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ASSIGNMENT 1
Q.1 What is SQL? What are various features of SQL?

Ans: SQL stands for structured query language. it is used for storing and managing data in relational
database management system(RDBMS). It is a standard language of relational database system. The
features of SQL are as follows:

1. Relational Foundation
SQL is mainly used for relational databases. A relational database’s tabular structure
provides an intuitive user interface, making SQL easy to learn and use. Additionally,
relational models have a strong theoretical foundation that has guided the development
and implementation of relational databases. In the wake of the success of the relational
model, SQL has become the database language for relational databases.
2. High-performance
A large amount of data is retrieved quickly and efficiently. In addition, simple operations
like inserting, deleting, and manipulating data can also be accomplished in a short
amount of time. The reason SQL is so fast is that for a database product to be successful,
it must return sets of data quickly when queried. In most database organizations, many of
the company’s brightest people work constantly on the query engine so it creates
‘optimal’ query plans that work quickly.
3. Scalability
SQL database is vertically scalable, which means that you can increase the load on a
single server by adding more RAM, SSDs, or CPUs. Due to the way data is stored
(related tables vs unrelated collections), SQL databases generally support vertical scaling
only – horizontal scaling is only possible for NoSQL databases.
4. Security and authentication
SQL Server includes several security-enabling features, including encrypted
communication over SSL/TLS, Windows Data Protection API (DPAPI) to encrypt data at
rest, authentication, and authorization.
Authentication means a process of identifying a user or a person based on their username
and password.SQL Server authenticates its users by their credentials.
SQL Server supports two authentication modes, Windows authentication mode, and
mixed-mode.
• Windows authentication is the default authentication method and is also known
as integrated security because it is tightly integrated with Windows. Specific
Windows user and group accounts are trusted to log in to SQL Server. Users who
have already been authenticated do not need to provide additional credentials.
• Mixed-mode supports authentication both by Windows and by SQL Server.
Usernames and passwords are maintained in SQL Server.

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5. Vendor Independence
With SQL support available from all the major DBMS vendors, no new DBMS product
has been highly successful over the last decade. It’s possible to migrate SQL-based
databases and programs from one DBMS to another vendor’s DBMS with minimal
conversion effort. Thus vendor independence is one of the most important features of
SQL and an important reason for its early popularity.
6. Portability across different computer systems
SQL-based database products support a variety of platforms such as mainframes, PCs,
workstations, specialized servers, and even handhelds.Due to this feature of SQL:

• Applications that begin on single-user or departmental servers can be migrated to larger

server systems as they grow.
• It is also possible to extract and download data from corporate SQL databases into
departmental or personal databases.
• A prototype of a SQL-based database application can be developed on an affordable
personal computer before it is passed to a more costly multiuser system.

7. English-Like Structure
SQL is simple and easy to learn as it contains English-like sentences such as create,
select, delete, update, etc. In SQL databases, columns and tables can have long,
descriptive names. Therefore, most SQL statements have a clear meaning, allowing them
to be interpreted as natural sentences.
8. Programmatic Database Access
Programmers use SQL to access databases when they write applications. In contrast to
traditional databases in which one set of tools are for programmatic access and another
for unscheduled requests, Interactive and programmatic access to the database is achieved
by using the same SQL statements which allow database access parts of a program to be
tested first with interactive SQL and then embedded into a program.
9. Various perspectives on data
With SQL, the creator of a database can give different users different views of the
database’s structure and content. For eg:-An organization’s database can be constructed
in such a way that each user can access only his or her department’s data. Additionally,
data from different tables in the database can be combined and displayed as a simple
row/column table for the user.
10. Dynamic
One of the major advantages of SQL over other static databases is that, even while users
are accessing database content, it is possible to change and expand a database’s structure
dynamically. As a result, SQL provides maximum flexibility, allowing online
applications to continue uninterrupted while a database can adapt to changing
requirements.

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Q.2 Describe various Data types used in SQL?

The commonly used data types are:

1. CHAR(CHARACTER)
The CHARACTER data type accepts character strings, including Unicode, of a fixed length. The
length of the character string should be specified in the data type declaration; for example,
CHARACTER(n) where n represents the desired length of the character string. If no length is
specified during the declaration, the default length is 1. Character String Examples:

CHAR(10) or CHARACTER(10)

2. VARCHAR(LENGTH)

The VARCHAR data type accepts character strings, including Unicode, of a variable length is up to the maximum
length specified in the data type declaration.

A VARCHAR declaration must include a positive integer in parentheses to define the maximum allowable
character string length. For example, VARCHAR(n) can accept any length of character string up to n characters
in length. The length parameter may take any value from 1 to the current table page size. Attempting to assign a
value containing more characters than the defined maximum length results in the truncation of the character
string to the defined length. If any of the truncated characters are not blank, an error is raised.

3. DATE

The DATE data type accepts date values. No parameters are required when declaring a
DATE data type. Date values should be specified in the form: YYYY-MM-DD. However,
PointBase will also accept single digits entries for month and day values.Month values must
be between 1 and 12, day values should be between 1 and 31 depending on the month and
year values should be between 0 and 9999 insensitive keyword DATE; for example, DATE
'1999-04-04'.

4. NUMBER

The exact numeric types are INTEGER , BIGINT , DECIMAL , NUMERIC , NUMBER ,
and MONEY . Approximate numeric types, values where the precision needs to be
preserved and the scale can be floating. The approximate numeric types are DOUBLE
PRECISION , FLOAT , and REAL .

5. LONG

The LONG datatype is like the VARCHAR2 datatype, except that the maximum size
of a LONG value is 32760 bytes. You use the LONG RAW datatype to store binary data
or byte strings. LONG RAW data is like LONG data, except that LONG RAW data is not
interpreted by PL/SQL. The maximum size of a LONG RAW value is 32760 bytes.

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ASSIGNMENT-2

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ASSIGNMENT 3

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ASSIGNMENT-4

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ASSIGNMENT-5
1. CREATE TABLE OF EMPLOYEES

2. INSERT DATA

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ASSIGNMENT-6
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ASSIGNMENT 7
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ASSIGNMENT 8
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ASSIGNMENT 9
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ASSIGNMENT 10
COLLEGE MANAGEMENT E-R MODEL

HOSTEL_ID
NO_OF_SEATS HOSTEL
DURATION
DEPARTMENT HOSTEL_NAME

LNAME SID CITY

SALARY
LIVING STATE
COURSE_ID

FID
FNAME ADDRESS COURSENAME
NAME PIN_CODE
NAME

FACULTY TEACHES STUDENT ENROLLS COURSE

S
PHONEO AGE
MOBILE NO
DOB

HANDLES
TAKES BELONGS
DEPARTEMEN
SUBJECT_ID ROOM T ID
EXAM_CODE

DATE
EXAM CONDUCTS DEPARTMENT
SUBJECTS
TIME

SUBJECT_NAME D_NAME

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ASSIGNMENT 11
ER DIAGRAM OF AIRPLANE RESERVATION SYSTEM:

LOGIN_ROLE ID

LOGIN_ID USERNAME

PASSWORD
USERNAME
LOGIN
ADDRESS ROLE_ID
USER_ID

USERS ROLE NAME

HAS ROLES

EMAIL ROLE_DESC
PERMISSION_ID
PER_ROLE_ID
PHONE
PERMISSION
PER MODULE

PER NAME

MANAGES AE_TITLE
P_PASSWORD
P_ID
HOST AB_ID AIR ENQUIRY AE_ID
P_ADDRESS
EL_N
PASSENGER
AME AIR BOOKING AE DESC
AE-TYPE
P_MOBILE AB_DESC
ABTYPE
AE_DATE
P_EMAIL HAS
ABPASS_ID AB_DATE

TKCT_DESC TICKETS TCKT_ID

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