑥=0

i.e. the oscillations begin from the equilibrium position.


9|W a ves an d Os cilla ti on s

Q. Derive the differential Equation of simple harmonic motion.


Let a particle of mass m oscillates in simple harmonic motion. Now, at time t if its displacement is x,
then

dx d2 x
Velocity, v = and acceleration, a = dt2
dt

Magnitude of the force acting on the particle

d2 x
F = ma = m dt2 ………… (1)

Since, force is proportion to the displacement

d2 x
m dt2 ∝ - x [negative sign is used as the force and displacement are in opposite direction]

d2 x
or, m dt2 = - k x [k is proportionality constant and known as force constant]

d2 x k
or, dt2 = - m x ………………..(2)

Again, if the angular velocity of the particle is ω then

d2 x
= a = - ω2 x ………….(3)
dt2

From equation number 2 and 3


k
- m x = - ω2 x

𝑘
or, m = ω2

K
 ω = √m ………………….(4)

𝑘
Putting this value m into equation number 2

d2 x
= - ω2 x
dt2

d2 x
+ ω2 x = 0 …………………(5)
dt2

This is the differential equation of a particle executing simple harmonic motion.

Q. Deduce the solution of the Differential Equation of simple harmonic motion.


Differential equation of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is
d2 x
+ ω2 x = 0………………………………… (1)
dt2
10 | W a v e s a n d O s c i l l a t i o n s

dx
In order to solve this equation, let us multiply both sides by 2 , then
dt

dx d2 x dx
2. + 2. ω2 x = 0
dt dt2 dt

Integrating the above equation, we get

dx 2
( dt ) + ω2 x2 = C …………………… (2)

Here, C is a constant of integration. We need to find out the value of this.

Now, when
dx
x = A, then velocity =0
dt

Inserting this into equation number 2, we get

c = ω 2A 2

From equation number (1)

dx 2
( dt ) + ω2 x2 = ω 2 A 2

dx 2
( dt ) = ω2 (A 2 - x2)

dx
= ω √A2 − x 2
dt

dx
= ω dt
√A2 − x2

dx x
Integrating the above equation (Since, ∫ √A2 = sin -1 )
− x2 A

x
sin−1 A = ω t + δ

Here, δ is the constant of integration.

Finally,

x = A sin (ωt + δ)

This is the general solution of differential equation of simple harmonic oscillation.

Alternative method

Differential equation of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is

d2 x
dt2
+ ω2 x = 0………………………………… (1)
11 | W a v e s a n d O s c i l l a t i o n s

Let us assume that the solution of equation (1) is

x = A sin (ω t + δ)…………………………….(2)
dx 𝑑
So = 𝑑𝑡 {𝐴 sin(ω t + δ)}
dt

dx 𝑑
or, = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ω t + δ) 𝑑𝑡 (ω t + δ)
dt

dx
or, = 𝐴 cos(ω t + δ)………………………(3)
dt

Similarly,

𝑑2x 𝑑
= {𝐴  𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ω t + δ)}
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 x 𝑑
Or, 𝑑𝑡 2 = 𝐴  { 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ω t + δ)}
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 x 𝑑
Or, 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝐴  sin(ω t + δ) 𝑑𝑡 (ω t + δ)

𝑑2 x
Or, 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝐴2 sin(ω t + δ)

𝑑2 x
Or, 𝑑𝑡 2 = −2 𝑥……………………………………..(4) [as, x = A sin (ω t + δ) ]

So, the left-hand side of equation (1) is

d2 x
+ ω2 x = −2 𝑥 + ω2 x = 0
dt2

Which is equal to the right-hand side of equation (1).

As, x = A sin (ω t + δ) satisfies the both side of equation (1) so we can say x = A sin (ω t + δ) is a
solution of equation (1).

The solution of differential equation of simple harmonic motion is x = A sin (ω t + δ).

Mechanical energy (E) of a particle executing SHM:

A particle executing in SHM possesses both potential and kinetic energies due to its elevation and motion,
respectively. The mechanical energy (𝐸) is the sum of potential (𝑈) and kinetic (𝐾) energy i.e.

𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝐾 …………….. (1)

Potential Energy (U):


The amount of work done for displacement 𝑥 against the restoring force will remain as potential energy in the
object.
For very small displacement 𝑑𝑥, the amount of work done against the restoring force𝑖𝑠
12 | W a v e s a n d O s c i l l a t i o n s

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥
= 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑥
Total work done for displacement𝑥, ∴ 𝑊 = ∫0 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑥⃗
𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2 1
∴ 𝑈 = 𝑊 = ∫0 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫0 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 [ 2 ] = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 …………….. (2)
0

Let the displacement of a particle executing in SHM at any instant 𝑡 is 𝑥 which is given by,
𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) …………… (3)
Now, from (2) and (3) we get,
1 2
𝑈 = 2 𝑘𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) …… (4)
Kinetic energy (K):
If the velocity of the particle is v, then kinetic energy is given by,
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1 2
= 2 𝑚(−𝜔𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)) [𝑎𝑠, 𝑣 = −𝜔𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]
1 2
= 2 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
1 𝑘 2 𝑘
= 2 𝑚. 𝑚 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) [as, 𝜔2 = 𝑚]
1 2
∴ 𝐾 = 𝑘𝐴 sin2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)………………. (5)
2
Total Energy (E):
Now, adding (5) and (6) we have the mechanical energy from (1) as follows,
1 2 1 2
𝐸 = 𝑘𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + 𝑘 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
2 2
1 2
= 2 𝑘 𝐴 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]
𝟏 𝟐
∴ 𝑬 = 𝒌𝑨
𝟐
Therefore, the mechanical energy of a particle executing SHM is constant or conserved, because both 𝑘 and 𝐴
constant for that particle.

x (time) P.E. (U) K.E. (K) Total E (U + K)

+A (t=0) 1 2 0 1 2
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴
2 2
0 (t=T/4) 0 1 2 1 2
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴
2 2
A (t=T/2) 1 2 0 1 2
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴
2 2
2𝜋 𝑇 𝜋
when t = T/4, ωt = 𝑇 × 4 = 2
2𝜋 𝑇
t = T/2, ωt = 𝑇
×2=𝜋
13 | W a v e s a n d O s c i l l a t i o n s

Average Kinetic Energy:


The kinetic energy of SHM at any instant is given by,
1 2
𝐾 = 2 𝑘𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑻
∫𝟎 𝑲 𝒅𝒕
𝑵𝒐𝒘 𝑲𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
𝑻
𝑇
1 1 2 2
= ∫ 𝑘𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2
0
2 𝑇
𝑘𝐴
= ∫{2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)}𝑑𝑡
4𝑇
0
2 𝑇
𝑘𝐴
= ∫{1 − Cos 2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)}𝑑𝑡
4𝑇
0
2 𝑇 2 𝑇
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜙) 𝑑𝑡
4𝑇 0 4𝑇 0
2 2 𝑇
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴 sin(2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜙)
= [𝑇]𝑇0 − [ ]
4𝑇 4𝑇 2𝜔 0
2 2
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴
= .𝑇 − {𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑇 + 2𝜙) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜙}
4𝑇 8𝜔𝑇
𝑘𝐴2 𝑘𝐴2 2𝜋
= − {𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2. 𝑇 + 2𝜙) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜙 }
4 8𝜔𝑇 𝑇
2
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴2
= − {𝑠𝑖𝑛(4𝜋 + 2𝜙) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜙}
4 8𝜔𝑇
2 2
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴
= + {𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜙 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜙 }
4 8𝜔𝑇
𝒌𝑨𝟐 1 1 2
∴< 𝑲 >= = . 𝑘𝐴
𝟒 2 2
𝟏
∴< 𝐾 >= 𝟐 . 𝑬(𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚)
Therefore, the average kinetic energy < 𝐾 > of a particle executing SHM is half of its mechanical energy

Average potential energy:


The potential energy 𝑈 of the particle executing SHM at a time t is given by,
1 2
𝑈 = 2 𝑘𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

Hence, the average potential energy < 𝑈 > of the particle over a complete cycle or a whole time period (T) is
given by,
1 𝑇
< 𝑈 >= 𝑇 ∫0 𝑈𝑑𝑡
1 𝑇 2
= 2𝑇 ∫0 {𝑘𝐴 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)} 𝑑𝑡
𝑘𝐴2 𝑇
= 4𝑇
∫0 {2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)}𝑑𝑡
𝑘𝐴2 𝑇
= 4𝑇
∫0 {1 + cos 2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)}𝑑𝑡
𝑘𝐴2 1 𝑇 1 𝑇
= { ∫0 𝑑𝑡 + ∫0 cos 2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) 𝑑𝑡}
4 𝑇 𝑇
14 | W a v e s a n d O s c i l l a t i o n s

But the average value of both a sine and cosine function over a complete cycle or a whole time period (T) is
zero.
𝑘𝐴2 1
∴< 𝑈 >= { [𝑇]𝑇0 − 0}
4 𝑇
𝑘𝐴2
= 4𝑇
.𝑇
1 1 2
= . 𝑘𝐴
2 2
𝟏
∴< 𝑈 >= . 𝑬(𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚)
𝟐
Therefore, the average potential energy < 𝑈 > of a particle executing SHM is half of its mechanical energy.

Lissajous Figures:
“When a particle is influenced simultaneously by two SHM at right angles to each other, the resultant motion
of the particle traces a curve. These curves are called Lissajous Figures. The shape of the curve depends on the
time period, Phase difference and amplitude of the two constituent SHM”

Torque: Torque is a measure of how much force acting on an object to cause rotation.

Moment of inertia:

A measure of body’s resistance to angular acceleration, equal to the product of the mass of the body and the
square of its distance from the axis of rotation.

Torsional Pendulum:

“A torsional pendulum consists of a disk suspended by a wire attached to the center of the mass of the disk.
The other end of the wire is fixed to a rigid support”.

The disk oscillates about the line 𝑂 with an amplitude 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 .


When the disk is twisted through some small angle 𝜃, the
twisted wire exerts on the body a restoring torque i.e. the wire
resists such twist by developing restoring torque. We can
write hence

𝜏 ∝ −𝜃

⇒ 𝜏 = −𝜅𝜃 ………… (1)

𝜅(𝑘𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎) is called the torsional constant

According to angular form of Newton’s 2nd law:

𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 …………… (2)

From (1) and (2)

𝐼𝛼 = −𝜅𝜃

𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑2 𝜃
⇒𝐼 = −𝜅𝜃 [𝑎𝑠, 𝛼 =
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
15 | W a v e s a n d O s c i l l a t i o n s

𝑑2 𝜃 𝜅
∴ + 𝜃 = 0 … … … … … (3)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼

Equation (3) represents angular SHM. This equation is equivalent to differential equation of linear SHM given
by,

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
+ 𝑥 = 0 … … … … … … … . (4)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚

Comparing (3) and (4)

𝑥 → 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝜃

𝑚 → 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝐼

𝑘 → 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝜅

Therefore, the solution of equation (3) can be written as:

𝜃 = 𝜃𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

Where 𝜃 is the maximum angular displacement and 𝜔 is the angular frequency.

𝜅
𝜔=√
𝐼

Time period: The time period is given by,

2𝜋 𝐼
𝑇= = 2𝜋√
𝜔 𝜅

Different Types of Oscillations:

Free Oscillations: When a body vibrates with its own natural frequency then it is said to be executing free
oscillations.
Examples:
a) Vibrations of tuning fork.
b) Vibrations in stretched string.
c) Oscillations of simple pendulum.

Damped Oscillations: Most of the oscillations in air or any


medium are damped. When an oscillation occurs, some kind of
damping force may arise due to friction or air resistance offered by
the medium. So a part of the energy is dissipated in overcoming the
resistive force. Consequently, the amplitude of oscillations
decreases with time and finally becomes zero. Such oscillations are
called damped oscillations.
Examples:
a) The oscillations of a pendulum.
b) Electromagnetic damping in galvanometer.
c) Electromagnetic oscillations in tank circuit.
16 | W a v e s a n d O s c i l l a t i o n s

Maintained Oscillations: The amplitude of an oscillating


system can be made to constant by feeding some energy to the
system. If energy is fed to the system to compensate the
energy it has lost, the amplitude will be a constant. Such
oscillations are called maintained oscillations. Examples: A
swing to which energy is continuously fed to the system to
maintain amplitude of oscillation.

Forced Oscillations: When a vibrating body is maintained in the state of vibration by a periodic force of
frequency other than its natural frequency of the body, then the vibrations are called forced vibrations.
Examples:
a) Sound boards of stringed instruments execute forced vibrations.
b) Press the stem of tuning fork against table, the table suffers forced vibrations.

Resonance: In the case of forced vibration if the frequency difference is small then the
amplitude will be large. Ultimately when two frequencies are same, the amplitude
becomes maximum. This condition is known as resonance.

Advantages:
a) Using resonance, frequency of a given tuning fork can be determined.
b) In radio-TV, using tank circuit, required frequency can be obtained.
Disadvantages:
a) Resonance can cause disaster in an earthquake, if the natural frequency of the building matches the
frequency of the periodic oscillations present in the earth. The building begins to oscillate with large
amplitude thus leading to a collapse.
b) A singer maintaining a note at a resonant frequency of a glass can cause it to shatter into pieces.

Damped Harmonic Oscillations:

In many real systems, dissipative forces such as friction and air resistance retard the motion. Consequently the
mechanical energy of the system diminishes with time and the motion is said to be damped.

The damping force can be expressed as 𝐷 = −𝑏𝑣; where 𝑏 is a constant called the damping coefficient.

Again, the restoring force of the system is – 𝑘𝑥. So, we can write,

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∴𝑚 2
= −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
∴ + + 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 0 − − − − − − − (𝑖)
This represents the Differential equation for damped oscillation.
17 | W a v e s a n d O s c i l l a t i o n s

Problems:

1. A particle is oscillating with simple harmonic motion of amplitude 15cm and frequency 4 Hz. Compute (i)
the maximum values of acceleration and velocity, (ii) the acceleration and velocity when the displacement
is 9cm.
2. For a particle executing SHM the displacement is 8 cm at that instant the velocity is 6 cm/s and the
displacement is 6 cm at that instant the velocity is 8 cm/s. Calculate (i) amplitude(A), (ii) frequency(f) and
(iii) time period(T).
3. The amplitude and frequency of an object executing Simple harmonically are 0.01m and 12Hz
respectively. What is the velocity of the object at displacement 0.005m? What is the maximum velocity of
the object?
4. A particle executing SHM has amplitude 3cm and maximum velocity 6.24cm/s, what is the time period of
the particle?
5. The motion of a particle in SHM is given by 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. If it has a speed u when the displacement is 𝑥1
𝑣 2𝑥12−𝑢2𝑥22
and speed v when the displacement is 𝑥2 , show that the amplitude of the motion is 𝑎 = √( 𝑣 2−𝑢2
)
6. A particle performs SHM is given by the equation 𝑦 = 20 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿), if the time period is 30 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
and the particle has a displacement of 10𝑐𝑚 at 𝑡 = 0, Find (i) epoch, (ii) the phase angle at 𝑡 =
5 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 and (iii) the phase difference between two positions of the particle 15 seconds apart.
7. A spring is hung vertically, is found to be stretched by 0.02𝑚 from its equilibrium position when a force
4𝑁 acts on it. Then a 2kg is attached to the end of the spring and is pulled 0.04𝑚 from its equilibrium
position along the vertical line. The body is then released and it executes SHM.
a) What is the force constant of the spring?
b) What is the force executed by the spring on the 2kg body just before it is released?
c) What is the period and frequency of oscillation after released?
d) What is the amplitude of oscillation?
e) What is the maximum velocity of the oscillating body?
f) What is the mechanical energy of the oscillating system?
g) What is the mechanical energy of the spring?

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