Heat and Mass Transfer, 3rd Edition

Yunus A. Cengel
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2007

CHAPTER 8
INTERNAL FORCED
CONVECTION

Prof. Dr. Ali PINARBAŞI

Yildiz Technical University
Mechanical Engineering Department
Yildiz, ISTANBUL

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Objectives
• Obtain average velocity from a knowledge of velocity profile, and average
temperature from a knowledge of temperature profile in internal flow,

• Have a visual understanding of different flow regions in internal flow, and

calculate hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths

• Analyze heating and cooling of a fluid flowing in a tube under constant

surface temperature and constant surface heat flux conditions, and work
with the logarithmic mean temperature difference

• Obtain analytic relations for the velocity profile, pressure drop, friction
factor, and Nusselt number in fully developed laminar flow, and

• Determine the friction factor and Nusselt number in fully developed

turbulent flow using empirical relations, and calculate the heat transfer
rate.

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 INTRODUCTION
• Liquid or gas flow through pipes or ducts is commonly used in heating and
cooling applications and fluid distribution networks.
• The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow by a fan or pump
through a flow section.
• We pay particular attention to friction, which is directly related to the pressure
drop and head loss during flow through pipes and ducts.
• The pressure drop is then used to determine the pumping power requirement.

Circular pipes can withstand large pressure differences

between the inside and the outside without undergoing any
3 significant distortion, but noncircular pipes cannot.
 Theoretical solutions are obtained only for a few simple cases such as
fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe.
Therefore, we must rely on experimental results and empirical
relations for most fluid flow problems rather than closed-form
analytical solutions.
The value of the average velocity Vavg at
some streamwise cross-section is
determined from the requirement that
the conservation of mass principle be
satisfied
The average
velocity for
incompressible flow
in a circular pipe of
radius R

Average velocity Vavg is defined

as the average speed through a
cross section. For fully
developed laminar pipe flow, Vavg
is half of the maximum velocity.
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 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR PIPE FLOW
Liquid or gas flow through pipes or ducts is commonly used in practice in heating
and cooling applications. The fluid is forced to flow by a fan or pump through a
conduit that is sufficiently long to accomplish the desired heat transfer.

Transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the Reynolds number as well
as the degree of disturbance of the flow by surface roughness, pipe vibrations, and
the fluctuations in the flow.

The flow in a pipe is laminar for Re < 2300, fully turbulent for Re > 10,000, and
transitional in between.

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 the mean temperature of a fluid with constant density and specific heat
flowing in a circular pipe of radius R

The fluid properties in internal flow are usually evaluated at the bulk mean fluid
temperature, which is the arithmetic average of the mean temperatures at the inlet
and the exit: Tb = (Tm, i + Tm, e)/2

Actual and idealized temperature

6 profiles for flow in a tube
 For flow through noncircular pipes, the Reynolds
number is based on the hydraulic diameter

For flow in a circular pipe:

In the transitional flow region of 2300 £ Re The hydraulic diameter Dh = 4Ac/p

£ 10,000, the flow switches between is defined such that it reduces to
7 laminar and turbulent seemingly randomly. ordinary diameter for circular tubes.
 THE ENTRANCE REGION
Velocity boundary layer: The region of the flow in which the effects of the viscous
shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt.

Boundary layer region: The viscous effects and the velocity changes are significant.

Irrotational (core) flow region: The frictional effects are negligible and the velocity
remains essentially constant in the radial direction.

The development of the velocity boundary layer in a pipe. The developed

average velocity profile is parabolic in laminar flow, but somewhat flatter or
8 fuller in turbulent flow.
 Thermal Entrance Region
Thermal entrance region: The thermal boundary layer develops and reaches the
tube center.

Thermal entry length: The length of this region.

Thermally developing flow: Flow in the thermal entrance region. This is the region
where the temperature profile develops.

Thermally fully developed region: The region beyond the thermal entrance region
in which the dimensionless temperature profile remains unchanged.

Fully developed flow: The flow is both hydrodynamically and thermally developed.

9 The development of the thermal boundary layer in a tube.

 Hydrodynamically fully developed:

Thermally fully developed:

In the thermally fully developed region of a

tube, the local convection coefficient is constant
Therefore, both the friction and convection
coefficients remain constant in the fully
developed region of a tube.
The pressure drop and heat flux are higher in
the entrance regions of a tube, and the effect of Variation of the friction factor
the entrance region is always to increase the and the convection heat
average friction factor and heat transfer transfer coefficient in the flow
coefficient for the entire tube. direction for flow in a tube
10 (Pr>1).
 Entry Lengths

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 • The Nusselt numbers and thus h values are much higher in the entrance
region.
• The Nusselt number reaches a constant value at a distance of less than
10 diameters, and thus the flow can be assumed to be fully developed
for x > 10D.
• The Nusselt numbers for the uniform surface temperature and uniform
surface heat flux conditions are identical in the fully developed regions,
12 and nearly identical in the entrance regions.
 GENERAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
Rate of heat transfer
The thermal conditions at the surface can
be approximated to be
Surface heat flux (Ts= const) (qs = const)
The constant surface temperature
condition is realized when a phase
hx the local heat transfer coefficient change process such as boiling or
condensation occurs at the outer surface
of a tube.

The constant surface heat flux condition is

realized when the tube is subjected to
radiation or electric resistance heating
uniformly from all directions.

We may have either Ts=constant or qs=

The heat transfer to a fluid flowing in a constant at the surface of a tube, but not
tube is equal to the increase in the both.
energy of the fluid.
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 Constant Surface Heat Flux (qs = constant)
Rate of heat transfer:

Mean fluid temperature at the tube exit:

Surface temperature:

Variation of the tube surface and

the mean fluid temperatures
along the tube for the case of
14 constant surface heat flux.
 Energy interactions for a
differential control volume
in a tube.

The shape of the temperature profile

remains unchanged in the fully
developed region of a tube subjected
to constant surface heat flux.
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 Constant Surface Temperature (Ts = constant)
Rate of heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing in a tube

Two suitable ways of expressing DTavg

• arithmetic mean temperature difference
• logarithmic mean temperature difference
Arithmetic mean temperature difference

Bulk mean fluid temperature: Tb = (Ti + Te)/2

By using arithmetic mean temperature difference, we assume that the mean

fluid temperature varies linearly along the tube, which is hardly ever the case
when Ts = constant.
This simple approximation often gives acceptable results, but not always.
Therefore, we need a better way to evaluate DTavg.
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 The variation of the mean fluid
temperature along the tube for the
case of constant temperature.
Integrating from x = 0 (tube inlet,
Tm = Ti) to x = L (tube exit, Tm = Te)
Energy interactions for a differential
control volume in a tube.

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 logarithmic mean temperature difference

NTU: Number of transfer units. A measure of

the effectiveness of the heat transfer systems.

For NTU = 5, Te = Ts, and the limit for heat

transfer is reached.

A small value of NTU indicates more

opportunities for heat transfer.
An NTU greater than 5 indicates
DTln is an exact representation of the average that the fluid flowing in a tube will
temperature difference between the fluid and reach the surface temperature at
the surface. the exit regardless of the inlet
temperature.
When DTe differs from DTi by no more than
40%, the error in using the arithmetic mean
temperature difference is less than 1 %.
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 LAMINAR FLOW IN TUBES

19
 Pressure Drop

Laminar flow:

Pressure loss:

Darcy friction factor

head loss

Horizontal tube:

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 Temperature Profile and the Nusselt Number

The differential volume

element used in the derivation
of energy balance relation.

The rate of net energy transfer to the control

volume by mass flow is equal to the net rate
of heat conduction in the radial direction.
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 Constant Surface Heat Flux

Applying the boundary conditions ¶T/¶x = 0 at r = 0 (because of symmetry)

and T=Ts at r = R

Circular tube, laminar (𝑞̇ s =constant):

Therefore, for fully developed laminar flow in a circular tube subjected to

constant surface heat flux, the Nusselt number is a constant.
There is no dependence on the Reynolds or the Prandtl numbers.
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 Constant Surface Temperature

The thermal conductivity k for use in the Nu relations should be evaluated at the
bulk mean fluid temperature.
For laminar flow, the effect of surface roughness on the friction factor and the
heat transfer coefficient is negligible.

Laminar Flow in Noncircular

Tubes
Nusselt number relations are given in
the table for fully developed laminar
flow in tubes of various cross sections.
The Reynolds and Nusselt numbers
for flow in these tubes are based on
In laminar flow in a tube with constant the hydraulic diameter Dh = 4Ac/p,
surface temperature, both the friction
factor and the heat transfer coefficient Once the Nusselt number is available,
remain constant in the fully developed the convection heat transfer coefficient
region. is determined from h = kNu/Dh.
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24
 Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region
For a circular tube of length L subjected to constant surface temperature,
the average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region:

The average Nusselt number is larger at the entrance region, and it

approaches asymptotically to the fully developed value of 3.66 as L → ¥.

When the difference between the surface and the fluid temperatures is large,
it may be necessary to account for the variation of viscosity with temperature:
All properties are evaluated at the bulk
mean fluid temperature, except for µs, which
is evaluated at the surface temperature.

The average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region of

flow between isothermal parallel plates of length L is

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 TURBULENT FLOW IN TUBES
First Petukhov equation

Chilton–Colburn analogy

Colburn equation

Dittus–Boelter equation

When the variation in properties is large due to a large temperature difference

All properties are evaluated at Tb except µs, which is evaluated at Ts.

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 Second Petukhov equation

Gnielinski relation

For liquid metals (0.004< Pr < 0.01), the following relations are recommended by
Sleicher and Rouse for 104< Re <106:

In turbulent flow, wall roughness increases the heat transfer coefficient h by a

factor of 2 or more. The convection heat transfer coefficient for rough tubes can
be calculated approximately from Gnielinski relation or Chilton–Colburn analogy
by using the friction factor determined from the Moody chart or the Colebrook
equation.

The relations above are not very sensitive to the thermal conditions at the tube
surfaces and can be used for both Ts = constant and qs = constant.
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 The Moody Chart
Colebrook equation (for
The friction factor in fully developed turbulent smooth and rough pipes)
pipe flow depends on the Reynolds number
and the relative roughness e /D.
Explicit Haaland equation

The friction factor is minimum for a smooth

31 pipe and increases with roughness.
 The Moody Chart
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 Developing Turbulent Flow in the Entrance Region
The entry lengths for turbulent flow are typically short, often just 10 tube
diameters long, and thus the Nusselt number determined for fully developed
turbulent flow can be used approximately for the entire tube.
This simple approach gives reasonable results for pressure drop and heat
transfer for long tubes and conservative results for short ones.
Correlations for the friction and heat transfer coefficients for the entrance regions
are available in the literature for better accuracy.

Turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes

Pressure drop and heat transfer
characteristics of turbulent flow in tubes are
dominated by the very thin viscous sublayer
next to the wall surface, and the shape of the
core region is not of much significance.
The turbulent flow relations given above for
circular tubes can also be used for In turbulent flow, the velocity
noncircular tubes with reasonable accuracy profile is nearly a straight line in
by replacing the diameter D in the evaluation the core region, and any
of the Reynolds number by the hydraulic significant velocity gradients occur
diameter Dh = 4Ac/p. in the viscous sublayer.
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 Flow through Tube Annulus
The hydraulic diameter of annulus

For laminar flow, the convection coefficients for the inner and the outer surfaces
are determined from

Tube surfaces are often roughened,

corrugated, or finned in order to
enhance convection heat transfer.
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 For fully developed turbulent flow, hi and ho are approximately equal to each
other, and the tube annulus can be treated as a noncircular duct with a
hydraulic diameter of Dh = Do − Di.

The Nusselt number can be determined from a suitable turbulent flow relation
such as the Gnielinski equation. To improve the accuracy, Nusselt number can
be multiplied by the following correction factors when one of the tube walls is
adiabatic and heat transfer is through the other wall:

35
 Hot air at atmospheric pressure and 85°C enters a 10-m-long uninsulated square
duct of cross section 0.15 m x 0.15 m that passes through the attic of a house at
a rate of 0.10 m3/s. The duct is observed to be nearly isothermal at 70°C.
Determine the exit temperature of the air and the rate of heat loss from the
duct to the air space in the attic.

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 Characteristic lenght of the channel (hydraulic diameter-Dh)

Calculated Reynods number >10.000 Flow turbulent

Fully developed

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41
 Heat Transfer Enhancement
Tubes with rough surfaces have much
higher heat transfer coefficients than tubes
with smooth surfaces.

Heat transfer in turbulent flow in a tube has

been increased by as much as 400 percent
by roughening the surface. Roughening the
surface, of course, also increases the
friction factor and thus the power
requirement for the pump or the fan.

The convection heat transfer coefficient

can also be increased by inducing
pulsating flow by pulse generators, by Tube surfaces are often
inducing swirl by inserting a twisted tape roughened, corrugated, or finned
into the tube, or by inducing secondary in order to enhance convection
flows by coiling the tube. heat transfer.

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 SUMMARY

General Considerations for Pipe Flow

• Thermal Entrance Region, Entry Lengths
General Thermal Analysis
• Constant Surface Heat Flux
• Constant Surface Temperature
Laminar Flow in Tubes
• Constant Surface Heat Flux, Constant Surface Temperature
• Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes, Developing Laminar Flow in the
Entrance Region
Turbulent Flow in Tubes
• Developing Turbulent Flow in the Entrance Region,
• Turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes
• Flow through Tube Annulus, Heat Transfer Enhancement

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