Wave and Oscillation
Wave and Oscillation
Waves
In physics, a wave is disturbance or oscillation (of a physical quantity), that travels through matter or
space, accompanied by a transfer of energy. Wave motion transfers energy from one point to
another, often with no permanent displacement of the particles of the medium—that is, with little or
no associated mass transport.
Waves are described by a wave equation which sets out how the disturbance proceeds over time. The
mathematical form of this equation varies depending on the type of wave.
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Waves are classified by WHAT they move through or by HOW particles move through them
1) Electromagnetic waves
Waves that can travel through a vacuum (empty space). They don't need a medium or matter. They travel
through electrical and magnetic fields that are generated by charged particles. Examples of
electromagnetic waves include light, microwaves, radio waves, and X-rays.
2) Mechanical Waves
Needs a Medium
Require the particles of the medium to vibrate in order for energy to be transferred.
Water waves, seismic waves, sound waves.
Transverse waves occur when a disturbance creates oscillations that are perpendicular (at right
angles) to the propagation (the direction of energy transfer).
Longitudinal waves occur when the oscillations are parallel to the direction of propagation.
While mechanical waves can be both transverse and longitudinal, all electromagnetic waves are
transverse in free space.
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1. Progressive Wave
If the wave generated from a source which progresses with time from one point to another through a
medium it is called progressive wave. Progressive wave can be longitudinal or transverse.
Example: When a speaker talks, he produces sound wave. These waves are longitudinal waves which
progress through air medium and reach to the listener. These waves are progressive waves.
Let a progressive wave originating at O travels with velocity v along the positive X axis. So, the
displacement of the particle
Where,
x p
B
Direction of wave motion
We know, the distance travelled by a wave is one complete vibration is called wavelength λ and the
phase difference between two particles situated at a distance λ is 2𝜋. Now, let the phase difference of
the particle at P
y = A sin (ωt - δ)
2πx
The phase difference for distance x is δ = λ
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2π
So, phase difference = × path difference For the distance or
λ
2πx
= A sin (2𝜋nt - )
λ
v 2πx
= A sin (2𝜋 λ t - )
λ
2π
= A sin (v t - x)
λ
This equation represents a progressive wave. It gives the displacement of any particle at time t.
If the wave travels in the negative X direction, the equation of a progressive wave is
𝟐𝛑
y = A sin (v t + x)
𝛌
The stationary wave has no forward motion but remains fixed in space. In stationary waves, there are
certain points where the amplitude is zero. These points are called nodes and there are some points
where the amplitude is maximum. These points are called antinodes.
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Let a progressive wave move along positive X- axis. The equation of this wave
2π
Y1 = A0 sin ( v t - x)
λ
Here, A0 is the amplitude of the wave and y1 and y2 are the displacements of a particle of the wave at
a distance x from the source at time t.
y = y1 + y2
2π 2π
= A0 sin (v t - x) + A0 sin (v t + x) A+B A−B
λ λ sin A + sin B = 2 sin cos
2 2
2π 2π
= 2 A0 sin vt cos x And
λ λ
= 2 A0 cos
2π
x sin
2π
vt ω = 2𝜋f
λ λ
2π
= A sin vt
λ
= A sin 2𝜋ft
= A sin ωt
2π
Here, A = 2 A0 cos x, displacement of the particle of wave at x.
λ
This equation represents a simple harmonic vibration of same wavelength λ as the superposing
waves. It should be mentioned that this simple harmonic vibration does not represent a progressive
wave since its phase does not contain term like (vt - x). So, this equation represents a stationary or
standing wave.
2π
cos λ
x=0
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2π π 3π 5π
or, x= 2, , , … … ….
λ 2 2
λ 3λ 5λ
Or, x= , , , … … ….
4 4 4
3λ λ λ
These are points of nodes. Distance between two successive nodes = −4 =2
4
Antinodes: The points where amplitude A is maximum, antinodes are formed. So, condition for
maximum amplitude are
2π
A = 2 A0 cos 𝑥 = ±2𝐴0
λ
2π
𝑜𝑟, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = ±1
λ
2π
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = 0, π, 2π, 3π … … …
λ
λ 2λ 3λ
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = 0, , , , … … … … …
2 2 2
These are points of antinodes.
2λ λ λ
The distance between two successive antinodes= − 2 = 2.
2
Phase Velocity:
The phase velocity is the velocity at which the phase of any one frequency component of the wave will
propagate.
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Group Velocity:
If several waves of different wavelengths (frequencies) and phases are superposed together, one would get a
resultant which is a localized wave packet.
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Problems:
1. The displacement (in meters) of a particle executing simple harmonic motion at any instant of time is
given by, 𝑦 = 0.2sin2π(350t − 0.30). Calculate i) the amplitude, ii) wave velocity, iii) wave length,
iv) frequency.
2. A sinusoidal travelling wave in x-direction has amplitude of 15 𝑐𝑚, wavelength of 40 𝑐𝑚 and the
frequency of 8 𝐻𝑧. The vertical displacement at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑡 = 0 is 15 𝑐𝑚. Find (i) Wave number (ii)
Time period (iii) Wave speed, and (iv) Angular frequency of wave.
𝜋
3. Wave length of a particular wave is 10cm, if the phase difference is what would be the path
6
difference?
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Earths motion around the sun, motion of hands (hour, minute) of a clock, motion of planets are examples of
periodic motion.
Q. Define Oscillation.
When a body moves back and forth repeatedly about a mean position, its motion is called oscillation
or vibration. Alternately, if the periodic motion of an object is such that during half of its time period
it staying in one direction and during rest half in the opposite direction then that type of motion is
called oscillation or vibration.
Motion of a simple pendulum, vibration of the tuning fork, motion of a spring etc. are the examples
of oscillation or vibrations.
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For example motion of a spring is a SHM, oscillations of a floating cylinder, swinging of child on
playground, simple pendulum, an electron in a wire carrying AC etc.
F -x
F=-kx
Where, F is the restoring elastic force, k is the spring constant and x is the displacement from the
equilibrium position.
For any simple harmonic oscillator, when the system is displaced from its equilibrium position, a
restoring force which resembles Hooke's law tends to restore the system to equilibrium. Simple
harmonic motion is a special case of periodic motion.
Equilibrium Position
An equilibrium position is a point where an oscillating object experience zero (0) resultant forces.
Complete Oscillation
An oscillation is said to be complete if vibrating or oscillating object starting from a point returns to
the same point along the same direction.
Amplitude:
Amplitude is the maximum displacement on both sides of an object from its equilibrium position.
The SI unit for amplitude is meter (m).
It is the maximum displacement from the mean position. The displacement will be maximum when cos(𝜔𝑡 +
𝜙) = ±1. Hence,
Maximum displacement = ±𝐴
+𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝐴.
x = A cos θ
Here, x is the displacement from the origin O and OP = A = radius of the circle.
x = A cosω t [since, θ = ω t]
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Finally,
2π 1 t
x = A cos 2𝜋 n t [ω = and T = n , T = N]
T
where, A is the amplitude of the particle which is the maximum displacement from the mean
position.
+A
-A
We know the displacement of a particle executing in SHM at any time t is given by,
𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
Hence velocity, 𝑣= = 𝑑𝑡 {𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)}
𝑑𝑡
= −𝜔𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
∴ 𝒗 = −𝝎√𝐴2 − 𝒙𝟐 .
This relation clearly shows that the speed is maximum at the equilibrium position (𝑥 = 0) and is zero at the
maximum displacements (𝑥 = ±𝐴)
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ωA
-ωA
𝑑 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑡 ( 𝑑𝑡 )
𝑑
= 𝑑𝑡 (−𝜔𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)) [since, 𝑣 = −𝜔𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)]
= −𝜔2 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
ω2A
-ω2A
Time period:
Time Period is defined as the time required for one complete oscillation or vibration. If T is the time
t
period for completing N oscillations, then T = N
1
And n = T, where, n is the frequency.
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𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜋 + 𝜙)
∴ 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2𝜋 2𝜋
So it is seen that after time 𝜔
, the displacement of the particle becomes same. So 𝜔
is the time period of
SHM.
2𝜋 𝑚
∴𝑇= 𝜔
= 2𝜋√ 𝐾
Frequency:
Total number of oscillations completed by an oscillating particle in one second is called its frequency. The
frequency of a particle executing in SHM with time period T is given by,
1
𝑓=𝑇
1
𝑓= 2𝜋
𝜔
𝜔
𝑓=
2𝜋
𝟏 𝒌
∴ 𝒇 = 𝟐𝝅 √𝒎
Phase
The state of motion of a vibrating particle at any instant is called its phase at that instant. State of
motion of a vibrating particle at any instant is determined by its displacement, velocity and
acceleration at that instant.
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The term (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) is called the phase of oscillator. It determines the displacement as well as the direction of
motion for simple harmonic oscillator.
Phase constant:
The constant 𝜙 in the solution of SHM is called phase constant. This constant define the initial state (i.e. the
position at 𝑡 = 0) of the particle undergoing SHM.
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
If 𝜙 = 0, 𝑥=𝐴
It means that the simple harmonic oscillation begins at the maximum displacement.
𝜋
If 𝜙 = 2
𝑥=0
dx d2 x
Velocity, v = and acceleration, a = dt2
dt
d2 x
F = ma = m dt2 ………… (1)
d2 x
m dt2 ∝ - x [negative sign is used as the force and displacement are in opposite direction]
d2 x
or, m dt2 = - k x [k is proportionality constant and known as force constant]
d2 x k
or, dt2 = - m x ………………..(2)
d2 x
= a = - ω2 x ………….(3)
dt2
𝑘
or, m = ω2
K
ω = √m ………………….(4)
𝑘
Putting this value m into equation number 2
d2 x
= - ω2 x
dt2
d2 x
+ ω2 x = 0 …………………(5)
dt2
dx
In order to solve this equation, let us multiply both sides by 2 , then
dt
dx d2 x dx
2. + 2. ω2 x = 0
dt dt2 dt
dx 2
( dt ) + ω2 x2 = C …………………… (2)
Now, when
dx
x = A, then velocity =0
dt
c = ω 2A 2
dx 2
( dt ) + ω2 x2 = ω 2 A 2
dx 2
( dt ) = ω2 (A 2 - x2)
dx
= ω √A2 − x 2
dt
dx
= ω dt
√A2 − x2
dx x
Integrating the above equation (Since, ∫ √A2 = sin -1 )
− x2 A
x
sin−1 A = ω t + δ
Finally,
x = A sin (ωt + δ)
Alternative method
d2 x
dt2
+ ω2 x = 0………………………………… (1)
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x = A sin (ω t + δ)…………………………….(2)
dx 𝑑
So = 𝑑𝑡 {𝐴 sin(ω t + δ)}
dt
dx 𝑑
or, = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ω t + δ) 𝑑𝑡 (ω t + δ)
dt
dx
or, = 𝐴 cos(ω t + δ)………………………(3)
dt
Similarly,
𝑑2x 𝑑
= {𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ω t + δ)}
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 x 𝑑
Or, 𝑑𝑡 2 = 𝐴 { 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ω t + δ)}
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 x 𝑑
Or, 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝐴 sin(ω t + δ) 𝑑𝑡 (ω t + δ)
𝑑2 x
Or, 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝐴2 sin(ω t + δ)
𝑑2 x
Or, 𝑑𝑡 2 = −2 𝑥……………………………………..(4) [as, x = A sin (ω t + δ) ]
d2 x
+ ω2 x = −2 𝑥 + ω2 x = 0
dt2
As, x = A sin (ω t + δ) satisfies the both side of equation (1) so we can say x = A sin (ω t + δ) is a
solution of equation (1).
A particle executing in SHM possesses both potential and kinetic energies due to its elevation and motion,
respectively. The mechanical energy (𝐸) is the sum of potential (𝑈) and kinetic (𝐾) energy i.e.
𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝐾 …………….. (1)
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥
= 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑥
Total work done for displacement𝑥, ∴ 𝑊 = ∫0 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑥⃗
𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2 1
∴ 𝑈 = 𝑊 = ∫0 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫0 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 [ 2 ] = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 …………….. (2)
0
Let the displacement of a particle executing in SHM at any instant 𝑡 is 𝑥 which is given by,
𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) …………… (3)
Now, from (2) and (3) we get,
1 2
𝑈 = 2 𝑘𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) …… (4)
Kinetic energy (K):
If the velocity of the particle is v, then kinetic energy is given by,
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1 2
= 2 𝑚(−𝜔𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)) [𝑎𝑠, 𝑣 = −𝜔𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]
1 2
= 2 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
1 𝑘 2 𝑘
= 2 𝑚. 𝑚 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) [as, 𝜔2 = 𝑚]
1 2
∴ 𝐾 = 𝑘𝐴 sin2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)………………. (5)
2
Total Energy (E):
Now, adding (5) and (6) we have the mechanical energy from (1) as follows,
1 2 1 2
𝐸 = 𝑘𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + 𝑘 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
2 2
1 2
= 2 𝑘 𝐴 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]
𝟏 𝟐
∴ 𝑬 = 𝒌𝑨
𝟐
Therefore, the mechanical energy of a particle executing SHM is constant or conserved, because both 𝑘 and 𝐴
constant for that particle.
+A (t=0) 1 2 0 1 2
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴
2 2
0 (t=T/4) 0 1 2 1 2
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴
2 2
A (t=T/2) 1 2 0 1 2
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴
2 2
2𝜋 𝑇 𝜋
when t = T/4, ωt = 𝑇 × 4 = 2
2𝜋 𝑇
t = T/2, ωt = 𝑇
×2=𝜋
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Hence, the average potential energy < 𝑈 > of the particle over a complete cycle or a whole time period (T) is
given by,
1 𝑇
< 𝑈 >= 𝑇 ∫0 𝑈𝑑𝑡
1 𝑇 2
= 2𝑇 ∫0 {𝑘𝐴 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)} 𝑑𝑡
𝑘𝐴2 𝑇
= 4𝑇
∫0 {2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)}𝑑𝑡
𝑘𝐴2 𝑇
= 4𝑇
∫0 {1 + cos 2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)}𝑑𝑡
𝑘𝐴2 1 𝑇 1 𝑇
= { ∫0 𝑑𝑡 + ∫0 cos 2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) 𝑑𝑡}
4 𝑇 𝑇
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But the average value of both a sine and cosine function over a complete cycle or a whole time period (T) is
zero.
𝑘𝐴2 1
∴< 𝑈 >= { [𝑇]𝑇0 − 0}
4 𝑇
𝑘𝐴2
= 4𝑇
.𝑇
1 1 2
= . 𝑘𝐴
2 2
𝟏
∴< 𝑈 >= . 𝑬(𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚)
𝟐
Therefore, the average potential energy < 𝑈 > of a particle executing SHM is half of its mechanical energy.
Lissajous Figures:
“When a particle is influenced simultaneously by two SHM at right angles to each other, the resultant motion
of the particle traces a curve. These curves are called Lissajous Figures. The shape of the curve depends on the
time period, Phase difference and amplitude of the two constituent SHM”
Torque: Torque is a measure of how much force acting on an object to cause rotation.
Moment of inertia:
A measure of body’s resistance to angular acceleration, equal to the product of the mass of the body and the
square of its distance from the axis of rotation.
Torsional Pendulum:
“A torsional pendulum consists of a disk suspended by a wire attached to the center of the mass of the disk.
The other end of the wire is fixed to a rigid support”.
𝜏 ∝ −𝜃
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 …………… (2)
𝐼𝛼 = −𝜅𝜃
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑2 𝜃
⇒𝐼 = −𝜅𝜃 [𝑎𝑠, 𝛼 =
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
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𝑑2 𝜃 𝜅
∴ + 𝜃 = 0 … … … … … (3)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼
Equation (3) represents angular SHM. This equation is equivalent to differential equation of linear SHM given
by,
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
+ 𝑥 = 0 … … … … … … … . (4)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
𝑥 → 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝜃
𝑚 → 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝐼
𝑘 → 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝜅
𝜃 = 𝜃𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝜅
𝜔=√
𝐼
2𝜋 𝐼
𝑇= = 2𝜋√
𝜔 𝜅
Free Oscillations: When a body vibrates with its own natural frequency then it is said to be executing free
oscillations.
Examples:
a) Vibrations of tuning fork.
b) Vibrations in stretched string.
c) Oscillations of simple pendulum.
Forced Oscillations: When a vibrating body is maintained in the state of vibration by a periodic force of
frequency other than its natural frequency of the body, then the vibrations are called forced vibrations.
Examples:
a) Sound boards of stringed instruments execute forced vibrations.
b) Press the stem of tuning fork against table, the table suffers forced vibrations.
Resonance: In the case of forced vibration if the frequency difference is small then the
amplitude will be large. Ultimately when two frequencies are same, the amplitude
becomes maximum. This condition is known as resonance.
Advantages:
a) Using resonance, frequency of a given tuning fork can be determined.
b) In radio-TV, using tank circuit, required frequency can be obtained.
Disadvantages:
a) Resonance can cause disaster in an earthquake, if the natural frequency of the building matches the
frequency of the periodic oscillations present in the earth. The building begins to oscillate with large
amplitude thus leading to a collapse.
b) A singer maintaining a note at a resonant frequency of a glass can cause it to shatter into pieces.
In many real systems, dissipative forces such as friction and air resistance retard the motion. Consequently the
mechanical energy of the system diminishes with time and the motion is said to be damped.
The damping force can be expressed as 𝐷 = −𝑏𝑣; where 𝑏 is a constant called the damping coefficient.
Again, the restoring force of the system is – 𝑘𝑥. So, we can write,
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∴𝑚 2
= −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
∴ + + 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 0 − − − − − − − (𝑖)
This represents the Differential equation for damped oscillation.
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Problems:
1. A particle is oscillating with simple harmonic motion of amplitude 15cm and frequency 4 Hz. Compute (i)
the maximum values of acceleration and velocity, (ii) the acceleration and velocity when the displacement
is 9cm.
2. For a particle executing SHM the displacement is 8 cm at that instant the velocity is 6 cm/s and the
displacement is 6 cm at that instant the velocity is 8 cm/s. Calculate (i) amplitude(A), (ii) frequency(f) and
(iii) time period(T).
3. The amplitude and frequency of an object executing Simple harmonically are 0.01m and 12Hz
respectively. What is the velocity of the object at displacement 0.005m? What is the maximum velocity of
the object?
4. A particle executing SHM has amplitude 3cm and maximum velocity 6.24cm/s, what is the time period of
the particle?
5. The motion of a particle in SHM is given by 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. If it has a speed u when the displacement is 𝑥1
𝑣 2𝑥12−𝑢2𝑥22
and speed v when the displacement is 𝑥2 , show that the amplitude of the motion is 𝑎 = √( 𝑣 2−𝑢2
)
6. A particle performs SHM is given by the equation 𝑦 = 20 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿), if the time period is 30 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
and the particle has a displacement of 10𝑐𝑚 at 𝑡 = 0, Find (i) epoch, (ii) the phase angle at 𝑡 =
5 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 and (iii) the phase difference between two positions of the particle 15 seconds apart.
7. A spring is hung vertically, is found to be stretched by 0.02𝑚 from its equilibrium position when a force
4𝑁 acts on it. Then a 2kg is attached to the end of the spring and is pulled 0.04𝑚 from its equilibrium
position along the vertical line. The body is then released and it executes SHM.
a) What is the force constant of the spring?
b) What is the force executed by the spring on the 2kg body just before it is released?
c) What is the period and frequency of oscillation after released?
d) What is the amplitude of oscillation?
e) What is the maximum velocity of the oscillating body?
f) What is the mechanical energy of the oscillating system?
g) What is the mechanical energy of the spring?