Chemistry

Project

Made by-
ABHISHT SINGH
Class –
12th - B
 index
Sr no. Topic Page no.
1. Acknowledgement 1-1
2. Definition of carbohydrates 2-2
3. Classification of carbohydrates 3-3
4. Classification on basis of physical properties 4-4
5. Classification on basis of reducing properties 5-5
6. Classification on basis of hydrolysis property 6-8
7. Monosaccharides 9-9
8. Glucose 10-14
9. Fructose 15-16
10. Distinguishing test between glucose and fructose 17-17
11. Conversion of glucose to fructose 18-18
12. disaccharides 19-21
13. Polysaccharides 22-23
14. Uses of carbohydrates 24-24
15. Conclusion 25-25
16. Bibliography 26-26
 Acknowledgement
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to
my chemistry teacher Ms. Ritu Srivastava and my principal
Mrs. Ghazala Afsar who gave me the golden opportunity
to do this wonderful project on the topic
CARBOHYDRATE, which also helped me in doing a lot of
research and I came to know about so many new things. I
came across many wonders of chemistry. I am really
thankful to her. Secondly, I would also like to thank my
parents and friends who helped me a lot in finishing this
project within the limited time.
 Definition: -
Carbohydrates are optically active
polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy
ketones or compounds which give
polyhydroxy ketones or aldehydes on
hydrolysis.
Example- glucose, fructose, starch, etc.
 Classification
Of carbohydrate
Carbohydrate are classified in
three ways: -
 Classification on basis of physical
properties.
 Classification on basis of hydrolysis.
 Classification on basis of reducing
properties.
Classification on the
basis of physical
properties
Carbohydrates are classified as sugars and non-
sugars.
Sugars – They are colourless, crystalline solids
sweet in taste and soluble in water and have
sharp melting points. In general monosaccharide
and oligosaccharides are sugars.

Non-Sugars – They are colourless, tasteless,

amorphous solid sparingly soluble in water.
Example –starch, cellulose, glycogen.
 Classification on the
basis of reduction
properties
Reducing carbohydrates – carbohydrates which
reduce Tollens’ reagent and Fehling ‘s solution are called
reducing carbohydrates,
Example– glucose, fructose and maltose.

Non-reducing carbohydrates- These do not reduce

Tollens’ reagent and Fehling ‘s solution.

Example-Starch and Sucrose.

 Classification on the
basis of hydrolysis
properties
Monosaccharides
They are simplest type of carbohydrates and do not get
hydrolysed.

Example- Glucose, Fructose, Ribose, etc.

Monosaccharides which contain -CHO group are called
‘aldoses’, and which contain ketonic group are called
‘ketoses’.

 GLUCOSE IS ALDOHEXOSE.
 FRUCTOSE IS KETOHEXOSE.
 RIBOSE IS ALDOPENTOSE.

Disaccharides
On hydrolysis give two units of monosaccharide.
Sucrose, Maltose and Lactose are disaccharides
Their molecular formula C12H22O11 is same. But
their structures are different and on hydrolysis
they give different monosaccharide units.
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose Water Glucose Fructose

C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Maltose Water Glucose Glucose

The monosaccharides obtained on

hydrolysis may or may not be same.

Trisaccharide
They on hydrolysis give only three molecules of
monosaccharides.
 Polysaccharides
They on hydrolysis give large number of
monosaccharides molecules of
EXAMPLE – starch,
Cellulose,
Gum, etc.

(C6H10O5)n + nH2O nC6H12O6

Starch or Cellulose Glucose

Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are the simplest
carbohydrates. They do not get hydrolyzed. Those
monosaccharides which contain -CHO group are
called aldoses.
Monosaccharides containing a keto group are
called ketoses.
 Glucose
Glucose occurs in nature in free state as well as
in combined state. It is present in sweet fruits
and honey. Glucose is an aldohexose and is also
known as dextrose.
PREPARATION OF GLUCOSE FROM SUCROSE -
C6H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sugar Glucose
Fructose
PREPARATION OF GLUCOSE FROM STARCH –
(C6H10O5)n + nH2O nC6H12O6
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: -
They have sweet taste. They are soluble in
water and sparingly soluble in water.
Chemical properties
of glucose
1) ACETYLATION –
OHC-(CHOH)4-CH2OH
OCH-(CHO.CO.CH3)4 –CH2O.CO.CH3
2) With hydrogen cyanide–
HOH2C-(CHOH)4-CHO OH
HOH2C—(CHOH)4—CH
CN
3) With hydroxylamine –
HOH2C-(CHOH)4-CHO
HOH2C—(CHOH)4—CH NOH+H2O
4) From tollens’ reagent –
HOH2C-(CHOH)4-CHO + Ag20
HOH2C—(CHOH)4—COOH + 2Ag
5) Reduction of Fehling’s solution –
HOH2C-(CHOH)4-CHO + 2CuO
HOH2C—(CHOH)4—COOH + Cu2O
6) Oxidation –
HOH2C-(CHOH)4-CHO
HOH2C—(CHOH)4—COOH
7) Reaction with HI –
HOH2C-(CHOH)4-CHO + 14 [H]
H3C—(CH2)4—CH3 + 6H2O
8) With Phenyl hydrazine -
CHO CH NNHC6H5

(CHOH)4 (CHOH)4 + H20

CH2OH CH2OH
Structure of glucose
1) Open chain structure of Glucose–
0 OH H OH OH
H—C—C—C—C—C—CH2OH
H OH H H
2) Structure of Gluconic acid-
0 OH H OH OH
HO—C—C—C—C—C—CH2OH
H OH H H
3) Structure of Saccharic acid-
0 OH H OH OH
HO—C—C—C—C—C—COOH
H OH H H
Cyclic structure of
glucose
 Fructose
Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a simple ketonic monosaccharide found in many plants, where
it is often bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose. It is one of the three
dietary monosaccharides, along with glucose and galactose, that are absorbed directly
into blood during digestion. Fructose was discovered by French chemist Augustin-Pierre
Dubrunfaut in 1847.The name "fructose" was coined in 1857 by the English chemist William
Allen Miller.[7] Pure, dry fructose is a sweet, white, odorless, crystalline solid, and is the
most water-soluble of all the sugars. Fructose is found in honey, tree and vine fruits,
flowers, berries, and most root vegetables.

Molecular formula of fructose—C6H12O6

Open chain structure of fructose—

CLOSED CHAIN STRUCTURE OF
FRUCTOSE
 Distinguishing test between
glucose and fructose chemically

Bromine water oxidizes glucose(aldehyde) to gluconic acid,

hence decolorize the solution. Being a mild oxidizing agent,
Bromine water is not capable of oxidizing fructose (ketone) .
Conversion of glucose to
fructose

Glucose reacts with excess of phenyl hydrazine to form

glucosazone. On hydrolysis followed by reduction with
Zn/AcOH, fructose is obtained.
Disaccharides
A disaccharide (also called a double sugar) is the sugar
formed when two monosaccharides (simple sugars) are
joined by glycosidic linkage. Like monosaccharides,
disaccharides are soluble in water. Three common examples
of disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, and maltose. They give
2 molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
hydrolysis of sucrose-

hydrolysis of maltose-

Sucrose (cane sugar)

Sucrose, also known as cane sugar or saccharose, belongs to
the class of organic compounds known as o-glycosyl
compounds. These are glycoside in which a sugar group is
bonded through one carbon to another group via a O-
glycosidic bond. Sucrose exists as a solid, soluble (in water),
and a very weakly acidic compound.
Molecular formula – C12H22011
Structural formula –

Properties-
 Sucrose is a colourless, crystalline and sweet substance
in water.
 On hydrolysis it gives equimolar mixture of D-glucose and
D-fructose.

Other examples of disaccharides

are-
Maltose-Maltose is produced by the enzymatic hydrolysis
of starch (a homopolysaccharide) catalyzed by the enzyme
amylase. It is a disaccharide formed from two units of
glucose joined with an α (1→4) bond.
 Structure-

Lactose- Lactose is a large sugar molecule that is made up

of two smaller sugar molecules, glucose and galactose. It is
also known as milk sugar.
 Structure-

polysaccharides
Starch- or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting
of numerous glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This
polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as energy
storage.
 Amylopectin- It is a water-soluble polysaccharide and
highly branched polymer of α-glucose units found in
plants. It is one of the two components of starch.

Amylopectin
 Amylose- it is a water-soluble component. Gives blue
colour with iodine. Amylose is a polysaccharide made of
α-D-glucose units, bonded to each other through α
(1→4) glycosidic bonds.
Glycogen- Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of
glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in animals,
fungi, and bacteria. It mainly occurs in liver and muscles to
store energy.
Cellulose- Cellulose is a molecule, consisting of hundreds
and sometimes even thousands of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen atoms. Cellulose is the main substance in the walls of
plant cells, helping plants to remain stiff and upright. Humans
cannot digest cellulose, but it is important in the diet as fibre.
uses of carbohydrates

1. Biofuels- Glucose, fructose, sugar, starch, glycogen etc.

Provide energy for the functioning of the living systems.
2. Structural material- Cellulose is a structural material for
the cells walls of bacteria and plants.
3. Foods- carbohydrates like starch and sugar serves as a
food.
4. Reserve food material- Glycogen occurs mainly in the
liver and muscles of animals. In case of illness and fasting,
it supplies energy. Similarly, in plants starch serves as a
major food reserve.
5. In nucleic acids- Ribose and 2-deoxy ribose are essential
constituents of DNA and RNA respectively. Carbohydrates
are also found in biosystems in combination with many
proteins and lipids.
6. Industrial materials- Carbohydrates provide raw
materials for many industries like textiles, paper, lacquers
and breweries.
7. Honey- It is used as an instant source of energy by Vaids in
ayurvedic medicines.

Conclusion
For a healthy diet, carbohydrate should
take up the most part of the plate. Food
like rice, bread, chips, and other whole
grains can all provide to carbohydrates
a person needs throughout the day.
Carbohydrates may be important to
mental health.it is found that people on
a high-fat, low-carb diet for a year had
more anxiety, depression and anger
than people on a low-fat, high-carb diet,
so it is really important to include
carbohydrate in our daily diet.

bibliography
Websites-
 www.wikipedia.org
  www.chemistryhub.com
 www.google.com
 www.bing.com
 www.quora.com
Books-
 Chemistry encyclopedia
 Learning chemistry with fun
 NCERT CHEMISTRY VOLUME 2