MATH F111- Mathematics I

Saranya G. Nair
Department of Mathematics

BITS Pilani

November 9, 2022

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 1 / 16

We have seen that within its interval of convergence I, the sum of a power
series is a continuous function with derivatives of all orders. Now we ask
the reverse question.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 2 / 16

We have seen that within its interval of convergence I, the sum of a power
series is a continuous function with derivatives of all orders. Now we ask
the reverse question.
Remark
(1) If a function f (x) has derivatives of all orders on an interval, can it be
expressed as a power series on at least part of that interval?

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 2 / 16

We have seen that within its interval of convergence I, the sum of a power
series is a continuous function with derivatives of all orders. Now we ask
the reverse question.
Remark
(1) If a function f (x) has derivatives of all orders on an interval, can it be
expressed as a power series on at least part of that interval?
i.e Can you find a power series that converges to f (x) for each point
x in an interval?

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 2 / 16

We have seen that within its interval of convergence I, the sum of a power
series is a continuous function with derivatives of all orders. Now we ask
the reverse question.
Remark
(1) If a function f (x) has derivatives of all orders on an interval, can it be
expressed as a power series on at least part of that interval?
i.e Can you find a power series that converges to f (x) for each point
x in an interval?
(2) And if it can, what are its coefficients?

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 2 / 16

We have seen that within its interval of convergence I, the sum of a power
series is a continuous function with derivatives of all orders. Now we ask
the reverse question.
Remark
(1) If a function f (x) has derivatives of all orders on an interval, can it be
expressed as a power series on at least part of that interval?
i.e Can you find a power series that converges to f (x) for each point
x in an interval?
(2) And if it can, what are its coefficients?

If we can find power series representation of a function, they provide useful

polynomial approximations of the original functions. Because
approximation by polynomials is extremely useful to both mathematicians
and scientists, we are interested to see when a function can have power
series representation.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 2 / 16

Suppose we have an answer to Question (1),

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 3 / 16

Suppose we have an answer to Question (1), i.e f (x) has a power series
representation in an interval of convergence I .

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 3 / 16

Suppose we have an answer to Question (1), i.e f (x) has a power series
representation in an interval of convergence I . i.e
∞
X
f (x) = an (x − a)n , x ∈ I
n=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 3 / 16

Suppose we have an answer to Question (1), i.e f (x) has a power series
representation in an interval of convergence I . i.e
∞
X
f (x) = an (x − a)n , x ∈ I
n=0

By repeated term-by-term differentiation ∀x ∈ I we obtain

f ′ (x) = a1 + 2a2 (x − a) + 2 · (x − a)3(x − a)2 + · · ·

f n (x) = n!an + sum of terms with (x − a) as a factor

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 3 / 16

Suppose we have an answer to Question (1), i.e f (x) has a power series
representation in an interval of convergence I . i.e
∞
X
f (x) = an (x − a)n , x ∈ I
n=0

By repeated term-by-term differentiation ∀x ∈ I we obtain

f ′ (x) = a1 + 2a2 (x − a) + 2 · (x − a)3(x − a)2 + · · ·

f n (x) = n!an + sum of terms with (x − a) as a factor

Since x = a ∈ I , we get f n (a) = n!an .

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 3 / 16

Suppose we have an answer to Question (1), i.e f (x) has a power series
representation in an interval of convergence I . i.e
∞
X
f (x) = an (x − a)n , x ∈ I
n=0

By repeated term-by-term differentiation ∀x ∈ I we obtain

f ′ (x) = a1 + 2a2 (x − a) + 2 · (x − a)3(x − a)2 + · · ·

f n (x) = n!an + sum of terms with (x − a) as a factor

f n (a)
Since x = a ∈ I , we get f n (a) = n!an . Therefore an = n! . This answers
Question (2). i.e
′′
f (a)
f (x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · ·
2!

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 3 / 16

Let us discuss what gives the motivation to think for a power series
representation of a function f ?

Suppose that we have a function like f (x) = cos(x) that needs a calculator
to evaluate. Can you find a linear function close to cos x for x near 0?

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 4 / 16

Let us discuss what gives the motivation to think for a power series
representation of a function f ?

Suppose that we have a function like f (x) = cos(x) that needs a calculator
to evaluate. Can you find a linear function close to cos x for x near 0?

Find m and b such that g (x) = mx + b give us the best approximation of

f (x) = cos(x).

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 4 / 16

Let us discuss what gives the motivation to think for a power series
representation of a function f ?

Suppose that we have a function like f (x) = cos(x) that needs a calculator
to evaluate. Can you find a linear function close to cos x for x near 0?

Find m and b such that g (x) = mx + b give us the best approximation of

f (x) = cos(x).

Since we are looking for an approximation near x = 0, a good starting

point is to have g (0) = f (0). This gives b = 1.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 4 / 16

Let us discuss what gives the motivation to think for a power series
representation of a function f ?

Suppose that we have a function like f (x) = cos(x) that needs a calculator
to evaluate. Can you find a linear function close to cos x for x near 0?

Find m and b such that g (x) = mx + b give us the best approximation of

f (x) = cos(x).

Since we are looking for an approximation near x = 0, a good starting

point is to have g (0) = f (0). This gives b = 1.

To figure out what value of m works best, we want g (x) to be tangent to

f (x) at x = 0, so the slope m should be equal to f ′ (0) = − sin(0) = 0.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 4 / 16

Let us discuss what gives the motivation to think for a power series
representation of a function f ?

Suppose that we have a function like f (x) = cos(x) that needs a calculator
to evaluate. Can you find a linear function close to cos x for x near 0?

Find m and b such that g (x) = mx + b give us the best approximation of

f (x) = cos(x).

Since we are looking for an approximation near x = 0, a good starting

point is to have g (0) = f (0). This gives b = 1.

To figure out what value of m works best, we want g (x) to be tangent to

f (x) at x = 0, so the slope m should be equal to f ′ (0) = − sin(0) = 0.
This gives us g (x) = 1 as our linear approximation.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 4 / 16

We see that for x close to zero, g (x) = 1 is a reasonable approximation of
cos(x). But this approximation is not very good for larger values of x.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 5 / 16

We see that for x close to zero, g (x) = 1 is a reasonable approximation of
cos(x). But this approximation is not very good for larger values of x.

Can we approximate f (x) = cos(x) near x = 0 with a quadratic

polynomial a + bx + cx 2 ?

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 5 / 16

We see that for x close to zero, g (x) = 1 is a reasonable approximation of
cos(x). But this approximation is not very good for larger values of x.

Can we approximate f (x) = cos(x) near x = 0 with a quadratic

polynomial a + bx + cx 2 ?
We want g (0) = f (0) =⇒ a = 1.
We also want the first derivatives g ′ (0) = f ′ (0) so b = 0.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 5 / 16

We see that for x close to zero, g (x) = 1 is a reasonable approximation of
cos(x). But this approximation is not very good for larger values of x.

Can we approximate f (x) = cos(x) near x = 0 with a quadratic

polynomial a + bx + cx 2 ?
We want g (0) = f (0) =⇒ a = 1.
We also want the first derivatives g ′ (0) = f ′ (0) so b = 0.

The second derivative determines the rate of change of the derivative, and
so that the graphs of f (x) and g (x) curve at the same rate around x = 0.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 5 / 16

We see that for x close to zero, g (x) = 1 is a reasonable approximation of
cos(x). But this approximation is not very good for larger values of x.

Can we approximate f (x) = cos(x) near x = 0 with a quadratic

polynomial a + bx + cx 2 ?
We want g (0) = f (0) =⇒ a = 1.
We also want the first derivatives g ′ (0) = f ′ (0) so b = 0.

The second derivative determines the rate of change of the derivative, and
so that the graphs of f (x) and g (x) curve at the same rate around x = 0.
This gives c = − 12 .

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 5 / 16

We see that for x close to zero, g (x) = 1 is a reasonable approximation of
cos(x). But this approximation is not very good for larger values of x.

Can we approximate f (x) = cos(x) near x = 0 with a quadratic

polynomial a + bx + cx 2 ?
We want g (0) = f (0) =⇒ a = 1.
We also want the first derivatives g ′ (0) = f ′ (0) so b = 0.

The second derivative determines the rate of change of the derivative, and
so that the graphs of f (x) and g (x) curve at the same rate around x = 0.
This gives c = − 12 .

As a result, our quadratic approximation is g (x) = 1 − 12 x 2 .

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 5 / 16

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 6 / 16
To get better approximations, we could continue approximating our
function f (x) = cos(x) with polynomials of higher and higher degrees. Let

g (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 6 / 16

To get better approximations, we could continue approximating our
function f (x) = cos(x) with polynomials of higher and higher degrees. Let

g (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n
f m (0)
Then we want f m (0) = g m (0) and g m (0) = m!am . Thus am = m! .
Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 6 / 16
Thus ′′
′ f (0) 2 f n (0) n
g (x) = f (0) + f (0)x + x + ··· + x
2! n!
is a polynomial that can be used for approximating f (x) for x in a
neighbourhood of 0. This motivates the following definition.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 7 / 16

Thus ′′
′ f (0) 2 f n (0) n
g (x) = f (0) + f (0)x + x + ··· + x
2! n!
is a polynomial that can be used for approximating f (x) for x in a
neighbourhood of 0. This motivates the following definition.
Definition
Taylor Polynomial of order n: Let f be a function with derivatives of
order k for k = 1, 2, · · · , N in some interval containing a as an interior
point. Then for any integer n from 0 through N, the Taylor polynomial of
order n generated by f at x = a is the polynomial

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 7 / 16

Thus ′′
′ f (0) 2 f n (0) n
g (x) = f (0) + f (0)x + x + ··· + x
2! n!
is a polynomial that can be used for approximating f (x) for x in a
neighbourhood of 0. This motivates the following definition.
Definition
Taylor Polynomial of order n: Let f be a function with derivatives of
order k for k = 1, 2, · · · , N in some interval containing a as an interior
point. Then for any integer n from 0 through N, the Taylor polynomial of
order n generated by f at x = a is the polynomial
′′
f ′ (a) f (a) f n (a)
Pn (x) = f (a) + (x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · · + (x − a)n
1! 2! n!

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 7 / 16

Thus ′′
′ f (0) 2 f n (0) n
g (x) = f (0) + f (0)x + x + ··· + x
2! n!
is a polynomial that can be used for approximating f (x) for x in a
neighbourhood of 0. This motivates the following definition.
Definition
Taylor Polynomial of order n: Let f be a function with derivatives of
order k for k = 1, 2, · · · , N in some interval containing a as an interior
point. Then for any integer n from 0 through N, the Taylor polynomial of
order n generated by f at x = a is the polynomial
′′
f ′ (a) f (a) f n (a)
Pn (x) = f (a) + (x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · · + (x − a)n
1! 2! n!
We speak of a Taylor polynomial of order n rather than degree n because
f n (a) may be zero.
Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 7 / 16
Definition
Let f be a function with derivatives of all orders throughout some interval
containing a as an interior point. Then the Taylor series generated by f at
∞
X f k (a)
x = a is (x − a)k
k!
k=0

′′
f (a) f n (a)
= f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · · + (x − a)n + · · ·
2! n!
The Maclaurin series generated by f is the Taylor series generated by f at
x = 0 given by
∞ ′′
X f k (0) k ′ f (0) 2 f n (0) n
x = f (0) + f (0) + x + ··· + x + ···
k! 2! n!
k=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 8 / 16

Two questions still remain.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 9 / 16

Two questions still remain.
Questions
• For what values of x can we normally expect a Taylor series to
converge to its generating function?

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 9 / 16

Two questions still remain.
Questions
• For what values of x can we normally expect a Taylor series to
converge to its generating function?
• How accurately do a function’s Taylor polynomials approximate the
function on a given interval?

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 9 / 16

Taylor’s Formula

Theorem
Taylor’s Theorem: If f has derivatives of all orders in an open interval I
containing a, then for each positive integer n and for each x ∈ I ,

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 10 / 16

Taylor’s Formula

Theorem
Taylor’s Theorem: If f has derivatives of all orders in an open interval I
containing a, then for each positive integer n and for each x ∈ I ,
′′
f (a) f n (a)
f (x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · · + (x − a)n + Rn (x)
2! n!

where

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 10 / 16

Taylor’s Formula

Theorem
Taylor’s Theorem: If f has derivatives of all orders in an open interval I
containing a, then for each positive integer n and for each x ∈ I ,
′′
f (a) f n (a)
f (x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · · + (x − a)n + Rn (x)
2! n!
f n+1 (c)
where Rn (x) = (x − a)n+1 for some c between a and x.
(n + 1)!

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 10 / 16

Taylor’s Formula

Theorem
Taylor’s Theorem: If f has derivatives of all orders in an open interval I
containing a, then for each positive integer n and for each x ∈ I ,
′′
f (a) f n (a)
f (x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · · + (x − a)n + Rn (x)
2! n!
f n+1 (c)
where Rn (x) = (x − a)n+1 for some c between a and x.
(n + 1)!

When we state Taylor’s theorem this way, it says that for each x ∈ I , there
exists c ∈ (a, x) such that

f (x) = Pn (x) + Rn (x).

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 10 / 16

The function Rn (x) is called the remainder of order n or the error term for
the approximation of f by Pn (x) over I .

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 11 / 16

The function Rn (x) is called the remainder of order n or the error term for
the approximation of f by Pn (x) over I .

Taylor series converging to f

If Rn (x) → 0 as n → ∞, for all x ∈ I ,

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 11 / 16

The function Rn (x) is called the remainder of order n or the error term for
the approximation of f by Pn (x) over I .

Taylor series converging to f

If Rn (x) → 0 as n → ∞, for all x ∈ I , we say that the Taylor series
generated by f at x = a converges to f on I , and we write

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 11 / 16

The function Rn (x) is called the remainder of order n or the error term for
the approximation of f by Pn (x) over I .

Taylor series converging to f

If Rn (x) → 0 as n → ∞, for all x ∈ I , we say that the Taylor series
generated by f at x = a converges to f on I , and we write
∞
X f k (a)
f (x) = (x − a)k .
k!
k=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 11 / 16

The function Rn (x) is called the remainder of order n or the error term for
the approximation of f by Pn (x) over I .

Taylor series converging to f

If Rn (x) → 0 as n → ∞, for all x ∈ I , we say that the Taylor series
generated by f at x = a converges to f on I , and we write
∞
X f k (a)
f (x) = (x − a)k .
k!
k=0

Often we can estimate Rn (x) without knowing the value of c, as the

following example illustrates.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 11 / 16

1. Show that the Taylor series generated by f (x) = e x at x = 0 converges
to f (x) for every real value of x.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 12 / 16

1. Show that the Taylor series generated by f (x) = e x at x = 0 converges
to f (x) for every real value of x.

The function has derivatives of all orders throughout the interval

(−∞, ∞).

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 12 / 16

1. Show that the Taylor series generated by f (x) = e x at x = 0 converges
to f (x) for every real value of x.

The function has derivatives of all orders throughout the interval

(−∞, ∞). We get

1 2 1 1
f (x) = 1 + x + x + x 3 + · · · + x n + Rn (x)
2! 3! n!

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 12 / 16

1. Show that the Taylor series generated by f (x) = e x at x = 0 converges
to f (x) for every real value of x.

The function has derivatives of all orders throughout the interval

(−∞, ∞). We get

1 2 1 1
f (x) = 1 + x + x + x 3 + · · · + x n + Rn (x)
2! 3! n!
and
f n+1 (c) n+1 ec
Rn (x) = x = x n+1
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
for some c between 0 and x.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 12 / 16

1. Show that the Taylor series generated by f (x) = e x at x = 0 converges
to f (x) for every real value of x.

The function has derivatives of all orders throughout the interval

(−∞, ∞). We get

1 2 1 1
f (x) = 1 + x + x + x 3 + · · · + x n + Rn (x)
2! 3! n!
and
f n+1 (c) n+1 ec
Rn (x) = x = x n+1
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
for some c between 0 and x. Since e x is an increasing function of x,
e c < 1 if x ≤ 0 and e c ≤ e x for x > 0. Thus |Rn (x)| → 0 as n → 0.
(Why?)

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 12 / 16

1. Show that the Taylor series generated by f (x) = e x at x = 0 converges
to f (x) for every real value of x.

The function has derivatives of all orders throughout the interval

(−∞, ∞). We get

1 2 1 1
f (x) = 1 + x + x + x 3 + · · · + x n + Rn (x)
2! 3! n!
and
f n+1 (c) n+1 ec
Rn (x) = x = x n+1
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
for some c between 0 and x. Since e x is an increasing function of x,
e c < 1 if x ≤ 0 and e c ≤ e x for x > 0. Thus |Rn (x)| → 0 as n → 0.
(Why?)
∞
X xk
Thus the series converges to e x for every x.
k!
k=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 12 / 16

2. Show that the Taylor series for f (x) = cos x at x = 0 converges to
cos x for every value of x.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 13 / 16

2. Show that the Taylor series for f (x) = cos x at x = 0 converges to
cos x for every value of x.

The Taylor series for f (x) = cos x around x = 0 given by

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 13 / 16

2. Show that the Taylor series for f (x) = cos x at x = 0 converges to
cos x for every value of x.

The Taylor series for f (x) = cos x around x = 0 given by

x2 x4 x 2k
1− + − · · · + (−1)k + R2k (x)
2! 4! (2k)!
and

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 13 / 16

2. Show that the Taylor series for f (x) = cos x at x = 0 converges to
cos x for every value of x.

The Taylor series for f (x) = cos x around x = 0 given by

x2 x4 x 2k
1− + − · · · + (−1)k + R2k (x)
2! 4! (2k)!
and
|x|2k+1
|R2k (x)| ≤ 1 · .
(2k + 1)!

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 13 / 16

2. Show that the Taylor series for f (x) = cos x at x = 0 converges to
cos x for every value of x.

The Taylor series for f (x) = cos x around x = 0 given by

x2 x4 x 2k
1− + − · · · + (−1)k + R2k (x)
2! 4! (2k)!
and
|x|2k+1
|R2k (x)| ≤ 1 · .
(2k + 1)!
For every value of x, R2k → 0 as k → 0. Thus f (x) = cos x converges for
all x.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 13 / 16

2. Show that the Taylor series for f (x) = cos x at x = 0 converges to
cos x for every value of x.

The Taylor series for f (x) = cos x around x = 0 given by

x2 x4 x 2k
1− + − · · · + (−1)k + R2k (x)
2! 4! (2k)!
and
|x|2k+1
|R2k (x)| ≤ 1 · .
(2k + 1)!
For every value of x, R2k → 0 as k → 0. Thus f (x) = cos x converges for
all x. Thus
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + ···
2! 4! 6!
∞
X (−1)k x 2k
=
(2k)!
k=0

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 13 / 16

3. Show that the Taylor series for f (x) = sin x at x = 0 converges to sin x
for every value of x.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 14 / 16

3. Show that the Taylor series for f (x) = sin x at x = 0 converges to sin x
for every value of x.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 14 / 16

3. Show that the Taylor series for f (x) = sin x at x = 0 converges to sin x
for every value of x.

Use this to find Taylor series for f (x) = x sin x at x = 0.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 14 / 16

Does there exists a function whose Taylor series converges at every x, but
Taylor series converges to f (x) only at x = 0?

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 15 / 16

Does there exists a function whose Taylor series converges at every x, but
Taylor series converges to f (x) only at x = 0?

3. Show that
(
0 if x=0
f (x) = −1
e x2 if x ̸= 0

has derivatives of all orders at x = 0 and that f n (0) = 0 for all n. What is
the Taylor series generated by f at x = 0? Does the Taylor series converge?
Does it converge to f (x) for x ∈ I where I is an interval containing 0?

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 15 / 16

Does there exists a function whose Taylor series converges at every x, but
Taylor series converges to f (x) only at x = 0?

3. Show that
(
0 if x=0
f (x) = −1
e x2 if x ̸= 0

has derivatives of all orders at x = 0 and that f n (0) = 0 for all n. What is
the Taylor series generated by f at x = 0? Does the Taylor series converge?
Does it converge to f (x) for x ∈ I where I is an interval containing 0?

The Taylor series generated by f at x = 0 is 0 and thus Taylor series

converges for all values of x.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 15 / 16

Does there exists a function whose Taylor series converges at every x, but
Taylor series converges to f (x) only at x = 0?

3. Show that
(
0 if x=0
f (x) = −1
e x2 if x ̸= 0

has derivatives of all orders at x = 0 and that f n (0) = 0 for all n. What is
the Taylor series generated by f at x = 0? Does the Taylor series converge?
Does it converge to f (x) for x ∈ I where I is an interval containing 0?

The Taylor series generated by f at x = 0 is 0 and thus Taylor series

converges for all values of x.
−1
2
But f (x0 ) = e x0 ̸= 0 when x0 ̸= 0. Thus the series converges to f (x) only
at x = 0.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 15 / 16

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 9, 2022 16 / 16