MCSE601L - ARTIFICIAL I NTELLIGENCE

12/7/2022 MCSE601L-AI by Dr.Siva Sankari S 1

Representing Knowledge using First Order Logic

12/7/2022 MCSE601L-AI by Dr.Siva Sankari S 2

 First Order Logic

• First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation

in artificial intelligence.
• It is an extension to propositional logic.
• FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural
language statements in a concise way.
• First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-
order predicate logic.
• First-order logic is a powerful language that develops
information about the objects in a more easy way and can
also express the relationship between those objects.

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 First Order Logic
• First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that
the world contains facts like propositional logic.
• It also assumes the following things in the world:
• Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares,
pits, wumpus, ......
• Relations:
• It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent,
• n-any relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes
between
• Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......
• As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:
• Syntax
• Semantics
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 First Order Logic

• Elements of FOL

Constant 1, 2, A, John, Mumbai, cat,....

Variables x, y, z, a, b,....
Predicates Brother, Father, >,....
Function sqrt, LeftLegOf, ....
Connectives ∧, ∨, ¬, ⇒, ⇔
Equality ==
Quantifier ∀, ∃

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 First Order Logic
Types of sentences
• Atomic sentences:
• Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic.
These sentences are formed from a predicate symbol followed by a
parenthesis with a sequence of terms.
• We can represent atomic sentences as
Predicate (term1, term2, ......, term n).
Example:
• Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).
Choo is a cat: => cat (Choo).

• Complex Sentences:
• Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using
connectives.
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 First Order Logic

Quantifiers in First-order logic:

• A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification, and
quantification specifies the quantity of specimen in the universe of
discourse.
• These are the symbols that permit to determine or identify the range
and scope of the variable in the logical expression.
• There are two types of quantifier:
• Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)
• Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).

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 First Order Logic
Universal Quantifier:
• Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which
specifies that the statement within its range is true for everything or
every instance of a particular thing.
• The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which
resembles an inverted A.
• If x is a variable, then ∀x is read as:
• For all x
• For each x
• For every x.
Example:
• All man drink coffee.

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 First Order Logic

It will be read as:

There are all x where x is a man who drink coffee.
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 First Order Logic
Existential Quantifier:
• Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that
the statement within its scope is true for at least one instance of
something.
• It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E.
• When it is used with a predicate variable then it is called as an
existential quantifier.
• If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x).
• It will be read as:
• There exists a 'x.'
• For some 'x.'
• For at least one 'x.'
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 First Order Logic

It will be read as: There are some x

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 First Order Logic

•The main connective for universal quantifier ∀ is implication →.

•The main connective for existential quantifier ∃ is and ∧.
•In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.
•In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.
•∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.

•Ex:
•All birds fly
•Every man respects his parent
•Not all students like both Mathematics and Science

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 First Order Logic

•Ex:
•All birds fly : ∀x bird(x) →fly(x).
•Every man respects his parent : ∀x man(x) → respects (x, parent).
•Not all students like both Mathematics and Science :
¬∀ (x) [ student(x) → like(x, Mathematics) ∧ like(x, Science)]

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 First Order Logic

• Every gardener likes the sun.

(∀x) gardener(x) => likes(x,Sun)

• You can fool some of the people all of the time.

(Ex)(∀t) (person(x) ^ time(t)) => can-fool(x,t)

• You can fool all of the people some of the time.

(∀x)(Et) (person(x) ^ time(t) => can-fool(x,t)

• All purple mushrooms are poisonous.

(∀x) (mushroom(x) ^ purple(x)) => poisonous(x)
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 Inference in First Order Logic (FOL)

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 Inference in First Order Logic
• Inference in First-Order Logic is used to deduce new facts or sentences
from existing sentences.
Basic terminologies used in FOL
• First-Order logic does not only use predicate and terms for making
atomic sentences but also uses another way, which is equality in FOL.
• For this, we can use equality symbols which specify that the two terms
refer to the same object.
• Example: Brother (John) = Smith.
• As in the above example, the object referred by the Brother (John) is
similar to the object referred by Smith.
• The equality symbol can also be used with negation to represent that
two terms are not the same objects.
• Example:
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￢(x=y) which is equivalent to x ≠y. 16
 Inference in First Order Logic
•Inference Rules:
A byte contains 8 bits
All bytes contain 8 bits
• Universal Generalization
Every person like ice-cream
John likes ice-cream
• Universal Instantiation

Some one wear crown on his head

• Existential Instantiation KingJohn wear crown on his head

• Existential Introduction
Priyanka got good marks in English
Someone got good marks in english

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 Inference in First Order Logic
Universal Generalization
 Universal generalization is a valid inference rule which states
that if premise P(c) is true for any arbitrary element c in the
universe of discourse, then we can have a conclusion as ∀ x P(x)

 This rule can be used if we want to show that every element has
a similar property
 In this rule, x must not appear as a free variable.
Example: Let's represent, P(c): "A byte contains 8 bits",
so for ∀ x P(x) "All bytes contain 8 bits.",
it will also be true.
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 Inference in First Order Logic
Universal Instantiation
• Universal instantiation is also called as universal elimination or UI is a
valid inference rule. It can be applied multiple times to add new
sentences.
• The new KB is logically equivalent to the previous KB.
• As per UI, we can infer any sentence obtained by substituting a ground
term for the variable.
• The UI rule state that we can infer any sentence P(c) by substituting a
ground term c (a constant within domain x) from ∀ x P(x) for any
object in the universe of discourse.

Example:
• IF "Every person like ice-cream"=> ∀x P(x)
so we can infer that "John likes ice-cream" => P(c)
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 Inference in First Order Logic

∀x king(x) ∧ greedy (x) → Evil (x)

we can infer any of the following statements using Universal Instantiation:
1. King(John) ∧ Greedy (John) → Evil (John),
2. King(Richard) ∧ Greedy (Richard) → Evil (Richard),
3. King(Father(John)) ∧ Greedy (Father(John)) → Evil (Father(John))

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 Inference in First Order Logic
Existential Instantiation
• Existential instantiation is also called as Existential Elimination, which is a
valid inference rule in first-order logic.
• It can be applied only once to replace the existential sentence.
• The new KB is not logically equivalent to old KB, but it will be satisfiable if
old KB was satisfiable.
• This rule states that one can infer P(c) from the formula given in the form of ∃x
P(x) for a new constant symbol c.
• The restriction with this rule is that c used in the rule must be a new term for
which P(c ) is true.

Example:
∃x Crown(x) ∧ OnHead(x, John)
can infer:
Crown(K) ∧ OnHead( K, John), as long as K does not appear in the knowledge
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base
 Inference in First Order Logic
Existential Introduction
• An existential introduction is also known as an existential
generalization, which is a valid inference rule in first-order
logic
• This rule states that if there is some element c in the universe
of discourse which has a property P, then we can infer that
there exists something in the universe which has the property P

Example:
Priyanka got good marks in English
Can infer someone got good marks in English
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 Inference in First Order Logic
Paramodulation
From P(a) and a=b derive P(b)
Generalized Modus Ponens
P implies Q and P is asserted to be true, therefore Q
must be True."
According to Modus Ponens,
for atomic sentences pi, pi', q.
Where there is a substitution θ such that
SUBST (θ, pi',) = SUBST(θ, pi)
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 Inference in First Order Logic

• Generalized Modus Ponens (GMP)

• Combines And-Introduction, Universal-Elimination, and Modus Ponens
• E.g.:
from P(c), Q(c), and (Ax)(P(x) ^ Q(x)) => R(x), derive R(c)

• In general, given atomic sentences P1, P2, ..., PN, and

• implication sentence (Q1 ^ Q2 ^ ... ^ QN) => R, where Q1, ..., QN and R
are atomic sentences, and
• subst(Theta, Pi) = subst(Theta, Qi) for i=1,...,N,
• derive new sentence: subst(Theta, R)
• Substitutions are made in left-to-right order in the list.
• E.g.:
subst({x/IceCream, y/Ziggy}, eats(y,x)) = eats(Ziggy,
IceCream)
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 Inference in First Order Logic

• Generalized Modus Ponens (GMP) is complete for KBs

containing only Horn clauses

• A Horn clause is a sentence of the form:

(∀x) (P1(x) ^ P2(x) ^ ... ^ Pn(x)) => Q(x)

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