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Cross Sectional Elements of Railway Track

Engr. S. A. Ghafar BUITEMS

Lecture: 04
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POINTS AND CROSSINGS

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Railway Points and Crossings

Turnouts:
A combination of points and crossings by manipulation
of which train from one track may be diverted to another
track or branch line or to siding is known as Turnouts.

– The switch consists of the pair

of linked tapering rails, known
as points (switch rails or point
blades), lying between the
diverging outer rails (the stock
rails).

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 The points (switch

rails or point blades) are
the movable rails which
guide the wheels towards
either the straight or the
diverging track. They are
tapered on most switches.

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 The frog, also known as the common crossing (or K-

Rail in Australian terminology), refers to the crossing
point of two rails. This can be assembled out of several
appropriately cut and bent pieces of rail or can be a
single casting of manganese steel.
 The frog is designed to ensure the wheel crosses the
gap in the rail without "dropping" into the gap; the
wheel and rail profile ensures that the wheel is always
supported by at least one rail.
 To ensure that the wheels follow the appropriate flange
way, a check-rail ("guard rail" North American
terminology) is installed inside the rail opposite the
frog

 A points lever, ground throw,

or switch stand is a lever and
accompanying linkages that
are used to align the points of
a switch manually. This lever
and its accompanying
hardware is usually mounted
to a pair of long sleepers that
extend from the switch at the
points.

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Crossing types

 Apart from the standard right-hand

and left-hand switches, switches
commonly come in various
combinations of configurations.
 These can be found anywhere but the
trend is to make layouts as simple as
possible in order to reduce installation
and maintenance costs. The more
complex layouts are usually only used
where space is limited.

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Turnout Motors
 In some parts of the US. electro-pneumatic
point machines are used. They are referred
to as switch motors. The London
Underground also used e.p. motors. They
require an air main to be laid alongside the
track and compressors to supply the
air. They can also cause problems with
condensation due to climatic changes. This
photo also shows a heater used to keep the
turnout blades free of ice and snow during
bad weather.
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The switch motor also includes electrical contacts to

detect that the switch has completely set and locked. If the
switch fails to do this, the governing signal is kept at red
(stop). There is also usually some kind of manual handle
for operating the switch in emergencies, such as power
failures.

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RAILWAY POINTS AND CROSSINGS

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TYPES

1. Wear on head of rail

2. Wear on ends of rail

3. Wear of rail on curve

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WEAR ON HEAD OF RAIL

 Wear on head of rail is due to abrasion on

moving rails.

 Due to grinding action of sand or dust

between the rails and wheels of the train.

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 When train starts or applies brakes, the wheel just slides on the rails
causing wear on the head.

 Load coming on to a track may exceed the carrying capacity of the

section. Thus causing the wear in the head of rail.

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DEFECTS IN RAILS

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WEAR AT THE ENDS OF THE RAIL

 It is much greater than the wear on the head of the rail.

 This type of the wear is resulted due to the blows which the
rail receive when the wheel jumps the space between the rail
ends.
 The ends are battered by such blows.
 The contact surface between the sleepers and the rail is
worn as the as the effect of these blows increased.

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LACK OF MAINTENANCE -- The

problems in this piece of track
include track that is badly out of
alignment,
cross-level across the rails is bad,
less visible but significant are many
rotted ties, consecutive ties missing
spikes and loose joint bars. Also
note the brush and lack of adequate
drainage. Ballast was marginal
with evidence of mud having
leeched up at some joints.

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HEAD WORN RAIL --

The rail on the left
side of the joint has
a worn head. It is
obvious when
looking at the top left
of the joint bar. The
lip of the joint bar is
rolled down and torn
by the flanges of
passing cars actually
riding on the flange
instead of the rail
head. This rail dates
to about 1930.

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RAIL END BREAK --

This rail broke
out through a bolt
hole. It happened to be
on the field side of a
curve and was an
invitation for a
derailment.

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SUN KINK -- Here's one of the fabled sun kinks that literally
shifted the entire track towards a parallel track. The cause
was unanchored rail, and cinder ballast that could not
hold track on a particularly hot and sunny day.

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WEAR OF RAIL ON CURVE

 On the curve the wear of the

rail takes place in both
inner and outer rails.

 On the curve, the outer

wheel has to move through
greater distance than the
inner wheel. And the inner
wheel has to slide over the
inner rail. Curved Crossing

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Coning of the Wheel on the Rail

 Railway wheels sit on the rails without guidance

except for the shape of the tyre in relation to the
rail head. Contrary to popular belief, the flanges
should not touch the rails. Flanges are only a last
resort to prevent the wheels becoming derailed -
they're a safety feature. The wheel tyre is coned
and the rail head slightly curved as shown in the
following diagram (Fig 1). The rails are also set at
an inward angle.

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 Ideally, the wheel profile should be determined by agreement

between the railway infrastructure owner and the rolling stock
owner. Of course, it varies from place to place but it is rarely a
simple angle. It's usually a carefully calculated compound
form. With respect to the rail angle, in the UK for example, it is
set at 1 in 20 (1/20 or 0.05). In the US and France it's usually at
1/40. Light rail systems operating over roadways will have
special profiles.

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On curved track, the outer

wheel has a greater
distance to travel than the
inner wheel. To
compensate for this, the
wheel set moves sideways
in relation to the track so
that the larger tyre radius
on the inner edge of the
wheel is used on the outer
rail of the curve,

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Wheel
 As a result of this sliding
wear of the inner rail Slope 1:20
occur because the metal
in the rail head is burnt.

 At the curve, flange of

outer wheel will strike the
inner surface of the outer
wheel due to centrifugal
force. Thus side of the
head of rail wears out.
Flange of Wheel

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Measuring wear of rails

Rail wear is determine by

• By measuring the actual weight and
comparing it with the standard weight.
• Profile of worn out rail is compared with the
standard profile. The reduction in the cross-
sectional area compared to the original x-
sectional area to obtain % loss of weight.
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Rail Corrugations
• Sometimes due to defects in laying out of the track
or due to poor maintenance of the track, or due to
steep gradient resulting in sudden application of
brakes, the head of the rails develop a wavy surface.
Rails which develop this defect are called corrugated
rails.
• When train passes over such rails a roaring noise
is created and for this reason these rails are known
as roaring rails.

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Locations of Rail Corrugations

These defect generally develop in the following rails
locations
• At starting and termination point of the track due to
braking action.
• In long tunnels due to presence of humidity
• On yielding formations or rails laid on soft material
like brick ballast.
• The only remedy for rail corrugation is to grind the
corrugation with special machines.

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Hogging of Rails

• The battering action of the wheel over the ends of

the rails results in the rails getting bent and
deflected at the ends.
• The loose packing under the joint or the loose fish
plates are primarily responsible for the
development of this defect.

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Hogging of Rails
To rectify this defect any of the following may be
adopted
• Cutting of the end of the rail by power saw.
• Replacing the hogged rail by the new one.
(Uneconomical)
• The worn out ends of the rails may be improved
by welding.
• By use dehogging machine.

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Buckling of Rails
• When the expansion joint is inadequate or the joint is very
tight, free movement of the rails due to temperature changes
is prevented. This result in the rails gets buckled.
Remedial measures to prevent buckling
• Joint should not prevent expansion and contraction of
rails
• The surface of contact between fish plates and rails should
be lubricated.
• If rails are welded either steel sleepers should be provided
or rails should be properly anchored.

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Rail Failures

• Horizontal cracks- this defect occurs at the rail

ends where worn out fish plates are used for
joining or the ballast is not properly packed.
• The crack develops due to shearing stresses
at the critical section. i.e the junction between
rail head and web.

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• Horizontal Fissures- it is caused due to

defective rail head. The rail develop
horizontal crack.

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Rail Failures
• Split Web- this is horizontal crack between
the bolt holes in the web. It may
propagated from the strained bolt hole.
The crack may be horizontal or vertical
radiating from the bolt hole.
• Transverse Fissures- this is a
manufacturing defect. It starts from the
centre of head and spread round the head.

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• Flow Metals in head- rail head get

widened as the metal is forced out.

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Rail Failures

• Split Head- this is also a manufacturing defect

indicated by a crack on the top.
• Crushed Head- head get sagged or flattened. This is
due to skidding, slipping or due to weak end support.
• Square or angular crack- when rail breaks through a
vertical plane, the crack formed is known as square or
angular.
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SPLIT HEAD

SQUARE OR
43 ANGULAR CRACK

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CREEP OF RAILS

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CREEP OF RAILS

Definition:
It is a horizontal movement of rails in a track. It can
be minimized but cannot be stopped.

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Causes Of Creep

There are three main causes of Creep

1. Wave motion of trains.

2. Expansion and contraction of rails due to

variation in temperature.

3. Due to starting, accelerating, slowing down

(decelerating) and stopping of trains.

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Wave Motion

 When train passes on a track, the portion of rail length

under the wheel of train will under more stresses and
little depression will exist.
 As the wheels move, the depression move with them, the
previous depressed portion springing back to their original level.
This wave motion tends to move the rail forward with the train.

 As a result, this depression will cause (set) a wave motion

in the rail or track

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Direction Of Creep

Alignment Of Track:
Creep is more on curve track than on a tangent portion
(straight track).

Grades:
In upgrades tracks, creep will be less and in down grades
track creep will be more.

Direction of movement of trains:

Creep will be more in the direction to which the loaded
train moves more.

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Extent Of Creep
 Creep does not vary at some constant rate. (it is
not constant)

 Creep does not continue in one direction only.

 Creep for two rails of the track will not be in

equal amount.

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Result Of Creep

 Expansion gap is reduced, buckling of track take

place.

 Sleepers are moved out of a square.

 Crossing points get disturbed.

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 The pitch and depth of the waves is governed by

the condition of the formation, the stiffness of the
track, the weight of the rails, the spacing of the
sleepers, the quality and quantity of the ballast,
the condition of drainage and the standard of
maintenance.
 Creep is reduced by increased stiffness of the
track, stability of soil in formation and angular
ballast, which interlocks well and reduce wave
motion.

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• Alignment of Track - Creep is found to be greater on

the curves than on straights.
• Grade of Track – Creep is found to be more on the
down grade.
• Direction of the heaviest traffic- For places connected
to seaport, wagons are carrying more load. Creep is
found to be more in the direction heavier wagons are
moving.
• Condition of Formation – Creep is more in the newly
constructed formation.
• Weight of the rail section – Creep is found more in the
lighter section.

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Methods to correct Creep

• Pull Back Method

• Creep Anchors

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Pull Back Method

• The track to be pulled back is inspected and the extent of pulling
back necessary at various places is noted. The point from which to
start is also determined; usually the starting point is at widely
opened rail joints.
• Pulling back should be regulated in such a way that rail joints are
made central over the sleepers. It is not enough only to obtain only
the necessary expansion gaps but also position of one rail joint
relative to the joint on opposite side of the rail must also be
maintained.

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Pull Back Method

• Fish plates or fish bolts at one end of the rail are

removed and at the other end are loosened.
Fittings, which hold the rail with sleepers are also
made loose. The rail is then pushed backed by
using a lever rod.

• Mechanical devices are also used for this

purpose.

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Creep Anchors or Anti Creepers

• After pulling back, there is no guarantee that the rails will not
creep again. Infact, they start creeping immediately after
pulling back.
• Creep is prevented or reduced by devices known as anchors
or anti-creepers. Anchors are fastened to the foot of the rail by
means of spring grip and bear against the side of the
sleepers. When the rails tend to creep, they have to drag the
sleepers also through the ballast and the ballast offer sufficient
resistance to prevent the creep of rails.

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Number of Creep Anchors

• Minimum no = 2 in one rail panel

• Maximum no = 2 * No of sleepers in one
rail panel
• Creep anchors should resist the stresses
due to the creep of the rails.

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CREEP
ANCHORS

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Bearing Plates
• They are simply the metallic plates. They are placed
between the foot of the rail and sleepers, in-order to
minimize injury to the wooden sleeper.
Functions of Bearing Plates
• Protect the wooden sleeper
• Distribute the load over wider area of the wooden
sleeper
• Reduce the maintenance

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Bearing Plates

• The shape of the bearing plate is

rectangular, made of mild steel, cast
iron or wrought iron.
• The size of the bearing plate is 9” * 10
” * 3/8”.
• It has 4 holes for a spike.

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Rail Joints
A. Fish Plate Joints
B. Flash Butt Welding
C. Alumino Thermit Welding
D. Insulated Rail Joints
Rail mechanical joints have been used in the railway industry to improve
the lateral and vertical alignment of the rails at their ends.

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Rail Joints
A. Fish Plate Joints
As illustrated in the Figure, the normal rail joints consist
of fishplates that are bolted at the rail ends through a
number of bolt holes (either two or three or more) that
have been drilled near the neutral axis in the rail web.

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Fish Plates

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Rail Joints

B. Insulated Rail Joints

1. Bonded insulated joints in rails

separate electric circuits in tracks
and turnouts.

2. To provide track segment isolation

for the track circuitry passed through
the rail; this circuitry is used to
identify train locations and to control
signalling.

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Rail Joints
C. Alumino Thermit Welding

1. In this process, the highly exothermic reaction between

aluminium and iron oxides results in the production of
molten steel which is poured into a mould around the gap
to be welded.

2. “Thermit” is the trade name for one of the granular

mixtures of aluminium metal and powdered ferric oxide.
Ignition of the Thermit is usually carried out by lighting a
magnesium ribbon or sparkler.

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Rail Joints
In-Track Rail Welding (Tunnel) – Circle Line Project,
Singapore

• Rails are welded together to reclaim 18m of rail into

longer length strips.
• This can assist the track welding production with greater
productivity gains

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Fastenings

The fastening
of rails is
usually
taken care
of by the
fasteners
imbedded
into the
concrete.

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Train Fasteners

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Elastic Fastenings

Grooved rubber pads:

 Provided between rails and sleepers.
 It absorbs the shock.
 Resists lateral movement of the rail.
 Prevents abrasion of the bottom surface of rail.
 Laid in such a way that grooves are parallel to rail .

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Elastic Rail clip (Pandrol Clip)

 Fixed in Insert to hold the rail.

 Made from Spring Steel bar of 20.6 mm.
 Toe Load 900Kg to 1100 Kg (MKIII).
 On Fish plated Joint ‘J’ Clip can be used.
 Can be driven with ordinary 4 lbs hammer.
 Can be fixed on wooden,Steel, and Cast Iron
Sleepers with Special arrangement.

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Elastic Fastening

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Sleepers
• Rails in a railway track need support and
the greater the support, the lower are the
stresses induced in the rail.
• Sleepers are responsible for keeping the
two rails forming a track at an exact
distance apart.

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Functions of Sleepers
• Distribute the load over wider area of the ballast
• Keeps the two rail of the railway track to correct
gauge
• Sleepers are support to rails
• To act as an elastic medium between the ballast
and the rails to absorb the blows and vibrations
of the train.
• To help in the stability of the track as a whole

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Requirement of Sleepers
• It should last as long as possible in the
ground
• Have sufficient compressive strength to
resist rail pressure
• Have sufficient transverse strength to
resist breakage by centre binding
• Have hardness to resist rail abrasion

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Requirement of Sleepers

• Have the spike holding properly to resist

the tendency of the spikes to loosen owing
to vibrations (wooden)
• Resist attack by white ants or vermin
(wooden)
• Sleepers should be cheap

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Types of Sleepers
• Longitudinal Sleeper
•Cross Sleeper / Transverse Sleepers
Longitudinal Sleepers
• Sleepers originally consisted of slabs of
stone or pieces of timber laid under the
rails longitudinally.
• The cross pieces were provided at
intervals to maintain correct gauge of the
track.

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Why Longitudinal Sleepers are

discarded
• Running is rough
• Noise produced by the track is great
• Uneconomical i.e large section is
required to be placed under the rail to
support, so cost increase.
• Secondly, as additional timber is
required to hold the two longitudinal
timber to correct gauge.

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Transverse Sleepers / Cross Sleepers

• were first introduced in 1835

• Now used universally.
• They remove all the defect of
longitudinal sleepers
• They are placed at right angles to the
rails

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TYPES OF Transverse Sleepers /

Cross Sleepers

Depending upon the construction material

• Wooden Sleeper
• Steel Sleeper
• Cast Iron Sleeper
• Concrete Sleeper
• Composite Sleepers

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Wooden Sleepers

• Timber is an ideal material, which fulfills all

requirements for making the sleepers.
• Soft wood sleepers have less life as
compare to hard wood sleepers.

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Wooden Sleepers

• In case using soft wood for sleepers,

give treatment to it.
• Soft wood sleepers become
unserviceable earlier than hard wood, as
the foot of flat footed rail cuts into the soft
wood easily.
• This defect is reduced, by using a steel
or cast iron bearing plate between the
rail and the sleeper.

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Laying Of Wooden Sleepers

• As far as possible, only treated sleepers should
be used in the track.
• For treated sleepers, sap wood absorbs more
creosote and is therefore more resistant to
vermin and fungus attack and is therefore
placed downward and the heart wood side is
kept upwards.
• For untreated sleepers, they should be laid with
the sap wood laid upwards and heart wood
downwards side as it is more resistant to the
attack of fungus.

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Seasoning of wooden sleepers

• A living tree contains juices known as sap,

and after the tree is cut the sap has to be
dried before using the timber. This is
known as seasoning. Unless sap is
removed, the sleeper tends to twist, bend,
warp and decay. Seasoning of timber is
done by
• Natural seasoning
• Artificial or kiln Seasoning

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Care of Wooden Sleepers

• Splitting of sleeper at the ends can be avoided if the
sleepers are bolted, clamped or tied with wire.
• Wooden sleepers should be stacked on a well drained plot
of ground which should be clear of all the vegetation for at
least one foot all around the stack and in such a manner
that a free circulation of air all around. The top of the stack
should be covered with a thin layer of soil is put at the top
to protect the sleeper from direct rays of sun on the sleeper
and to mitigate the fire from the sparks of locomotives. .

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Care of Wooden Sleepers

• Care is to be exercised in driving spikes for holding
the rail to the sleeper.
• The spike must be held and driven vertically,
otherwise the gauge will be affected.
• The spikes are driven into the bored holes.
• The boring of the holes should also be done
accurately otherwise spike will not be in correct
position.

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Care of Wooden Sleepers

• The rail gradually cuts into the sleeper,
particularly where heavy axle loads are used and
the sleeper becomes unserviceable through such
wear.
• Bearing plates if used between rail and sleepers,
distribute the load from the rails to the sleeper and
prevent crushing of sleeper.
• Bearing plates extend the life of the sleeper by
as much as 30 %.
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Mechanical Preparation

• In order to obtain the cant of 1 in 20 for the rails,

wooden sleepers are adzed.

• Accurate adzing is essential otherwise the track

will ride rough due to cant varying from sleeper
to sleeper.

• Where canted bearing plates are used, sleepers

do not have to be adzed.

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Standard Size Of Wooden Sleepers

• For Broad Gauge 9’  10” * 5”

• For Meter Gauge 6’  8” * 4.5”

• For Narrow Gauge 5’  7” * 4.5”

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Life of Wooden Sleeper

Factors that affect the service life of the

sleepers are
• Type of wood used
• Seasoning
• Treatment
• Climatic condition
• Axle loads
• Handling Conditions
• Location of sleeper on track

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Merits and Demerits Of Wooden Sleepers

• Connection of foot of the rail with the

sleeper is simple.
• Easy to handle
• Can be obtained in any size
• Wooden sleepers have good vibration
absorbing capacity
• In case of derailment the damage to
wooden sleeper is less

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Merits and Demerits Of Wooden Sleepers

• Scrap value is negligible.

• They are easily liable to attack by weather

and vermin, hence there life is less.

• Susceptible to fire.

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Steel Sleepers
 Steel sleepers are in the form of shallow inverted trough/
channel with special fittings to hold the foot of the rail with
sleepers.
 The ends of the sleepers are bent down to prevent /
stop the ballast from running out.
 Pressed up lugs/ jaws are provided to hold the rail in
position.

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100

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Steel Sleepers

There are two distinct types of steel sleepers

• Wedges/ keys
• Clips and bolts

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STEEL TROUGH SLEEPERS

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STEEL SLEEPERS WITH LOOSE

JAWS

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103

STEEL SLEEPERS WITH

PRESSED UP LUGS & KEYS

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Advantages and disadvantages Of

Steel Sleepers
• Connection of the foot of the rail with the sleeper
is more stronger
• Steel sleeper keep better alignment of the track
• Maintenance is less
• It gives better lateral rigidity
• Life is longer. Service life is about 50 years.
• It gets easily corroded so it should not be used
in moist climates.

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Cast Iron Sleepers

• Cast iron sleepers are in the form of pots / plates

connected by means of tie bars.
• The pots or bowls and the plates are fixed, one
under each rail and they are held together with
the tie bar.
• The pots are either circular or oval shaped, the
larger diameter being 2’ and smaller diameter
being 1’-8”.
• The oval shape is better than the round shape
particularly at rail joints where closer spacing is
required.

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CAST IRON POT SLEEPERS

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Cast Iron Sleepers

• Tie bars either extend to the outer edges of the pots
or plates or end a little beyond the rail seat.

• Long tie bars are preferable as they counteract the

tendency of the pot to tilt inward under load.
• Tie bars are fixed to the pots with various
fittings.

• Plate sleepers consist of rectangular plates with

projecting ribs under the plates for lateral stability.
• The plates are held in position with tie bars.

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CI Plate Type

109 Tie Bars

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11
110

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Advantages and Disadvantages

• Cast iron sleepers possess considerable

scrap value.
• Cast iron sleeper requires a number of
fitting than any other type of sleeper and
these are liable to break if not handled
carefully.
• Since CI is brittle material, damage is
substantial in case of derailment

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Concrete Sleeper

• Through Reinforced Concrete Sleeper

• Composite Block and Tie Sleeper
• Prestressed Concrete Sleepers

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Concrete Sleeper

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Advantages of Concrete Sleepers

• They have longer life, useful life is 40-50 years
• Weight about 3 times heavier than wooden
sleeper
• Concrete sleeper provide more stability to track
• No corrosion no decay
• Concrete sleeper are better for the alignment of
track
• Maintenance is less and easy to manufacture

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SLEEPER DENSITY
• Sleeper density is a number indicating
number of sleepers per rail length
• It is expressed as m+x
• For Metric system
– m = length of rail in meter
– x – number
• For FPS system n + x
– n – no of yards per rail length
– x – number

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SLEEPER DENSITY
• Depends upon
– Axle load and speed
– Type of rail section
– Nature of ballast
– Type and length of sleepers
– Nature of formation

116

116

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Spacing between Sleepers

117

117

11
118

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SLEEPER DENSITY
• First two to three sleepers close to the
joints are placed at closer spacing and
afterwards they are equally spaced.
• The stiffness of track increases
– By increasing the weight of rail
– By increasing sleeper per rail
• In Pakistan, sleeper density varies from
n+3 to n + 6

119

Depth of Ballast Section

• For sake of simplicity the load dispersal
may be assumed as 45 to the vertical.
• The depth of the ballast should be such
that the dispersion line donot over lap.
• For even distribution the following formula
is used

Sleeper spacing = width of sleeper + 2 x depth of

ballast
120

120

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SLEEPER SPACING
DEPTH OF
BALLAST
25 cm 25 cm SECTION
40 cm

13 cm

20 cm

Sleeper spacing = width of sleeper + 2 x depth of

ballast
121

121

61