3

Communication
Skills and
Academic
Reporting I

Editors

Prof.Dr. Gül DURMUŞOĞLU KÖSE

Asst.Prof.Dr. Gonca SUBAŞI

Authors

Research Asst. Musa TÖMEN

CHAPTER 1, 8 Lecturer Dr. Buğra KAŞ

CHAPTER 2, 3
Asst.Prof.Dr. Samet TAŞÇI

CHAPTER 4, 5
Asst.Prof.Dr. Yusuf ÖZTÜRK

CHAPTER 6, 7
Lecturer Dr. Yiğit SAVURAN
 T.C. ANADOLU UNIVERSITY PUBLICATION NO: 4285
OPEN EDUCATION FACULTY PUBLICATION NO: 3051

Copyright © 2022 by Anadolu University

All rights reserved.
This publication is designed and produced based on “Distance Teaching” techniques. No part of this
book may be reproduced or stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means
of mechanical, electronic, photocopy, magnetic tape, or otherwise, without the written permission of
Anadolu University.

Instructional Designer
Research Asst. Dr. Bilal Saraç

Graphic and Cover Design

Prof.Dr. Halit Turgay Ünalan

Proofreading
Lecturer Neslihan Aydemir

Assessment Editor
Gürcan Alpaslan

Graphic Designers
Ayşegül Dibek
Gülşah Karabulut

Typesetting and Composition

Diğdem Aydın
Handan Atman
Gizem Dalmış
Yasin Özkır
Süreyya Çelik
Gözde Soysever
Dilek Özbek
Saner Coşkun

COMMUNICATION SKILLS AND ACADEMIC REPORTING I

E-ISBN
978-975-06-4319-4

All rights of this book belong to Anadolu University.

Eskişehir, Republic of Turkey, May 2022
3567-0-0-0-2209-V01
 Contents

Reading for a Basic Reading

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2
Purpose Strategies I

Introduction ................................................... 3 Introduction ................................................... 31
Reading for a Purpose ................................... 3 Reading Strategy 1: Previewing and
Text Types ...................................................... 5 Predicting ....................................................... 31
Factual Texts ......................................... 6 Reading Strategy 2: Skimming ..................... 34
Literary Texts  ....................................... 6 Skimming for Main Ideas  .................... 34
Using Dictionary ............................................ 14 Skimming for Structure or
Types of Dictionaries  ........................... 15 Organisation  ......................................... 37
Identifying The Audience ............................. 17 Skimming for Tone or
Summary Paragraph ............................. 18 Intention of the Author ........................ 39
Analysis Paragraph ................................ 19 Identifying Keywords  ................................... 40
Synthesis Paragraph ............................. 20 Steps of Active Reading  ............................... 42
Evaluation Paragraph ........................... 20 General Practice 1 .......................................... 42
Electronic Sources  (Assessing Internet General Practice 2  ......................................... 45
Sources Critically) .......................................... 22 General Practice 3  ......................................... 49
Authority  .............................................. 22 Academic Vocabulary  ................................... 52
Accuracy ................................................. 23
Objectivity  ............................................ 23
Currency ................................................. 23
Coverage ................................................ 23
Further Challenges ................................ 23
Academic Vocabulary .................................... 24

Basic Reading
CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 Reading Critically
Strategies II

Introduction ................................................... 61 Introduction ................................................... 93
Reading Strategy 1: Scanning ....................... 61 Activating Background Knowledge ............. 93
Scanning Alphabetical List ................... 63 Finding Key Words in a Text  ....................... 94
Scanning Indexes ................................... 64 Finding Main Ideas  ....................................... 94
Scanning Schedules ............................... 65 Making Inferences ......................................... 95
Scanning Charts, Graphs, and Tables .... 66 Note-Making  ................................................. 96
Reading Strategy 2: Reading For Detailed Ideas Map ....................................................... 97
Information  ................................................... 71
Understanding Organisation ........................ 76
General Practice 1 .......................................... 77
Academic Vocabulary .................................... 83

iii
CHAPTER 5 Paraphrasing CHAPTER 6 Summarising

Introduction ................................................... 121 Introduction ................................................... 143

What is Paraphrasing? .................................. 121 Stages of Summarising .................................. 143
Five Steps for Paraphrasing .......................... 121 Stage I: Pre-Reading: Looking for
Read it Several Times ............................ 122 the Clues ................................................ 143
Note Down the Key Concepts ............. 122 Stage II. Reading for Main Ideas .......... 147
Write Your Own Version ...................... 123 Stage III. Making Notes ........................ 149
Compare the Texts ................................ 123 Stage IV. Deciding on the Audience
Cite the Source ...................................... 124 and Style ................................................ 154
Five Techniques for Paraphrasing ................ 125 Stage V. Checking and Organisation ....... 156
Synonyms .............................................. 126 Characteristics of a Good Summary ............ 159
Use a Different Word Form ................. 126 Basic Structures for Summary Writing........ 163
Change from Active to Passive ............ 127 Academic Vocabulary for Summary
Change the Word Order ....................... 128 Writing ........................................................... 166
Combine Several Techniques (for
best results) ........................................... 129
How Not to Paraphrase ................................ 131
Do not Simply Replace Words with
Random Synonyms ............................... 131
Do not Copy and Paste ......................... 131
Do not Forget to Cite ........................... 132
Plagiarism ....................................................... 132
Academic Vocabulary ........................... 133

Rewriting,
Paragraph Proofreading,
CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8
Writing Avoiding
Plagiarism
Introduction ................................................... 179 Introduction ................................................... 203
Structure of a Paragraph  ............................. 179 What is Rewriting?  ...................................... 203
Topic Sentence ...................................... 179 How to rewrite a sentence/text?  ....... 204
Supporting Sentences ........................... 181 What is Proofreading?  ................................. 206
Concluding Sentence ............................ 182 Before Proofreading ............................. 207
Cohesion and Referring Expressions ............ 184 During Proofreading  ............................ 207
Referring Expressions - Pronouns ....... 185 Correction Code  .................................... 208
Referring Expressions - This & that  .... 186 Effects of Error Correction Codes
Referring Expressions – It as a on Students  ........................................... 209
Dummy Subject  .................................... 186 A Sample Table of Error Correction
Coherence and Paragraph Unity .................. 187 Codes ...................................................... 209
Discourse Markers in Writing ...................... 190 Plagiarism Check Websites ........................... 213
What is Plagiarism? .............................. 213
Results of Plagiarism  ............................ 213
Types of Plagiarism  .............................. 213
Ways of Avoiding Plagiarism ............... 216
Tools for Plagiarism Check ................... 218
Academic Vocabulary............................ 220

Answer Key .................................................... 228

iv
Preface

Dear Students and Readers,

Welcome to the world of academic writing and As its name suggests “Paraphrasing”, Chapter 5
reporting! This is the first volume resource book identifies one of the important and frequently
of a two-volume textbook on Communication used tools in academic writing, paraphrasing,
Skills and Academic Reporting which is prepared by revealing its various steps and techniques.
to be used in the open and distance education The golden principles for “dos and don’ts
programs of Anadolu University. of paraphrasing” are also included in this
chapter. Plagiarism, as a significant notion in
In this first volume, we aimed at giving the
academic reporting, takes place at the end of
main principles and strategies to produce a well-
the present chapter. Here, the borderlines of
written academic text. We also tried to show the
plagiarism, in other words, “what is and what
close relationship between reading and writing to
is not plagiarism” are clearly defined. Chapter
help you improve both your reading and writing
6 entitled “Summarising” covers the stages of
skills, namely the utmost necessary skills to
making a summary and explains the features of
survive in the academic field. The second volume
a good summary. This chapter also exemplifies
of the project is planned to cover the commonly
the basic grammatical structures and vocabulary
used genres in academic writing ranging from
items needed for summary writing.
paragraph types to essay types and from
essential skills for professional communication to In Chapter 7 “Paragraph Writing”, the basic
conventions of academic writing. structure of a paragraph, its organisation, and the
use of cohesive devices and referring expressions
The book consists of eight chapters. Chapter
are explained. Specifically, the ways of achieving
1 entitled “Reading for a Purpose” focuses on
unity and coherence within a paragraph via
various purposes for reading a text, discusses the
various discourse markers are emphasized in the
similarities and differences among the genres,
current chapter. Chapter 8 entitled “Rewriting,
and identifies the features of the audience. It
Proofreading, Avoiding Plagiarism” includes key
is a chapter serving as an introduction that
concepts regarding rewriting, proofreading,
contains information required to use traditional
plagiarism, and citation. This final chapter also
and online dictionaries and electronic sources to
exemplifies “how to use and analyse correction
increase the efficacy of academic texts. The title
codes” to clarify the place of error correction in
of Chapter 2 is “Basic Reading Strategies I” and
academic writing.
it entails previewing and predicting strategies
before reading a text such as finding out the As the editors, we would like to express our
main idea and skimming for both the structure gratitude to all authors of the book, Buğra
and the organisation of the text. In addition, Kaş, Musa Tömen, Samet Taşçı, Yiğit Savuran,
the tone or intention of the author and the and Yusuf Öztürk for their great efforts and
identification of the keywords are explained in invaluable contributions, as well as Anadolu
detail to enhance your reading comprehension. University staff who worked devotedly to make
this happen. We would also extend our thanks to
Chapter 3’s title is “Basic Reading Strategies
our esteemed colleague Neslihan Aydemir who
II”. Here, there is some general information
proofread the book.
about the stages of scanning strategy and the
interpretation of charts, graphs, and tables in We hope that this book will offer a new and
a text. This chapter also displays some of the helpful perspective to you in learning the basic
basic reading strategies employed for reading concepts of academic writing and reporting and
for detailed information. Chapter 4 is titled improving your writing skill. We wish that this
“Reading Critically”, and it clarifies the role of book would serve as a functional and valuable
activating background knowledge as an essential resource in academic writing and wish you all
skill to foster your comprehension. What’s more, good reading.
finding keywords in a text, identifying the main
Editors
ideas of a text, making inferences while reading
a text, and using notes and ideas maps for Prof.Dr. Gül DURMUŞOĞLU KÖSE
reading comprehension are described through
Asst.Prof.Dr. Gonca SUBAŞI
self-explanatory samples in this chapter.

v
 Chapter 1 Reading for a Purpose
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
Learning Outcomes

1 Read a written text for a specific purpose

determined by themselves or the instructor.
2 Distinguish the similarities and differences
among the text types.

3 Use traditional or online dictionaries effectively.

4 Identify the audience in a written text.

5 Utilise the electronic sources in a critical

approach.

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introductıon Text Types
Reading For a Purpose Dictionary
Text Types Audience
Using Dictionary Electronic Sources
Identifying the Audience
Electronic Sources (Assessing Internet Sources
Critically)
Academic Vocabulary

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

INTRODUCTION • What are the pros and limits of a text that

In this chapter, some knowledge will be provided focuses on just one aspect of a topic?
to the readers in terms of reading for a purpose, text • What year did the texts get written?
types, using a dictionary, identifying the audience, Consider the historical context. Has
and the electronic sources. Under the topic of anything fresh happened in your field since
reading for a purpose, some principles will be they were written?
provided in order to inform you about how to read • How do the readings from this week
a text in parallel with your purpose. Considering compare to those from previous weeks?
the stated principles below will facilitate you to You may also be provided a list of “recommended”
save time and realise your purpose while reading. or “advised” reading material. This material is
In another subtitle called text types, the general valuable if you require extra information on a
text genres will be presented to the reader by giving certain topic or if it is a topic that will be covered
details about their characteristics. In addition, in in a future assessment. Take the time at the start of
this chapter, it is aimed to provide some tips about the semester to figure out what’s required and what’s
how to utilise a dictionary as much as possible. optional. Remember that you are unlikely to have
For this purpose, the types and characteristics of enough time to read all of the texts in their entirety.
dictionaries will be presented. One another subtitle
It is crucial to critically connect with the text
in this chapter is about identifying the audience.
when doing your prescribed readings by relating your
In this regard, the readers will be informed about
reading to the topic and the rest of the course material.
the content combination of a paragraph and the
types of paragraphs. Finally, some knowledge will In order to decide on your response to the
be given to the readers about the electronic sources. assessment question, you must first obtain some
background knowledge before beginning an
assessment activity such as an essay. It is not enough
READING FOR A PURPOSE to just explain what others have said and done, or
The key to efficient reading is to keep your goal even to critically assess your sources, in an essay. You
in mind at all times. Always keep in mind why you must take a position on the subject, determining
are reading and what you hope to gain from it. what you believe about the subject based on your
You will be needed to read for a variety of reasons reading and why you believe what you believe. Your
throughout your education, as detailed below. point of view or thesis is your ‘position’ on an issue.
A certain amount of reading will be required Positions are frequently complex and need a high
for each course. This could involve textbooks, level of qualification (i.e., there is no simple answer).
journal papers, or other texts that your course When you read an essay, you are trying to
supervisor and instructors have recommended. come up with a strong argument. Try to determine
Completing the prescribed reading will help you the primary concepts you wish to bring forward
grasp the lecture topic and prepare you for tutorial in establishing your stance as you critically assess
participation. Consider the following questions to the literature. This reading will assist you in
get the most out of your course readings. formulating a tentative position that will help you
• What does this passage have to do with this focus your further investigation. The following are
week’s course theme? some possible questions to ask.
• Do the authors of this week’s readings have • What are the points of view on the
similar points of view? If so, what’s the assignment’s topic that are similar and those
reasoning behind it? If not, how and why that are different?
do they differ? • What are the most common sorts of
• How do the readings assist you in answering evidence discussed?
instructional questions if you have any? • Has the way this subject is examined
• Do you agree with the text’s points of view? changed throughout time?
What are your reasons for agreement and • Which theories are commonly used to
disagreement? analyse the subject?
• What kind of evidence is used in the • What are the primary points that keep
readings? Is this evidence comprehensive, coming up in discussions regarding this
or does it concentrate on a single point? subject?
3
1
Reading for a Purpose

When writing an essay, you will need to present specific evidence to back up your major ideas in order
to defend your position/argument. This type of reading requires a lot of concentration. Continue to ask
questions as you read to do this.
• What makes the author believe in the presented idea/topic?
• Is the author knowledgeable in the relevant field? Is s/he an anthropologist or a psychologist, for
example? What effect does this have on her/his point of view?
• As a reader, do you have a superficial or deep level of knowledge on the given topic?
• What are the text’s underlying assumptions?
• What are the contentious problems or ideas in this article?
• Are there any flaws in the methodology, theory, or ideological biases that affect the argument, for
example?
• Is the evidence offered sufficient?
• What, in your opinion, are the strengths and shortcomings of the various papers, and why?
• Do you agree with the author’s points of view? Why and
why not?
Reading for a purpose, namely reading critically, means
reading with these questions in mind. 1
In addition, one of the points that should be considered Please summarise the basic principles of
during the process of reading for a purpose is the types of the text reading for a purpose.
we are to read. In this regard, examining the text types in detail
will be beneficial for those who want to read for a purpose.

Exercise 1. Determine the author’s purpose for each example: to inform, persuade, or entertain.
1. Hamburger Heaven

Bacon Burger $4.50 Fries $1.00

Cheese Burger $3.75 Milkshake $1.25

Cola

Hot Dog $1.75 Cola $1.00

Author’s Purpose: _______________________________

2. Couponing is a growing trend in our country. As more people are losing their jobs or their hours
and pay are being cut, they are looking for ways to save money. Coupons are an easy means of
doing this. Yes, it may take a little work, but the payoff can be worth the time. If you get the daily
paper already, you don’t have to spend any money to get the coupons. In addition, there are online
sites that allow you to select and print the coupons of your choice. Many stores even double or
triple the value of the money saved. So, if you want to find an easy way to help your family save
money during these tough times, try couponing. There’s nothing to lose and money to gain

Author’s Purpose: _______________________________

4
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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

3. Once upon a time in a faraway land, there lived a beautiful, magic frog named Frogella. This frog
was so beautiful that people would come from far and wide to admire her. As if being this beautiful
were not enough, Frogella could turn rocks into diamonds. Her father feared that an evil villain in
the neighbouring kingdom had plans to kidnap Frogella and use her magic to get rich. He visited
the magic penguin and asked that she put a spell on Frogella so that no one from the neighbouring
village could recognize her. She sent a potion home for Frogella to drink. To everyone in her village,
she remained a beautiful frog. But they knew the spell worked when the evil villain came to town
and asked Frogella if she knew where he could find the beautiful Frogella. When he left without
seeing Frogella, the town celebrated with joy. Their beautiful frog was safe!

Author’s Purpose: _______________________________

4. Do not miss our greatest sale of the year! Yes, you heard right. Everything in the store will be on sale.
We value our customers and want to show our appreciation. So come on down and save!! Everything
in the store is 25%, 50%, even 75% off this Saturday from 6 a.m. till noon. Don’t be late!

Author’s Purpose: ________________________________

5. Author’s Purpose: ________________________________

Voting Rules

* Sign in & get ballot.

* Go to private booth.
* Placed marked ballot in box.
* NO TALKING.

(Adapted from https://quizlet.com/)

TEXT TYPES
A person may encounter a range
of text genres during the course
of a single day. They could read a
newspaper article in the morning,
send a letter (or an email) to a
friend, prepare supper using a recipe,
complete an application form, pick
up a leaflet, and then read a good
book before going to sleep. All of
these literary genres share the written
word, but they also have their own
unique traits and standards.
The wide range of reading and
writing materials we might encounter
in a single day can be categorised in
a variety of ways. But it is simpler to
think of them in terms of two broad, Image 1.1 Text Types
all-encompassing categories: literary
and factual.

5
1
Reading for a Purpose

Factual Texts • Title reveals what is being explained,

Factual texts inform the reader about a particular • May contain diagrams, flowcharts,
subject. They should provide helpful information illustrations, etc.
and concentrate on facts. News reports, interviews, • Written in simple present tense,
recipes, historical records, instructions, FAQs, and • Time connectives used such
other factual writings can be listed as examples in as first, after, then, next, finally etc.
this type of text. However, under some specific
• Talks to the reader directly e.g. “You’ll be
contexts, the factual texts are divided into such surprised to learn…”.
categories as discussion, explanatory, instructional/
procedural, and persuasion texts.
Instructional / Procedural Texts
Instructions and procedural documents explain
Discussion Texts
how to follow certain rules or processes. They
The goal of a discussion text is to examine are typically encountered with games, household
several viewpoints on a certain topic in order to equipment, and recipes, among other things. While
develop an educated opinion or come to a decision. instructional / procedural texts and explanation
Before getting to the primary point or points of texts are similar in some respects, the primary
disagreement, discussion texts typically start out distinction is that instructional / procedural texts
by providing some background information about tell you what to do, whereas explanatory writings
the subject. The text will next begin to examine describe something. This sort of content usually
the numerous arguments for and against, as well starts with a clear objective or goal, which serves as
as the supporting evidence, at this point. After the title. A list of resources, equipment, and other
summarising the arguments on both sides, the items is usually given next, followed by a step-by-
conclusion will suggest a course of action based on step description of the procedure to be followed
the author’s evaluation of the evidence. to accomplish the intended result. Often, diagrams
The following is a list of the primary and/or pictures will accompany the written
characteristics of discussion text: procedure. Occasionally, diagrams or pictures may
completely replace written content.
• Titles frequently take the form of questions,
The main features of instructional / procedural
• It is written in the active voice,
text can be listed as follows:
• Specific instances accompany general
• The procedure is indicated in the title.
assertions,
e.g. How to…,
• Arguments that are occasionally backed by
• Includes a list of resources and equipment,
pictures, diagrams, etc.
• Process described step-by-step using bullet
points, numbers etc.,
Explanatory Texts
• Time connectives used to organise writing
Explanatory texts focus on factors like causes and (first, next, then, finally etc.),
reasons in addition to providing plain information.
• Imperatives used,
They go beyond simply recounting what happened,
as in a standard report, to explaining why and how • Diagrams / Illustrations used to support or
it happened. Explanatory texts frequently begin replace text.
with a broad statement that introduces the topic
to be discussed, such as “Some birds migrate to Literary Texts
warmer parts of the planet during the winter.” The Almost all literary texts have a type. In order to
numerous steps of this process are then explained know the type of a text, we need to look very carefully
in a logical order. at the language and expression characteristics of
The main features of explanatory text can be the text we read because text types differ among
listed as follows: themselves, even the smallest details will help us to

6
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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

reach that type of text. There are many types of texts that are relatively similar to each other and have some
common features, such as Novel and Story. Therefore, it is almost impossible to distinguish between text
types by looking at only one feature. For this reason, we need to look at multiple features of the text, which we
will find the type of, at the same time, so that we can get our job done. Now let us look at what text types are.

Novel
Among the text types, perhaps the most written and the most read genre is the novel because the
subject of the novel can be everything and everyone we see around us. The novels are the works that gather
the events that people live or can experience around a certain person and connect them to a place and time.
• The events described in the novel are handled in a very detailed and broad approach.
• The plot is formed when the events coalesce around the main event.
• The characters are quite numerous, so analysis of the characters can be included.
• Incredible events such as going back in time can also be the subject of the novel.
Here is a short list for novel samples:
• Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte
• Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë
• Moby Dick by Herman Melville
• The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald
• Frankenstein by Mary Shelley
• Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe
• Little Women by Louisa May Alcott
• Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoyevsky

Image 1.2 Novel

Story
Among the text types, the story stands out as a genre that attracts attention with its shortness. It is a work
of art that deals with events that have happened or are very likely to happen, with very short narratives.

7
1
Reading for a Purpose

• The event described in the story is only one.

• As in the novel, there is no excess of characters, on the contrary, the number of persons is quite low.
• The characters described in the story are generally told with a single moment in their lives.
You can find a short list for the type of story:
• Edgar Allan Poe, “The Tell-Tale Heart” (1843)
• Herman Melville, “Bartleby, the Scrivener” (1853)
• Ambrose Bierce, “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge” (1890)
• Charlotte Perkins Gilman, “The Yellow Wallpaper” (1892)
• Henry James, “The Turn of the Screw” (1898)
• Anton Chekhov, “The Lady with the Toy Dog” (1899)
• W. W. Jacobs, “The Monkey’s Paw” (1902)
• James Joyce, “The Dead” (1914)
• Ray Bradbury, “There Will Come Soft Rains” (1950)
• Raymond Carver, “What We Talk About When We Talk About Love” (1981)

Fairy Tale
Among the text types, they are the types of works that contain the most extraordinary elements. Fairy
tales are a literary genre just like stories and novels.
• All of the events described in the fairy tale are a product of imagination.
• The time and place where the events are told is never clear.
• The heroes/heroines of the fairy tale are usually much stronger than humans.
• At the end of the event, the characters who always defend the good are rewarded, while the
characters who are on the side of the evil are punished.

Image 1.3 Fairy Tale

8
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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

The following fairy tale can be considered as a sample:

In the land of the Maasai, in Southwest Kenya, there is a girl named Rebecca.
Rebecca lives near a large national park, where there are golden lions, and big grey elephants. Rebecca’s family keep
cattle, sheep and goats and depend on farming the land for food for their animals.
Rebecca goes to school and helps her family care for the animals when she is home.
One very hot day, Rebecca finds her mama crying.
“Our crops have been bad this year,” she says. “Now our goats and sheep might die.”
At school, Rebecca asks her teacher why there has been so little rain this year. “We have had many days without
rain,” says her teacher.
“When we have no rain, plants cannot grow.
Without plants to eat and water to drink, our animals die.” Everyone in the class is quiet. They are worried for
their families, their animals, and their community.
At the school library, Rebecca searches for information about rain. What she learns is difficult. The whole world is
getting hotter, and there is less rain. She learns a new term: “Climate Change.”
Cars, buses and aeroplanes are making the air dirty. Trees are being cut down and used to make buildings. And trash
is buried in the ground. All these things are harming nature.
For the whole day Rebecca feels sad. What can just one girl do to help the whole world?
Rebecca decides to talk to her teacher about what she has learned. “It is a big problem for the earth,” her teacher
explains. “But there are some things we can do to help, like planting trees to make nature stronger”
(Olivia Wood, 2021).

Article
It is the type that is closest to the real among the text types. Articles written to clarify the truth, to
put forward thoughts and opinions on any subject, or to support or defend any phenomenon are called
articles.
• The narration is dense and simple; besides, there is an obligation to be objective in the articles.
• Whatever the thought that is the subject of the article is, it is tried to be proven by emphasising it.
• An article can be written on any subject that comes to mind.
• These written articles are forwarded to various authorities to be published in magazines and
newspapers.

The following text is a sample for the type of article:

9
1
Reading for a Purpose

POLLUTION
Pollution is the process in which undesirable toxic contaminants contaminate our environment like
air, water, soil, etc. It is creating sudden changes in the ecosystem, which is directly or indirectly leaving
adverse effects on the lives of human beings, animals, and plants. It creates an imbalance in the natural
system. Many things which are making our lives easy are harmful to the environment. For example, vehicles
leave gases that pollute the air. Industries and household garbage pollute both water and air.
Every living being on Earth depends on air and water. When these two things get polluted, all the lives
on Earth come at a risk. It is seen that urban areas get more polluted than rural areas. Though rural areas
also get polluted by harmful pesticides used in farming lands. Because of pollution, many new diseases
appear daily, which are extremely dangerous for the health of living beings. It has now become a serious
problem globally. Global Warming is now the cause of headaches for all human beings worldwide. It is the
pollution that is indirectly affecting the change in the weather. This global issue needs immediate action.
Otherwise, it will be challenging to lead a healthy lifestyle. There are various kinds of pollution around us.
Here, we will discuss more on the types of pollution.
Air Pollution: It is sometimes visible like we can see polluted air left by the vehicles on the road because
of its different colour. In most cases, it is not visible. Polluted air mainly affects the eyes and lungs of human
beings as well as animals. It can even kill a living creature within a few minutes. We know about many
incidents where harmful gas leakage has killed people. Even natural disasters can make the air toxic. Like
volcanic eruptions produce harmful gases that affect human health and other natural resources as well.
Vehicles and factories produce harmful gases that, in reaction to sunlight, creates thick fog. Air pollution
also contributes to Acid Rain. It can destroy water life, forests, etc.
Water Pollution: Same like water, one kind of water pollution is visible like muddy water, water with
garbage, etc. At the same time, some visibly clean water can contain chemicals that are dangerous to
our health. Drinking polluted water can cause serious health issues. A lot of people die worldwide by
consuming contaminated water. It can also indirectly affect humans and animals. Like if we eat a fish from
a polluted river or sea, we also absorb the potential pollutants. Natural gas and oil can also contribute
to the pollution of water. Liquid wastes from factories also pollute the water. Solid wastes disturb the
drainage system. Sewages, agricultural waste, acid rain are essential causes of water pollution.
Soil Pollution: Solid wastes from factories and households pollute the land. Harmful chemicals mix in
the soil through the pesticides used in agriculture. Pollutants from landfills mix in the ground and pollute
it. When we eat plants that have grown in the polluted land, we indirectly consume contaminants harmful
to our health.
Noise Pollution: When the sound becomes intolerant and reason of disturbance, it is noise pollution.
The sounds of vehicles, mike, loud music, or machinery cause noise pollution. It causes serious health
issues like migraine, depression, hypertension, aggressive behaviour, etc. to humans. It also directly affects
the health of animals. It sometimes becomes the reason for their death.
Many people and animals are losing their lives or experiencing severe health issues due to the increased
level of pollution. This critical issue needs immediate attention. Most of the causes of pollution are human
activities. So, we should control such activities that contribute to pollution. It can at least minimise the
severity of its effects.
(https://www.aplustopper.com/article-on-pollution/)

Essay
Another important inscription for text types is essay. The opinions expressed by the authors who wrote
the essay on any subject are the articles written without specifying a rule, without the aim of proving the
thought in any way.

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

• One of the most distinctive features of this type of writing is that the author writes in an air as if he
is talking to himself.
• A sincere language is used in the written texts.
• The author does not aim to prove the views expressed in his article.
• The author is completely free in choosing the topic and how he/she should describe the topic he/
she has chosen.
There are many types of essays that can be written in an academic setting. However, the following one
will help you identify what an essay type is in your mind.

CONSUMING FRESH FOODS INSTEAD OF CANNED FOODS

Eating is an activity that we as humans do at least two times a day. We live in a world where the variety
of food is immense, and we are responsible for what we eat. We decide what we are about to eat and how
it will affect our bodies. The three main differences are flavour, health benefits, and cost.
The first and most notable difference between these two kinds of foods is their flavour. Fresh foods
have great flavour and taste because they keep all their natural conditions. Canned foods, however, lack
a lot of its flavour characteristics because there are some other chemical products added to the natural
foods. It is logical that the fresh foods will have a greater taste and flavour when consumed just because of
the time in which they have been prepared.
Comparing both types of foods, another difference is noticed. There is a health factor that affects both.
Canned foods lose some of the original fresh food nutrients when stored, and it must be tinned with many
conservatives and chemical factors that prolong the shelf life and apparent freshness of the food but could
also become toxic if consumed too often.
The last difference between these two types of foods is the cost. Canned foods are much more
expensive than fresh foods. The benefit of buying tinned foods is that they are easier to find. For example,
you can find them in a supermarket instead of the market like the fresh foods, and they require less work
to prepare than fresh foods. You can just open and serve.
In conclusion, there are some notable differences between fresh foods and canned foods. Preferring
one of them comes down to a personal choice, based on the time each person has, the money and the
importance he/she gives to his/her nutrition and health. Therefore, it is important that you consider your
possibilities and choose the best type of foods for your convenience and lifestyle.
(https://writing.itu.edu.tr/Student_Compare_Contrast_Essay_Samples.pdf)

Anecdote
The place of the anecdote among the text types is also different as in all of them. These are short texts
written by the author about lived and daily events from a completely private point of view, with a proper
and correct expression, and without the need for proof, as in the essay.
• Anecdotes are a kind of newspaper article.
• The author does not aim to prove his thoughts in the text.
• As in the essay, it is written in the style of chatting with the reader.
Here comes a short anecdote sample which is very famous:
“Tolstoy was a great pacifist and was once lecturing on the need to be non resistant and non violent towards all
creatures. Someone in the audience responded by asking what should be done if one was attacked in the woods by
a tiger. Tolstoy responded, “Do the best you can. It doesn’t happen very often.”

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Reading for a Purpose

Critique However, this poem published in the late 19th

In the context of text types, perhaps the most century can be difficult for modern readers to
understand and appreciate. While phrases such
important genre to be considered is critique. These
as ‘an air that kills,’ referring to a tune, and
are the texts written by people who examine the
‘yon far country’ contain short words, they are
works of literature, art and thought both in terms
antiquated by today’s standards. Even if they are
of expression and the way the text is designed,
understood, they may not resonate as deeply with
and who offer ideas on this subject. They are the
the reader as more modern words would. It can
texts that try to tell people about the valuable or
be problematic to view any historic literature
unworthy aspects, or successful or unsuccessful
through a modern lens, as historic writers could
aspects of any work written/made in the field of
not possibly anticipate contemporary society.
literature or art in general.
However, that does not invalidate the distanced
• The most important thing for a reviewer to relationship modern readers may have with this
pay attention to is the obligation to use an poem today.
objective vertical in his writings.
“A Shropshire Lad XL’ is a romantic reminisce
• Critique has only one purpose, and that is about the idyllic country life the poet enjoyed as a
to tell the person who will read or read the boy. Its nostalgic theme is likely to resonate with a
work what kind of content the work has modern audience just as much as they did in the
and to explain the shortcomings of the text past, but its language may be a significant barrier
to the author. to fully appreciating this historic poem.”
The following text is an example of a brief
critical study of A.E. Housman’s poem “XL.”. In addition to the role of text type in reading
Reading this critical analysis example can help you for purpose, a reader should know how to use a
learn what the type of critique is. dictionary effectively in the process of reading. For
this purpose, the following section will present the
“A.E. Housman fondly reflects on the past in knowledge in this aspect.
his poem ‘A Shropshire Lad XL.’ He uses sensory
language and evocative images to give the poem
a romantic sense of nostalgia. This poem can
resonate with readers who also long for the past, if 2
they can understand it. Please make a list of the main genres of the texts.
‘A Shropshire Lad XL’ is a relatively short poem,
with just two stanzas, yet Housman quickly
establishes a sense of longing. He draws his readers Exercise 2. Please answer the following
in by asking a question rich with imagery in the questions.
first stanza, ‘What are those blue remembered 1. What is the purpose of the informative
hills / What spires, what farms are those?’ The text?
question is answered in the second stanza which
A. To persuade you to buy something.
fondly recalls the past with its references to ‘lost
B. To describe how a scene might look in a
content’ and the ‘happy highways where I went.’
novel.
Sensory language such as ‘blows’ and ‘shining’
gives his poem an immediacy that aims to deepen C. To provide clear facts about something.
the connection readers feel. D. To tell you how to do something.

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

2. The following passage is an example of an informative text: true or false?

New Sydmouth Public Library: What can I borrow or hire?

There is a large collection of books including paperbacks, non-fiction books, ‘talking
books’, books in large print and books in languages apart from English. Up to 6 items can
be borrowed for 3 weeks.

A. True
B. False

3. What will you do if you are persuaded by the text below?

CLEAR YOUR DEBTS FAST!

Do you owe more money than you are making? Do you have lots of different debts?
It’s quick and easy to apply and you could get the money within just 2 days! Yes,
that’s right 2 days, so why waste time. So, if you want to clear your debts, make home
improvements, go on a holiday or just buy something you’ve always wanted call us
now on 0900 7895 2369.

A. to go on holiday.
B. to make some home improvements.
C. to take out a loan with the advertising loan company.
D. to buy something you’ve always wanted.

4. What is the genre of the text below?

The boy was astonished by what he saw inside. Never could he have imagined that, there
in the middle of the desert, there existed a tent like this one. The ground was covered with
the most beautiful carpets he had ever walked upon, and from the top of the structure
hung lamps of hand-wrought gold, each with a lighted candle.

A. descriptive
B. instructive
C. informative
D. persuasive

5. Why is this car insurance company giving away a brand-new car?

Pay less for your car insurance and win a brand-new car! Why pay more each year for your
car insurance when you could actually cut costs with Skillswise Direct car insurance. Call
us now on 0990 296 296 for a free no-obligations quote over the phone.

A. to help customers to replace cars more than 6 years old.

B. to persuade you to take out car insurance with this company.
C. to help customers afford a new car once they have reduced their car insurance.
D. to persuade customers to have environmentally friendly cars.

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Reading for a Purpose

USING DICTIONARY
“Dictionaries are alphabetically arranged works that provide information, usually in concise form,
about words or topics” (Schnoor, 2003).
There are several components to using a dictionary: information, operations, users, and purposes.
The meaning of a term, its synonyms, pronunciation, or spelling, the etymology, or information about
particular facts or names, for example, can all be included in the material. Actions such as identifying
meanings, locating words, translating things from one language to another, and so on are summarised under
operations. Children, students, trainers, teachers, critics, scientists, secretaries, and others are examples of
users. Their goals might range from learning more about one’s mother tongue to learning a foreign language,
from crossword puzzles to decoding texts in a foreign language, and, of course, include producing reports.
It is critical that you know how to utilise a dictionary as a student learning the English language. There
are around 1 million words in the English language, of which an average speaker is only aware of about
60,000. Many words may be familiar to you, but you may not know their actual meanings. A dictionary
is a useful tool that can help you build your vocabulary on a daily basis. It not only aids in the derivation
of a word’s meaning and spelling, but it also aids in the effective improvement of your English language.
Let us start with the numerous sources of information about a term that you can discover in a dictionary.
• Spelling of the words and its plural form
• Syllables of a word
• Whether the word is capitalised or has an abbreviation
• The pronunciation of a word
• Different meanings a word has, its synonyms (same meaning) and antonyms (opposite meaning)
• History of the word
• An example of a sentence/expression showing the right usage of the word
• Prefixes and suffixes and their meanings
• Different words that can be derived from the main word
The most important point is
how to use the dictionary effectively.
If you make it a habit to consult a
dictionary, you can quickly enhance
your English. Most of us avoid
carrying a pocket dictionary because
we believe it is time consuming. It
will take you less than a minute to
locate the definition of a term and
refer to the example if you know
how to use a dictionary properly. Let
us have a look at some of the time-
saving tips.
Get yourself a good dictionary
– If you do not already have one,
invest in a good one, such as the
Oxford dictionary, Cambridge Image 1.4 Dictionary
Dictionary, or Redhouse Dictionary.
Get to know how to use it – User instructions of each dictionary take a different approach. As a result,
the ideal approach is to read the introduction part and jot down how the details are organised. You will
be well on your way to using the dictionary quickly after you understand the right alphabetical sequence.

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

For example, if you are looking for the word because they have a significantly different structure
“gnome,” go to the ‘G’ area and look at the guiding than dictionaries, both in terms of entry order (not
words in the upper corner of each page. These guide alphabetically, but categorised) and entry structure
words will tell you how near you are to discovering (essentially synonyms with no definitions,
your word. These guiding words are speed demons grammar, or pronunciations, etc.).
that must be avoided if you want to find your word
faster. Then, to narrow down your search, check for
the second word ‘n’.
Bilingual Dictionaries
Bilingual dictionaries, which include online
Find the word – Now that you have discovered
bilingual dictionaries and translation software, are
your word, what should you pay attention to?
specialised dictionaries for translating from one
• Definition of the word language to another.
• Different pronunciations – pay attention to Instead of only synonyms, the finest bilingual
the stress mark - ‘ - usually placed before dictionaries provide examples of the word in
a syllable to help you pronounce the word context. In a French-English dictionary, the word
correctly. abîme, for example, might only provide a few
• Capitalization synonyms with the same meaning in English: abyss,
• Synonyms and antonyms gulf. A more useful dictionary will provide some
• Use of preposition, ‘in’, ‘on’ etc., examples of how to utilise it in both languages:
l’abîme qui nous sépare = the gap or gulf that
• Phrases/idioms linked to the Word
separates us, être au fond de l’abîme = to be in the
• Spellings in American, British, and throes of despair.
Australian English.
When utilised for short, uncomplicated
Because there are several types of dictionaries statements that are as unambiguous as possible,
that list various items in often diverse ways, the bilingual dictionaries and translation software can
information provided in one dictionary compared be excellent resources for teachers. Google Translate,
to another can be highly different. for example, does not cope well with technical
First and foremost, this is dependent on the subject-specific terminology or literary texts.
dictionary’s size. “The extent to which the dictionary Learners with strong reading abilities in
can answer a user’s questions about each word in their first language will benefit from bilingual
the language is determined by the quantity of words dictionaries. As long as they can decode English
to be covered in the dictionary,” and, of course, by
script, EFL students can be at any level of English
the amount of space allotted to each item.
language proficiency. If their first language has a
Second, it is dependent on the dictionary written form that is comparable to or identical
in question. For the next section of the unit, we to English, such as French or Polish, they will be
will take a deeper look at these many types of able to use a dictionary sooner than learners whose
dictionaries, or at least some of them. first language is, for example, Arabic or Chinese.
They can be used for a variety of tasks across the
Types of Dictionaries curriculum, such as:
As previously said, there are many sorts of Looking up keywords: Give EFL students an
dictionaries for diverse languages, purposes, users, English text and ask them to underline or highlight
and words. However, because this research is limited any unfamiliar words. To begin, have students
to a few English dictionaries, their similarities and guess the meaning of the new words based on the
differences will be discussed. There are a few small context. The students then look them up to see
differences, such as whether a dictionary is printed whether they were able to accurately identify their
or electronic, but as this refers to the method meanings.
of presentation rather than the content of the Use of bilingual dictionaries in external
dictionary, it may be overlooked in this situation. exams: Check the guidelines for utilising bilingual
Also, thesaurus entries are not covered in this unit dictionaries for external tests, as they can change.

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Reading for a Purpose

To benefit from this, students must be accustomed (at the moment of publishing the dictionary). This
to effectively using dictionaries. Make sure you type of dictionary includes not just meanings that
have proof of the EFL learner’s first arrival into the are separate from the context, but also phraseology.
UK, since this may be required if you want to ask Since the same language is used for explanations
for them to use a dictionary in an exam. and definitions of the entries, the language of
When used properly, bilingual dictionaries the definitions is termed a metalanguage. A
and translation software are wonderful language monolingual dictionary comprises not only
learning resources, and it is worth dedicating time definitions of words, but also grammatical
and work to ensuring that learners are supported information, as well as semantic, pragmatic, and
in developing their skills to utilise them in regular stylistic information.
classes. It is a good idea, for example, to: A monolingual dictionary is mostly made up of
• Encourage EFL students to think about alphabetized lexical entries in a single language. A
what part of speech the word they’re looking lemma and its description are frequently included
up belongs to (noun, verb, or adjective) and in these lexical entries. Lemmata are linguistic
try to determine the word from context first, units in the same way that words or sentences are.
• Suggest that students double-check that the The Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the
English word they found is the one they Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
are looking for by utilising a dictionary or (LDOCE), the Collins Dictionary of the English
software to translate it back into their native Language (COLLINS), and the COBUILD
tongue, English Language Dictionary are the most popular
monolingual dictionaries in the British English-
• Check to see whether they have found the
speaking world (COBUILD). A Dictionary of
right translation for any terms that may be
American English on Historical Principles (DAE),
visualised by typing (or copying) the word
Merriam-Collegiate Webster’s Dictionary, and
into an image finder (e.g. Google images).
A Dictionary of New English are all important
If the desired image appears, they have most
American English dictionaries (DNE).
likely identified the correct translation. If not,
they may have to come up with a new word. Several monolingual dictionaries for specific
purposes, such as collocations, idioms, and phrasal
• To begin, draft any extended pieces of writing
verbs, have also been released.
in their own language. Then, a teacher or
teaching assistant could use translation A monolingual dictionary’s essential component
software to gain a basic understanding of is the definition of a word. A definition’s principal
what the student is trying to say so that purpose is to explain the meaning of a word. In
they can model a proper English text. This this context, it’s worth noting that academic
is far more successful than asking the EFL semantics research has yet to produce a system
student to use translation software to assist for the description of meaning. Definitions are
them in completing a long piece of English attempts to characterise the ‘meaning’ or sense of
writing. a lexeme and to distinguish it from the meanings
of other lexemes in the same semantic field, such
• Encourage all students to utilise dictionaries
as the ‘elephant’ from the meanings of other large
in class, not only EFL students. It is a useful
mammals.
skill for all students to learn, and it helps EFL
students feel included rather than alone. At the same time, the question of whether it
is feasible to universally describe meaning remains
unanswered. Each dictionary strives to provide
Monolingual Dictionaries as exact a notion of the meanings of its words as
Definitions are provided in the same language possible to its target audience. In order to achieve
as the entries in monolingual dictionaries. Because this goal, a very flexible and possibly eclectic use
it is based on the lexical material of a contemporary of semantic approaches may be appropriate. In
language, the monolingual dictionary is defined monolingual dictionaries, definitions frequently
here as the most fundamental sort of dictionary include one or more of the following methods:

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

• Descriptive phrases,
• Sometimes full-sentence definitions,
• Synonyms or a range of approximately synonymous words, or antonyms,
• A combination of a paraphrase and a synonym,
• Pragmatic information about the situational context in which a word is used,
• Encyclopaedic information.

Image 1.5 Monolingual Dictionary

As you can see on the screenshot taken from Online Cambridge Monolingual Dictionary, “translation”
word is presented in terms of parts of speech, and it is mentioned as a noun. Under the parts of speech
illustration, the pronunciation of the word is presented in both UK and US English. In this section, you
can both listen to its pronunciation in these two accents and see its
phonological pattern.
In addition, since it is a monolingual dictionary, the definition
of the word “translation” is presented in English. In order to 3
facilitate and reinforce the definition, the users are provided with Please write the types of dictionaries.
some sentences in which the searched word is used.

IDENTIFYING THE AUDIENCE

Consider reading a long block of text in which each concept blends into the next. Even if you are
reading a gripping novel or a fascinating news story, you will quickly lose interest in what the author is
saying. It is helpful to put yourself in the shoes of a reader while writing. Examine whether you can readily
concentrate on each point you make. Effective writers adopt the approach of starting a new paragraph
for each new concept they offer. Separate ideas are linked into logical, manageable bits with paragraphs.
One paragraph concentrates on a single primary concept and employs well-crafted phrases to support
it. A paragraph can stand on its own if all the sentences in it support the same point. Writers combine
paragraphs together to make longer assignments and to discuss more than one issue. The content of each
paragraph is shaped by three factors:
1. Purpose: The reason the text is written.
2. Tone: The writer’s attitude toward the topic of the paragraph.
3. Audience: The person or group to whom the writer wishes to speak.

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Reading for a Purpose

Audience summary, despite being shorter than the original

piece of writing, should nonetheless explain all of
the main arguments and supporting evidence. To
put it another way, summary paragraphs should be
brief and to-the-point.
Content
Let us read the following text in order to have
a broad comprehension to present the summary
paragraph later.
Tone Purpose

Image 1.6 Content Combination of a Paragraph According to the Monitoring the Future Study,
almost two-thirds of 10th-grade students
reported having tried alcohol at least once in
The purpose, audience, and tone of the their lifetime, and two-fifths reported having
assignment determine what the paragraph will been drunk at least once (Johnson et al.
address and how it will support one key argument. 2006x). Among 12th-grade students, these rates
This section discusses how purpose, audience, and had risen to over three-quarters who reported
tone influence paragraph reading and writing. having tried alcohol at least once in the past
To conduct an effective reading for a purpose, 30 days; 17.6 percent and 30.2 percent,
after reading a text, the reader can summarise the respectively, reported having been drunk in the
past 30 days; 21.0 percent and 28.1 percent,
whole content. In this regard, according to your
respectively, reported having had five or more
purpose as well as identifying the audience, you
drinks in a row in the past 2 weeks (sometimes
can choose one of the summary types explained in called binge drinking); and 1.3 percent and
detail through supplying examples below. 3.1 percent, respectively, reported daily alcohol
use (Johnson et al. 2006a).
Summary Paragraph Alcohol consumption continues to escalate
after high school. In fact, eighteen- to twenty-
A summary condenses a great amount of
four-year-olds have the highest levels of alcohol
information into the most important details.
consumption and alcohol dependence of any
You most likely summarise news, novels, and age group. In the first 2 years after high school,
movies daily. Consider the last big-budget film lifetime prevalence of alcohol use (based on
you saw or the last book you read. You probably 2005 follow-up surveys from the Monitoring
compressed all the action in a two-hour film or a the Future Study) was 81.8 percent, 30-day use
two-hundred-page book into a concise synopsis of prevalence was 59 percent, and binge-drinking
the major narrative movements at some point in prevalence was 36.3 percent (Johnson et al.
a casual conversation with a friend, coworker, or 2006b). Of note, college students on average
classmate. You probably described the important drink more than their non college peers, even
highlights or main themes in only a few phrases though they drink less during high school than
while in discussion, utilising your own vocabulary those who did not go to college (Johnson et al.
and speaking style. A summary paragraph, on the 2006a, b; Schulenberg and Maggs 2002). For
example, in 2005, the rate of binge drinking for
other hand, condenses a big piece of writing into
college students (1 to 4 years beyond high school)
a shorter paragraph by selecting only the most
was 40.1 percent, whereas the rate for their
important information. noncollege age mates was 35.1 percent.
Only the writer’s own words are used in a Alcohol use and problem drinking in late
summary. The objective of an academic summary adolescence vary by sociodemographic
paragraph, like the purpose of a summary in characteristics. For example, the prevalence
everyday discussion, is to keep all of the important of alcohol use is higher for boys than for girls,
information from a lengthy paper in one place. A higher for White and Hispanic adolescents than

18
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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

for African American adolescents, and higher Analysis Paragraph

for those living in the north and north central
An analysis divides complex materials into their
United States than for those living in the South
constituent elements and investigates how the
and West. Some of these relationships change
parts interact. The deconstruction of plain table
with early adulthood, however. For example,
although alcohol use in high school tends to be
salt, for example, would necessitate a breakdown
higher in areas with low population density (i.e., of its components—the elements sodium (Na) and
rural areas) than in more densely populated chloride (Cl) (Cl). Scientists would then investigate
areas, this relationship reverses during early how the two elements combine to form NaCl, or
adulthood (Johnson et al. 2006a, b). Lower sodium chloride, popularly known as simple table salt.
economic status (i.e., lower educational level Inevitably, the term “analysis” is not confined to the
of parents) is associated with more alcohol use sciences. In academic writing, an analysis paragraph
during the early high school years; by the end serves the same objective. Academic analysis
of high school, and during the transition to paragraphs usually breakdown documents rather
adulthood, this relationship changes, and youth than deconstructing compounds. A primary source
from higher socioeconomic backgrounds consume (an essay, a book, an article, etc.) is dissected point by
greater amounts of alcohol. point in an analysis. It conveys the primary themes
of the documents by studying individual points and
In a report summary, all the essential points and determining how they relate to one another. Take a
supporting details should be presented in a concise look at a student’s journal report analysis.
manner. Read the following summary of a student- At the beginning of their report, Brown et al.
written report: use specific data regarding the use of alcohol by
high school students and college-aged students,
Brown et al. inform us that by the tenth grade, which is supported by several studies. Later in the
nearly two-thirds of students have tried alcohol report, they consider how various socioeconomic
at least once, and by twelfth grade this figure factors influence problem drinking in adolescence.
increases to over three-quarters of students.  After The latter part of the report is far less specific and
high school, alcohol consumption increases does not provide statistics or examples.
further, and college-aged students have the highest
levels of alcohol consumption and dependence of The lack of specific information in the
any age group.   Alcohol use varies according to second part of the report raises several important
factors such as gender, race, geographic location, questions. Why are teenagers in rural high schools
and socioeconomic status. Some of these trends more likely to drink than teenagers in urban areas?
may reverse in early adulthood.   For example, Where do they obtain alcohol? How do parental
adolescents of lower socioeconomic status are more attitudes influence this trend? A follow-up study
likely to consume alcohol during high school years, could compare several high schools in rural and
whereas youth from higher socioeconomic status urban areas to consider these issues and potentially
are more likely to consume alcohol in the years find ways to reduce teenage alcohol consumption.
after high school. Notice how the analysis evaluates how the points
in the report relate to one another rather than merely
Notice how the summary keeps the main repeating information from the original report. The
arguments made by the original report’s authors but learner discovers a mismatch between the points
leaves out most of the statistical data. Summaries that are supported by statistics and those that
do not have to include all of the precise facts and demand further information by doing so. Analysing
figures from the original material; they simply a document entails a thorough evaluation of all of its
provide an overview of the most important details. components and how they interact.

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Reading for a Purpose

Synthesis Paragraph thrill of trying something illegal were motivating

factors. These results support the research of Brown
A synthesis occurs when two or more items are
et al. However, they also raise an interesting point.
combined to form a completely new one. Consider
If boredom is a motivating factor for underage
the synthesiser, an electronic musical instrument drinking, maybe additional after school programs
with a catchy name. It appears to be a simple or other community measures could be introduced
keyboard, but it is actually a dashboard with switches, to dissuade teenagers from underage drinking.
buttons, and levers. A musician can create a unique Based on my sources, further research is needed
sound by combining the different sounds of a piano, to show true preventative measures for teenage
a flute, or a guitar—or any other combination of alcohol consumption.
instruments—by flipping a few switches. The
synthesiser’s job is to combine the notes from several Note how the synthesis paragraphs take each
instruments to create new, unique notes. The goal source into account and combine material from
of an academic synthesis is to combine multiple each to generate a new thesis. The writer of a
documents into a single document. An academic successful synthesis does not repeat material;
synthesis paragraph takes the key ideas of one or instead, he or she draws on a range of sources to
come up with a fresh notion.
more pieces of writing and connects them to form
a new point that is not repeated in each work. Look
at a student’s synthesis of multiple materials on the Evaluation Paragraph
subject of underage drinking. An evaluation is an attempt to calculate the
worth of something by judging its value. In
In their 2009 report, Brown et al. consider ordinary encounters, evaluations are frequently
the rates of alcohol consumption among high impacted not only by specified standards, but also
school and college-aged students and various
by personal judgement and prior information. A
sociodemographic factors that affect these rates.
supervisor, for example, may complete an employee
However, this report is limited to assessing the rates
of underage drinking, rather than considering evaluation at work by comparing his subordinate’s
methods of decreasing these rates. Several other performance against the company’s objectives. If
studies, as well as original research among college the organisation wants to improve communication,
students, provide insight into how these rates the supervisor will utilise a standard scale to grade
might be reduced. the employee’s customer service. However, the
One study, by Spoth, Greenberg, and Turrisi supervisor’s perspective and prior experience with
(2009) considers the impact of various types of the employee are still factors in the appraisal. The
interventions as a method for reducing alcohol goal of the evaluation is to figure out how well
consumption among minors. They conclude the employee does his or her job. An academic
that although family-focused interventions for appraisal expresses your viewpoint on a text or a
adolescents aged ten to fifteen have shown promise, matter of debate, as well as its reasoning.
there is a serious lack of interventions available for
The text you read, your existing knowledge,
college-aged students who do not attend college.
These students are among the highest risk level for
and your prior experience with the topic or issue
alcohol abuse, a fact supported by Brown, et al. all influence your evaluations. An evaluation
often necessitates more critical thinking and a
I did my own research and interviewed eight
college students, four men and four women. I
combination of summary, analysis, and synthesis
asked them when they first tried alcohol and what abilities because it contains your point of view
factors encouraged them to drink. All four men and grounds for your point of view. As a result,
had tried alcohol by the age of thirteen. Three of evaluation paragraphs are frequently placed after
the women had also tried alcohol by thirteen and summary, analysis, and synthesis paragraphs. Read
the fourth had tried alcohol by fifteen. All eight the following paragraph to  find out the main
students said that peer pressure, boredom, and the features of an evaluation paragraph.

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

Throughout their report, Brown et al. provide valuable statistics that highlight the frequency of alcohol use among
high school and college students. They use several reputable sources to support their points. However, the report
focuses solely on the frequency of alcohol use and how it varies according to certain sociodemographic factors.
Other sources, such as Spoth, Greenberg, and Turrisi’s study (2009) and the survey I conducted among college
students, examine the results for alcohol use among young people and offer suggestions as to how to reduce the rates.
Nonetheless, I think that Brown et al. offer a useful set of statistics from which to base further research into alcohol
use among high school and college students.

Take note of how the paragraph includes the student’s personal

judgement in the assessment. Prior knowledge, which is frequently 4
based on additional study, is required for evaluating a document. Please list the types of paragraphs.

Exercise 3. Read the following four paragraphs about four films

and then figure out what each one’s purpose is.
1. This film could easily have been cut down to less than two hours. By the final scene, I noticed that
most of my fellow moviegoers were snoozing in their seats and were barely paying attention to what
was happening on screen. Although the director sticks diligently to the book, he tries too hard to
cram in all the action, which is just too ambitious for such a detail-oriented story. If you want my
advice, read the book, and give the movie a miss.

Purpose: ........................................................

2. During the opening scene, we learn that the character Laura is adopted and that she has spent the
past three years desperately trying to track down her real parents. Having exhausted all the usual
options—adoption agencies, online searches, family trees, and so on—she is on the verge of giving
up when she meets a stranger on a bus. The chance encounter leads to a complicated chain of events
that ultimately result in Laura getting her lifelong wish. But is it really what she wants? Throughout
the rest of the film, Laura discovers that sometimes the past is best left where it belongs.

Purpose: ........................................................

3. To create the feeling of being gripped in a vice, the director, May Lee, uses a variety of elements to
gradually increase the tension. The creepy, haunting melody that subtly enhances the earlier scenes
becomes ever more insistent, rising to a disturbing crescendo toward the end of the movie. The
desperation of the actors, combined with the claustrophobic atmosphere and tight camera angles
create a realistic firestorm, from which there is little hope of escape. Walking out of the theatre at
the end feels like staggering out of a Roman dungeon.

Purpose: ........................................................

4. The scene in which Campbell and his fellow prisoners assist the guards in shutting down the riot
immediately strikes the viewer as unrealistic. Based on the recent reports on prison riots in both
Detroit and California, it seems highly unlikely that a posse of hardened criminals will intentionally
help their captors at the risk of inciting future revenge from other inmates. Instead, both news
reports and psychological studies indicate that prisoners who do not actively participate in a riot
will go back to their cells and avoid conflict altogether. Examples of this lack of attention to detail
occur throughout the film, making it almost unbearable to watch.

Purpose: ........................................................

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Reading for a Purpose

Exercise 4. Match the content below to the appropriate audience and purpose. On your own sheet
of paper, write the correct letter next to the number.
1. Whereas economist Holmes contends that the financial crisis is far from over, the presidential
advisor Jones points out that it is vital to catch the first wave of opportunity to increase market
share. We can use elements of both experts’ visions. Let me explain how.
2. In 2000, foreign money flowed into the United States, contributing to easy credit conditions.
People bought larger houses than they could afford, eventually defaulting on their loans as interest
rates rose.
3. The Emergency Economic Stabilisation Act, known by most of us as the humongous government
bailout, caused mixed reactions. Although supported by many political leaders, the statute provoked
outrage among grassroots groups. In their opinion, the government was actually rewarding banks
for their appalling behaviour.
1. Audience: An instructor
1. Purpose: To analyse the reasons behind the 2007 financial crisis
2. Content:
2. Audience: Classmates
1. Purpose: To summarise the effects of the $700 billion government bailout
2. Content:
3. Audience: An employer
1. Purpose: To synthesise two articles on preparing businesses for economic recovery
2. Content:

ELECTRONIC SOURCES
(ASSESSING INTERNET SOURCES CRITICALLY)
Consider the following scenario: You are conducting a literature search on a subject, but you are having
a difficult time finding adequate background material in traditional sources like books and journal articles.
Then, amazingly, you come across a web page that provides all of the information you require. Why don’t
you just cite it? Reconsider your position! How can you tell if it is accurate and reliable?
More and more people are recognizing the internet’s potential as a catalyst for scientific advancement.
As a result, unpublished publications, researcher’s pages, and blog entries are progressively making their
way into scientific psychology. Now that the world of information is virtually at your fingertips, psychology
students from all over the world may rapidly obtain material on a variety of topics thanks to the internet.
This large amount of data can be quite useful not just for generating research ideas, but also for obtaining
background information for your works. Using internet-based sources without first properly examining
them, on the other hand, might be dangerous and lead to some undesirable or even embarrassing outcomes.
To avoid this, use the five criteria listed below to assess the quality of the source in question (Tate, 2010):

Authority
The extent to which an individual or organisation is acknowledged as having expert knowledge in a
topic is known as authority. Indeed, the fact that anyone with internet access can publish material adds
to the risk of reading false or substandard information on the internet. That’s why, learning more about
the author is such an important initial step in deciding whether or not the source is reliable. Here are a
few elements to consider while assessing the source’s quality: Is the author’s name and credentials spelled
out on the page? Is it possible to find user feedback on the author’s previous works? Is there a link to
the author’s personal website? Are you able to locate any contact information, such as an email address?

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

However, you should exercise caution because you the work was written or when it was published? Or
cannot be certain who has the final authority to maybe that’s the last time it was edited? It’s possible
post content on this page. Even if there is a name, that the author is the only one who truly knows the
it is possible that it is not the author who wrote it. solution. As a result, if you think there is something
you should know about a certain source, you should
consider contacting them.
Accuracy
It might be difficult to tell whether a source
is reliable, especially if you are unfamiliar with Coverage
the subject. Obviously, most web sites do not go The structure of internet-based sources, unlike
through the same review and editing procedure as traditional sources, may not be readily obvious.
peer-reviewed academic publications. Despite the There may be no introduction or outline of the
fact that the quality of internet-based sources varies information given in some sources. As a result, as
widely, there are few indicators that can assist you: you read it, try to gauge to what extent this source
Is the author’s information backed up by citations? covers the subject. How thoroughly is the material
Is there a reference list with all of the sources examined? Is the background information adequate
that were used? Is there someone who checks the for this source’s purpose? Are the conclusions
accuracy of the content on this website? pertinent to the material presented?

Objectivity Further Challenges

Objectivity can be a problem not only in internet- As you may have noticed, distinguishing between
based sources, but also in traditional ones, because these five criteria can be challenging because
no work can be totally objective and free of bias. some of them frequently overlap. The authority
If you already know who the author is, evaluating of a source, for example, frequently indicates its
the objectivity of internet-based sources should be correctness (Tate, 2010). As a result, rather than
no more difficult than evaluating the objectivity of depending entirely on one of these characteristics,
traditional media. Because the internet is such a you should try to assess the source based on the
useful tool for disseminating ideas, you should also overall impression you get from them all.
evaluate the author’s reason for writing the text: However, there are a few other issues with
Is it used by the author to disseminate his or her internet-based sources, such as the vulnerability of
ideas? Is the piece of information affected by the internet pages to change or changes in the URL
beliefs of the organisation or group that runs the link by which they can be reached (Dietz-Uhler
website? Do marketers or sponsors have any impact & Sherman, 2003). Because links to web pages
over the information’s content? frequently change (or, worse yet, entirely vanish),
the page you cited a few months ago may be long
Currency gone by the time your reader looks for it.
One of the most appealing features of internet-
based materials is how quickly they are released
and, if necessary, altered. This benefit, however,
comes with a cost: it’s impossible to know when a 5
source was actually published. Many websites don’t Please write the criteria for the
disclose the publishing date, and those that do don’t quality of an internet-based source.
always explain what it means: is this the date when

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Reading for a Purpose

ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
Now here is an academic vocabulary exercise for you. The aim of this activity is to expand your
vocabulary. You are expected to fill in the blanks by using the words in the box.
Put these words in the correct form into the gaps.

research / economic / contract / analysis / factor / legal / period / available / similar / indicate

1. _______________ of water is vital to all plant and animal life.

2. We need to find a more _______________ way to manufacture our products because our profit
margin is too low.
3. Warmer than average weather was the deciding _______________ in our decision to postpone our
ski trip.
4. Interest in the planet Mars has greatly increased since _______________ of water raised the
possibility that life in some form may have evolved there.
5. Music downloaders are questioning the _______________ of file sharing, claiming the law is
unclear on the matter.
6. Meetings will be held _______________ for the members of the project to discuss their progress.
7. Jane Goodall’s _______________ into chimpanzees has greatly increased our knowledge of these
animals.
8. We are _______________ obliged to deal with this firm.
9. The DNA of chimpanzees shows a remarkable _______________ to that of humans
10. At the end of a research project, the researcher is normally faced with lots of observations which
need to be _______________.

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

to read a written text for a

LO 1 specific purpose determined by
themselves or the instructor.

The key to efficient reading is to keep your goal in mind at all times. Always keep in mind why you are
reading and what you hope to gain from it.

Summary
to distinguish the similarities and
LO 2 differences among the text types.

The wide range of reading and writing materials we might encounter in a single day can be categorised in
a variety of ways. But it is simpler to think of them in terms of two broad, all-encompassing categories:
literary and factual.

to use traditional or online

LO 3 dictionaries effectively.

A dictionary is a useful tool that can help you build your vocabulary on a daily basis. It not only aids
in the derivation of a word’s meaning and spelling, but it also aids in the effective improvement of your
English language.

to identify the audience in a

LO 4 written text.

The purpose, audience, and tone of the assignment determine what the paragraph will address and how
it will support one key argument.

to utilise the electronic sources in

LO 5 a critical approach.

Using internet-based sources without first properly examining them, on the other hand, might be
dangerous and lead to some undesirable or even embarrassing outcomes. To avoid this, use the five criteria
(authority, accuracy, objectivity, currency, and coverage) to assess the quality of the source in question.

25
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Reading for a Purpose

1 Which one is accepted as the purpose of an 6 Which one is not among the advantages of
author within the context of reading for a purpose? bilingual dictionaries?
A. To explain A. To teach new vocabulary to the learners in order
B. To summarise to enable them to have an effective vocabulary
Test Yourself

C. To inform B. To encourage EFL students to think about

D. To prove what part of speech the word they’re looking
E. To declare up belongs to
C. To suggest that students double-check that the
2 Which of the following is not a literary text? English word they found is the one they are
looking for
A. Novel D. To check to see whether they have found the
B. Story right translation
C. Fairy Tale E. To encourage all students to utilise dictionaries
D. Article in class
E. Discussion Texts
7 Which one is the element that shapes the
3 Please choose the correct option which is content of a paragraph?
under the category of Factual Texts. A. Background B. Expectation
A. Explanatory Texts C. Suggestion D. Tone
B. Article Texts E. Currency
C. Story
D. Anecdote 8 Please choose the option which is not
E. Literary Texts accepted as one of the paragraph types.
A. Analysis paragraph
4
Please choose the option which is not B. Summary paragraph
considered among the features of a novel. C. Synthesis paragraph
A. The events described in the novel are handled D. Evaluation paragraph
in a very detailed and broadway E. Entertaining paragraph
B. The content of the story should be complicated
as much as possible 9 Which one is different in terms of the criteria
C. The plot is formed when the events coalesce to assess the quality of the source?
around the main event A. Length B. Accuracy
D. The characters are quite numerous, so analysis C. Objectivity D. Coverage
of the characters can be included E. Currency
E. Incredible events such as going back in time
can also be the subject of the novel 10 What does “authority” refer to in terms of
the criteria to assess the quality of the source?
5 Which one is not included in a dictionary?
A. How quickly they are released and, if necessary,
A. Spelling of a word altered
B. Importance of a word B. To tell whether a source is reliable
C. The pronunciation of a word C. The extent to which an individual or
D. History of a word organisation is acknowledged as having expert
E. Syllables of a word knowledge in a topic
D. What extent this source covers the subject
E. The vulnerability of internet pages to change
or changes in the URL link by which they can
be reached

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

1. C If your answer is wrong, please review the 6. A If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Reading For a Purpose” section. “Bilingual Dictionaries” section.

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

2. E If your answer is wrong, please review the 7. D If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Text types” section. “Identifying the Audience” section.

3. A If your answer is wrong, please review the 8. E If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Text types” section. “Identifying the Audience” section.

If your answer is wrong, please review the

4. B If your answer is wrong, please review the 9. A
“Electronic Sources (Assessing internet
“Novel” section.
sources critically)” section.

5. B If your answer is wrong, please review the 10. C If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Using Dictionary” section. “Authority” section.

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

Please summarise the basic principles of reading for a
purpose.

When you read an essay, you are trying to come up with a strong argument.
Try to determine the primary concepts you wish to bring forward in
establishing your stance as you critically assess the literature. This reading will
your turn 1 assist you in formulating a tentative position that will help you focus your
further investigation.

Please make a list of the main genres of the texts.

1. Factual Texts
• Discussion Texts
• Explanatory Texts
• Instructional / Procedural Texts
2. Literary Texts
• Novel
your turn 2 • Story
• Fairy Tale
• Article
• Essay
• Anecdote
• Critique

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Reading for a Purpose

Please write the types of dictionaries.

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

1. Bilingual Dictionary
your turn 3
2. Monolingual Dictionary

Please list the types of paragraphs.

1. Summary Paragraph
2. Analysis Paragraph
your turn 4 3. Synthesis Paragraph
4. Evaluation Paragraph

Please write the criteria for the quality of an internet-

based source.

1. Authority
2. Accuracy
3. Objectivity
your turn 5
4. Currency
5. Coverage
6. Further Challenges

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

References
Dietz-Uhler, B. and Sherman, R. C. (2003). Using the internet to aid the research process. In R. J. Sternberg
(Ed.), The psychologist’s companion (4th ed., pp. 77-97). New York: Cambridge University Press.
QuillBot. (2022, May 18). QuillBot. QuillBot: https://quillbot.com/courses/college-level-writing-composition/
chapter/purpose-audience-tone-and-content/ adresinden alındı.
Schnoor, M. (2003), Different types of dictionaries, GRIN Verlag.
Tate, M. A. (2010).  Web wisdom: How to evaluate and create information quality on the web  (2nd  ed.). Boca
Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis Group.

29
 Chapter 2 Basic Reading Strategies I
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
Learning Outcomes

1 Use previewing and predicting strategies

before reading a text.
2 Find out the main idea of a text by using a
skimming strategy.

3 Skim to identify the structure and organisation

of a text.
4 Skim to determine the tone or intention of the
author.

5 Skim to identify keywords necessary for

reading comprehension.
6 Apply steps of active reading.

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction Previewing
Reading Strategy 1: Previewing and Predicting Predicting
Reading Strategy 2: Skimming Skimming
Identifying Keywords Tone
Steps of Active Reading Intention
General Practice 1
General Practice 2
General Practice 3
Academic Vocabulary

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

INTRODUCTION
You are expected to read many textbooks and acquire complex information and read graphs, charts,
and tables in your courses. The ability to comprehend and use the information in your textbooks is key for
your success. However, reading comprehension and being able to use the knowledge in your textbooks is
not an easy task. To succeed in these skills and to be good readers, you should know how to use strategies
before, during and after reading. You are going to deal with basic reading strategies in this chapter.

READING STRATEGY 1: PREVIEWING AND PREDICTING

1. Do you read every reading text in your textbooks?
2. How do you decide to read something?
In order to be a good reader, readers should have a purpose and be selective while deciding to read
something. Previewing and predicting are reading strategies that are used before reading to have a purpose.
Before reading a text, good readers generally look at the pictures, graphs and charts, read the main title and
subtitles, and look at numbers, dates, names or keywords. By previewing just for a few seconds, readers
may have a great deal of information about the text and decide to read or not to read it. Previewing can
be used for any kind of text. After previewing, good readers try to predict the topic of the text by using
their background knowledge. Predicting is the link between your prior knowledge and new information
in the text. All these processes are called PREVIEWING
and PREDICTING. These strategies help students think
about what they know about the text, activate their
background knowledge, and prepare readers for what 1
they are going to read. Previewing and predicting can
Why do you use previewing and predicting
improve reading comprehension. You are going to see the
strategies?
steps of previewing and predicting in the chart below.

1. Read the main title.

2. Read the sub-titles.

Before Reading a Text

3. Look at the pictures, graphs, charts, maps, dates, and names.

4. Look at the footnotes, sidebars, symbols, italicized and bold words.

5. Look at the text type, organisation, and length of the text.

6. Look at the first line and final sentence of the text.

7. Use your knowledge and combine it with new information.

8. Try to predict the probable meaning of the text.

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Basic Reading Strategies I

Exercise 1. Look at the text below and answer the following questions by using previewing and
predicting strategies.

LOCATION MUSEUMS

THINGS TO DO

1. Watch hot air balloons at Göreme Open-Air Museum

sunrise. Zelve Valley Open Air Museum
Cappadocia is in the centre of 2. Visit the Churches of Güray Museum of Ceramics and
Turkey. Most people think that Göreme Open-Air Museum Pottery
it is a city in Turkey. However, it 3. Hike or horse ride in Red Chez Galip Hair Museum in Avanos
is an entire region about 5,000 and Rose Valley. Cappadocia Museum of Art and
square kilometres. The region 4. Explore the village of History
called Cappadocia or Kapadokya Göreme. Museum of Archaeology and
is located on the Anatolian side 5. Visit Underground city at Ethnography
of Turkey, right in the middle. Derinkuyu and Kaymaklı.
6. Hike Ihlara Valley.
7. Climb Uçhisar’s Rock
Citadel.
8. Join a pottery workshop in
Avanos.
9. Photo shoot at the carpet
galleries.
Cappadocia is situated about 10. Watch sunset at Red Valley.
3 hours drive from capital 11. Taste wine at wine houses.
Ankara. There is an airport in 12. Set out on ATV safari. VISIT
Gülşehir town, the Cappadocia 13. Do gondola tour on CAPPADOCIA
Airport, and there are flights Kızılırmak.
to Cappadocia Airport from
Istanbul and Antalya.

1. What kind of text is it?

2. Where is Cappadocia?

3. Is there any flight to Cappadocia?

4. How far is Cappadocia from the capital?

5. What can you do in Cappadocia?

6. Which museums can you visit in Cappadocia

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

Exercise 2. Apply previewing and predicting strategies to activate your background knowledge.

Blockchain-based decentralised digital currency is known as cryptocurrency. There are more than 5,000
distinct cryptocurrencies in use, however you may be most familiar with the two most well-known ones,
Bitcoin and Ethereum.
A digital, encrypted, decentralised medium of exchange is known as a cryptocurrency.
Although most individuals invest in cryptocurrencies the same way they would in other assets like
stocks or precious metals, you can use cryptocurrency to purchase conventional goods and services.
In a paper titled “Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System” from 2008, Satoshi Nakamoto first
proposed the fundamentals of Bitcoin, the first cryptocurrency.
(Retrieved and adapted from https://www.forbes.com)

Choose the best answer without looking at the text, and then check your answers.
1. This text is about 3. A cryptocurrency is ________
a. blockchain technology a. a digital medium of exchange
b. cryptocurrency b. a banknote
c. Ethereum c. an electronic messaging system
d. Trade d. a medium of transport
e. Satoshi Nakamoto e. a precious metal
2. How many cryptocurrencies are there in 4. Bitcoin is ________
circulation? a. not a risky investment
a. 3000 b. product of a central bank
b. 50000 c. outlined in 2006
c. 5000 d. a principle
d. 500000 e. the first digital money
e. 5

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Basic Reading Strategies I

READING STRATEGY 2: SKIMMING

Sometimes you have to read a lot in a limited period of time, you need to read as fast as possible. The
way you read a scientific article and the way you read a newspaper change. Try to think about the answers
of the following questions.
1. How fast do you read when you have a limited period of time to read?
2. How fast do you read when you have a lot to read?
3. How do you read the newspaper?
4. How do you read a scientific article?

Skimming for Main Ideas

Sometimes you may have a lot to read in a limited period of time. Skimming is used when you read
something very fast. For this kind of reading, you do not have to understand all the text. When you skim,
you read a text to get the main idea/topic (gist) and a few, but not all the details. To skim a text, you
should read as fast as possible to identify the topic of an article, the writer’s point of view, the organisation
or pattern of an article, or some facts, names and numbers, but not unnecessary details. Skimming is
generally used when reading newspapers, magazines, messages or websites. The purposes of skimming are
listed below:

Purposes of Skimming
1. To decide if you want to read something or not.
2. To find out the main idea or topic of a text.
3. To evaluate your sources while writing a research paper.
The steps of skimming are explained below:

Steps of Skimming
1. To start with, read the first sentence and try to understand the subject of the text you are reading.
Try to get the main idea of the first paragraph.
2. After you identify the topic and the main idea of the first paragraph, go to the next ones and try
to identify the main idea of the following paragraphs. You do not need to remember all the details.
You should read in order to get the general ideas presented in the text.
3. Avoid focusing on unnecessary details or subjects since this may slow you down. You cannot read
every word or every sentence. Leave out unimportant details.
4. Remember that the main ideas are generally stated in the first or second sentence of a paragraph.
However, sometimes the main idea is located in the middle or end of a paragraph. Moreover, some
paragraphs may not have a key sentence at all. In this situation, read the next paragraphs faster to
make up for lost time.
5. Read the last paragraph more carefully because the last paragraph generally summarises the text.
Try to find the summary of the text.
6. Note that the aim of skimming is to get the gist of the text as fast as possible. Therefore, find only
key words or key sentences.

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

Exercise 3. Read the text below as fast as possible. Underline the key sentences of each paragraph
and guess the main ideas of each paragraph.

MUSIC AND PRODUCTIVITY

Paragraph 1
“Without music, life would be a mistake”, as the late philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche famously stated.
For the majority of us, this is true. Music has played a crucial role in our most memorable life moments,
whether we were listening to joyful music on our graduation day or sorrowful music after a difficult
breakup. Aside from memories, music has an impact on our productivity and capacity to concentrate.
Here is the science behind how music influences productivity and tips on how to benefit from it.
Main idea:

Paragraph 2
Dopamine, a neurotransmitter that makes you feel good and lowers tension and anxiety, is released by
the brain when you listen to music you like. For instance, researchers examined the impact of music on
patients who were scheduled for surgery in one study within the meta-analysis of 400 papers published in
the journal Trends in Cognitive Sciences. Researchers observed changes in the levels of the stress hormone
cortisol after instructing patients to either listen to music or take anti-anxiety medications. At the
conclusion of the study, the researchers found that the patients who listened to music had lower cortisol
levels and less anxiety than the individuals who took anti-anxiety medications. Our ability to focus and
concentrate on the task at hand may be improved by music because it has the power to elevate our mood.
Main idea:

Paragraph 3
All music is not created equal. Studies on background music in the workplace have revealed that
listening to songs with lyrics makes us less productive mentally. However, instrumental music could
increase our productivity. Additionally, according to Applied Acoustics research, performance suffers when
speech intelligibility increases. In simple terms, our productivity decreases the more voices—including
lyrics—we hear while working.
Main idea:

Paragraph 4
Exercises can be more enjoyable and less boring when motivational music is playing in the background.
Listening to motivational music while exercising. In a study led by sports psychologist Karageorghis, it
was discovered that music boosts physical performance by enabling longer, harder workouts and delaying
weariness. I’ve found via my own experiments that listening to music greatly increases the intensity, pace,
and duration of my exercises. It improves my attitude on days when I do not feel like working out and has
helped me maintain my weekly workout schedule of five days.
Main idea:

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Basic Reading Strategies I

Paragraph 5
According to Daniel Levitin, neuroscientist and the author of This is Your Brain on Music, music can
boost your concentration while working on repetitive tasks and make them more enjoyable. For instance,
one study found that surgeons who conduct repetitive nonsurgical laboratory tasks may perform better
when listening to music.
Main idea:

Paragraph 6
According to numerous studies, when we listen to familiar music as opposed to new music, particular
brain regions that trigger powerful emotions and enhance attention are more active. Additionally, while
adjusting to the new sound when listening to unfamiliar music, we are more likely to become distracted.
Main idea:

Paragraph 7
The effects of music on introverts’ and extraverts’ performance on various cognitive tasks were examined
in a study that was published in the Applied Cognitive Psychology Journal. Ten introverts and extraverts were
tested in the study using two different tasks: a memory test requiring both immediate and delayed recall,
and a reading comprehension exam. The tests had to be completed by the subjects either in silence or
while listening to pop music. At the conclusion of the study, the researchers found that playing music had
a negative impact on both groups’ instant recall performance on the memory test. However, following a
6-minute break, the extraverts in the condition fared noticeably better in recall than the introverts who had
memorised the objects. In addition, the introverts who completed a reading comprehension task when the
music was played also performed significantly worse than the introverts.
Main idea:

Paragraph 8
Whilst there may be detrimental effects of listening to music whilst working, listening to music in-
between tasks can boost your mental performance. For instance, a research published in the Psychology of
Music found that playing music while students work on a task can improve their academic performance
and their capacity for sustained concentration. To obtain the best of both worlds, you could work in
solitude while taking breaks to listen to music and then getting back to your work.
Main idea:

Paragraph 9
The kind of music you should listen to for increased productivity depends on a few aspects, including:
• The number of lyrics in the song.
• How familiar you are with the song.
• How repetitive the activity you’ll be doing while listening to music is.
• Whether you’re doing anything mental or physical.

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For instance, listening to ambient or classical music is definitely preferable to rock or pop music while
you are preparing to read a long, in-depth document. Likewise, if you’re preparing to go for a run, do
the opposite. To determine what is most effective for your productivity, you would ultimately need to
experiment with various genres of music under various circumstances.
(Retrieved and adapted from https://www.mayooshin.com)
Main idea:

Exercise 4. Match the main ideas below with the paragraphs and check if your answers are true.
a) Listening to music between tasks could boost productivity.
b) What type of music should you listen to?
c) Lyrics reduce mental performance.
d) Music familiarity is best for focus.
e) Music improves your mood.
f ) Music improves physical performance.
g) Music affects introverts and extroverts differently.
h) Music makes repetitive tasks more pleasurable.
i) The science of how music affects your productivity.

Skimming for Structure or Organisation

Skimming strategy is used not only to find the main ideas of texts but also to understand structure or
organisation of the text. Information in a text can be ordered in different ways. The author may compare
in a compare and contrast essay, list something by the order of importance, explain reasons in cause and
effect essay or propose an argument. Knowing the organisation of a text may help readers comprehend the
ideas easily and make better connections. While skimming for organisation, make use of the signal words
such as conjunctions, comparative adjectives, and listing words.

Exercise 5. Read the sentences below as fast as possible. Identify the pattern of organisation.
1. When we are young, we tend to settle for mediocre jobs, relationships, finances and so on, because
we fear failure and worry about what others will think about us.

_____listing _____cause-effect
_____compare-contrast _____argumentation

2. Unlike his predecessors, Skinner argued that our behaviour is not solely a response to external
stimuli, rather it is a by-product of consequences created by our immediate environment.

_____listing _____cause-effect
_____compare-contrast _____argumentation

3. Operant conditioning is a useful framework that provides insights into why we do what we do,
how we can influence others and how to change behaviour.

_____listing _____cause-effect
_____compare-contrast _____argumentation

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4. It takes over our ability to think of the long-term consequences of our actions and leads us to avoid
the important task at hand, because it is perceived as a threat to our safety.

_____listing _____cause-effect
_____compare-contrast _____argumentation

5. A positive punishment discourages behaviour by delivering something unpleasant while a negative

punishment discourages behaviour by taking something pleasant away.

_____listing _____cause-effect
_____compare-contrast _____argumentation

6. We are so full of apprehensions, fears, that one does not know exactly what it points to. One thing
is sure. A great change of our psychological attitude is imminent.

_____listing _____cause-effect
_____compare-contrast _____argumentation

7. A positive reinforcement strengthens a behaviour by giving something pleasurable. On the other

hand, negative reinforcement strengthens a behaviour by removing a painful or unpleasant problem.

_____listing _____cause-effect
_____compare-contrast _____argumentation

8. We need more understanding of human nature, because the only real danger that exists is man
himself. He is the great danger, and we are pitifully unaware of it.

_____listing _____cause-effect
_____compare-contrast _____argumentation

9. Several limitations, however, were apparent. Firstly, student adherence to the required home based
mindfulness practice was not measured via, for example, a daily log. Secondly, only 40% of the
eligible students participated in the study.

_____listing _____cause-effect
_____compare-contrast _____argumentation

10. On one hand, the nature camp firmly believes that genius is primarily born and inherited through
genetics. On the other hand, the nurture camp asserts that genius is created through deliberate
practice and hard work.

_____listing _____cause-effect
_____compare-contrast _____argumentation

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11. We know nothing of man, far too little. His psyche should be studied, because we are the origin of
all coming evil.

_____listing _____cause-effect
_____compare-contrast _____argumentation

12. Throughout history the importance of culture has been largely ignored because the nature versus
nurture debate has diverted our full attention away from the environment and towards the
individual.

_____listing _____cause-effect
_____compare-contrast _____argumentation

Skimming for Tone or Intention of the Author

In addition to finding the main ideas of texts or understanding structure or organisation of the text,
skimming strategy is used to find the tone or intention of the author. An author may express a fact or an
opinion in a text. The author may be neutral, or s/he may agree or disagree on an idea. A fast glance at a
text may reveal the point of view of the author. While skimming for tone or intention of the author, make
use of the signal words such as adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs.

Exercise 6. Read the sentences below as fast as possible. Identify the point of view of the author.
1. We would like to think that we can multitask—respond to emails, text messages, and scroll through
social media feeds, while working on important tasks—but, our brains would say otherwise.
_____fact _____opinion
_____agree _____disagree

2. According to neuroscientists, our brains are not built to do more than one thing at a time.
_____fact _____opinion
_____agree _____disagree

3. A study conducted in the University of California, discovered that it takes an average of 23 minutes
and 15 seconds to refocus on a task after an interruption.
_____fact _____opinion
_____agree _____disagree

4. In my experience, 99 percent of people in leadership roles do not take notes.

_____fact _____opinion
_____agree _____disagree

5. I think a simple rule of business is, if you do the things that are easier first, then you can actually
make a lot of progress.
_____fact _____opinion
_____agree _____disagree

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6. New research shows that we humans are not as good as we think we are at doing several things at
once.
_____fact _____opinion
_____agree _____disagree

7. You think you are actually paying attention to everything around you at the same time. But you are
actually not
_____fact _____opinion
_____agree _____disagree

8. One study found that just 2.5% of people are capable of multitasking effectively.
_____fact _____opinion
_____agree _____disagree

9. The problem is that multitasking is often praised as a necessary skill to succeed in the 21st century.
_____fact _____opinion
_____agree _____disagree

10. According to scientists, women are less affected by interference when carrying out certain tasks
than men.
_____fact _____opinion
_____agree _____disagree

2
What are the purposes of the skimming strategy?
4
What kind of clues can you use for skimming tone
or intention of the author?

3
Why do you skim? For organisation or structure?

IDENTIFYING KEYWORDS
In the skimming for organisation of the text and skimming for the intention of the author part, you
were advised to make use of keywords such as adjectives, pronouns, adverbs, conjunctions, and listing
words. Keywords may give you a clue about the organisation of text or intention of the author. In this part,
you are going to learn what these keywords are and how to benefit from these keywords. For example, here
you are going to read a part of a compare and contrast essay. In this paragraph, there are some words that
are used for comparing knowledge and wisdom.
We often mistake knowledge for wisdom and wisdom for knowledge. Knowledge is potential power—
like a paintbrush in your hands. It is the accumulation of information and facts through reading or dialogue.
Conversely, wisdom is applied knowledge—knowing exactly how to use the paintbrush to create a desired
image. It is the synthesis of experience with knowledge to derive truths that linger for the rest of your life.

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Knowledge is given and easily accessible, even to the foolish person. But wisdom is earned through learning
from mistakes in the real world. One can gain knowledge, but one does not seek wisdom—it emerges when
least expected. Knowledge paves the path for wisdom, but wisdom is the doorway that reveals truths in the
external world that already reside in the internal one. “Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much,
wisdom is humble that he knows no more.” Knowledge is the tool. But wisdom is the treasure. Knowledge is
only useful in the face of certainty. Wisdom is always useful both in times of certainty and uncertainty. These
are some of the key distinctions that highlight the superiority of wisdom over knowledge.

Table 2.1 Comparison of knowledge and wisdom

Knowledge Conjunctions & Adjectives Wisdom
potential power Conversely applied knowledge
accumulation of information But synthesis of experience
given and easily accessible but earned
gain superiority ….. over emerges
the path for wisdom the doorway
proud humble
the tool the treasure
useful in the face of certainty always useful

In the table above, you see the conjunctions, adjectives, and verbs that show comparison. These are
the signal words that show the essay is a compare-contrast essay. Some signal words help us define the
organisation of essays we read. These keywords are used to explain cause and effect of something, to offer
solutions to a problem, to convince the reader, to describe events in order of importance or steps or just to
describe. The table below shows the signal words used in specific types of essays.

Table 2.2 Signalling words used in specific types of essays

Text Structure Purpose Signal words
Just to describe the Such as, for instance, for example, to illustrate,
characteristics or features of to begin with, also, most important, in front,
Description
a person, an idea, a place or a another, besides, near, looks like, sounds like, etc.
thing by listing them
To order events in the order First, second, next, then, before, after, while,
of importance, the steps to meanwhile, last, finally, at last, in the end,
Listing
follow or to list something following, now, soon, etc.
chronologically.
To list the causes of an event and Therefore, consequently, so, because of, since, in
Cause and effect their consequences to the reader. order to, caused by, as a result, for this reason, the
impact, the influence, factor, moreover etc.
To explain a problem and to offer Because, since, as a solution, the problem is, a
Problem and
one or more solutions to this puzzle is, question, to solve, one possible, the
solution
problem. other, the challenge, therefore, if …then, etc.
To show how two or more things Similar to, differ from, like, unlike, in contrast,
Compare and
are alike or different from each while, but, yet, more, however, although, on the
contrast
other. other hand, as well as, either…or, both…and, etc.
To convince the readers to Claim, support, theory, think, point of view, in fact,
Argumentation believe in something. obviously, especially, of course, best of all, believe,
however, on the other hand, in addition to, etc.

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Basic Reading Strategies I

Predicting: After previewing the text, try to

guess the topic of the reading text by using the
clues you have in the previewing strategy.
5
Activating your background knowledge: Try
How do the keywords help the reader comprehend
to remember what you already know and what you
a text?
want to learn about the topic of reading text.
Skim for the main ideas: Look through the
Exercise 7. Skim the paragraph below as text as fast as possible to identify the main idea,
fast as possible. Identify the text structure and writer’s point of view, pattern of the text, some
underline the signal words. names, and numbers. Do not focus on unnecessary
details.
In the past, most women stayed at home to
take care of domestic chores such as cooking or
cleaning. Women’s liberation and feminism have
meant that this situation has been transformed
and in contemporary society women are playing
6
an almost equal role to men in terms of work.
This has had significant consequences, both in What are the steps of active reading?
terms of the family, for example by improving
quality of life and increasing children’s sense
of independence, and also for society itself with
greater gender equality. GENERAL PRACTICE 1
The main reasons behind the increase of women You are going to read a text about human
in the workplace are women’s liberation and activities in the world. Before you read, try to
feminism. The women’s liberation movement answer the questions in Exercise 8. After skimming
originated in the 1960s and was popularised
the text, try to answer the questions in Exercise 9.
by authors such as Simone de Beauvoir. As a
consequence of this, new legislation emerged,
granting women equal rights to men in many Exercise 8. Look at the text below and apply
fields, in particular employment. Because of previewing and predicting strategies to answer
feminist ideas, men have taken up roles which the following questions.
were previously seen as being for women only, 1. What type of text is it?
most importantly those related to child rearing. As
a result of this, women have more time to pursue
their own careers and interests. 2. What is the text mainly about?

STEPS OF ACTIVE READING 3. What do the pictures imply about the topic
of the text?
Set your purpose: Before reading a text, readers
should have a purpose. Why do you read a text?
Do you read a text because it is your homework or 4. Is there a connection between the title and
because you are curious about the text? Keep your the pictures?
purpose of reading in your mind.
Previewing: After setting your purpose, you 5. Are you familiar with this topic?
are expected to look at the visuals, titles, sub-titles,
italicised or bold words, charts etc. These features
6. Is there a connection between the bold
give you an idea about the topic of the reading text.
words and the topic?

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Consider Whether Human Activity Has Made the World a Better Place

Paragraph 1
History demonstrates that human beings have come a
long way from where they started. They have created new
technologies which means that everybody can enjoy luxuries
they never previously imagined. However, the technologies that
are temporarily making this world a better place to live could
well prove to be an ultimate disaster due to factors such as the
development of nuclear weapons, an increase in pollution, and
the extinction of animal species.

Paragraph 2
The biggest threat to the earth caused by modern human activity comes from the creation of nuclear
weapons. Although it cannot be denied that countries have to defend themselves, the kind of weapons
that some of them currently possess are far in excess of what is needed for defence. If these weapons were
used, they could lead to the destruction of the entire planet.

Paragraph 3
Pollution is another issue that humans have with this
planet. Modern technology has made people dependent
on it, which could be bad for the environment.
For example, reliance on cars causes air and noise
pollution. Even seemingly innocent gadgets like laptops
and mobile phones consume electricity, the majority
of which is generated by coal-burning power plants,
adding to environmental pollution. The damage to the
environment could be catastrophic if we do not reduce
our direct and indirect use of fossil fuels.

Paragraph 4
Animals are important features of this
earth and the past decades have witnessed the
extinction of a considerable number of animal
species. This is the consequence of human
encroachment on wildlife habitats, such as
deforestation to expand human cities. Some
may argue that such loss of species is natural
and has occurred throughout earth’s history.
However, the current rate of species loss far
exceeds normal levels, and is threatening to
become a mass extinction event.

Paragraph 5
In conclusion, it is undeniable that present human activities, such as the development of nuclear
weapons, pollution, and the extinction of animals, are detrimental to the environment. It is crucial that we
consider both the immediate and long-term consequences of our activities. Otherwise, human activities
will only serve as another step toward destruction.
(Retrieved and adapted from https://www.eapfoundation.com)

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Exercise 9. Skim the text above and answer the following questions.
1. What is the main idea of the text?

2. Identify signal words and define the pattern of organisation.

3. What is the main idea of the second paragraph?

4. What is the main idea of the third paragraph?

5. What is the main idea of the fourth paragraph?

Exercise 10. Read the following sentences from the text to choose the correct meaning for the bold
words or phrases. You can guess the meaning from the context.

1. They have created new technologies which 4. For example, reliance on cars causes air and
means that everybody can enjoy luxuries noise pollution.
they never previously imagined. A) doubt
A) formerly B) suspicion
B) immediately C) dependence
C) ultimately D) belief
D) respectively E) certainty
E) subsequently
5. Animals are important features of this earth
2. However, the technologies that are and the past decades have witnessed the
temporarily making this world a better extinction of a considerable number of
place to live could well prove to be an animal species.
ultimate disaster. A) minor
A) permanently B) small
B) momentarily C) poor
C) essentially D) large
D) definitely E) slight
E) increasingly
6. This is the consequence of human
3. Although it cannot be denied that countries encroachment on wildlife habitats, such as
have to defend themselves, the kind of deforestation to expand human cities.
weapons that some of them currently A) decrease
possess are far in excess of what is needed
B) enlarge
for defence.
C) reduce
A) supported
D) lower
B) agreed
E) simplify
C) accepted
D) regretted
E) refused

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7. Animals are important features of this 8. Some may argue that such loss of species
earth and the past decades have witnessed is natural and has occurred throughout
the extinction of a considerable number of earth’s history.
animal species. A) appeared
A) manner B) hidden
B) separation C) disagreed
C) direction D) concealed
D) condition E) approved
E) characteristics

GENERAL PRACTICE 2
You are going to read a text about the effect of technology on our lives. Before you read, use previewing
and predicting strategies to answer the questions in Exercise 11. After skimming the text try to answer the
questions in Exercise 12 and 13.

Exercise 11. Look at the text below and try to use previewing and predicting strategies to answer
the following questions.
1. What form of writing is this?

2. What is the text mainly about?

3. What do the pictures imply about the topic of the text?

4. Is there a connection between the title and the pictures?

5. Can you find another title before reading the text?

6. Are you familiar with this topic?

7. What are the advantages of technology?

8. What are the disadvantages of technology?

TECHNOLOGY HAS MADE OUR LIFE EASIER

Paragraph 1
Technology is more than just a word; it is a force that changed the course of human history. We
struggle to put into words the huge impact that technology has had on our world, but we can say that it
is mostly because of technology that today we are the way we are. In the past several decades, there have
been a great number of revolutions, most of which can be attributed to the development of technology.
The revolutions like industrial revolution and green revolution all were directly or indirectly a by-product
of the advancement of technology. It would be accurate to argue that the majority of significant changes
that these revolutions have brought about for humanity and the globe as a whole were brought about by
the development of technology.

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Basic Reading Strategies I

Paragraph 2
You must now understand the significance of
technology and the profound impact it has on our
world after reading the passage above. One can
now ask what technology actually is. Technology is
nothing but a technique, skill, machinery, equipment
or information that can make human life easier and
convenient. It is difficult to define technology because
there are so many different aspects to it, and virtually
anything that makes life easier for people may be
categorised as technology, from rockets to smart
phones. Tetra packs, the surgical techniques used by
surgeons, the ECG monitor and tool used by doctors,
and the software used by engineers are all examples of
technology.

Paragraph 3
Industrial, agricultural, healthcare, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries, to name a few, all use
various types of technology to make their production more affordable and time-efficient. As a result of the
application of technology in different sectors, profit is significantly increased and time is also saved.

Paragraph 4
However, technology has drawbacks of its
own, just like anything else. Technology is a tool
that anyone can use with ease, but because it is
so simple to use, it is also simple to misuse, so
one must be careful not to do so because doing
so has a negative impact on society and creates
a stigma around technology that can impede
its advancement, which in turn can delay the
advancement of society and humanity as a
whole. So that is why people should never misuse
or abuse technology, but there are still people and sometimes groups of people who misuse technology for
destructive purposes, causing a lot of harm to many people. One good example of technology abuse is the
dropping of nuclear atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Paragraph 5
Nuclear technology could have been a revolutionary technology as it could be used to generate
enormous amount of energy but due to its misuse there was a negative stigma created around the nuclear
technology which cause delay in its development, and the bomb also killed millions of people and left
the many to suffer from radiation. This type of unethical activity is one of the reasons why technology
advancement is sometimes met with protests and criticism. Another example of technological misuse is
hacking, which is the act of breaking into someone’s computer without their permission and stealing their
personal information, as well as their hard-earned money.

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Paragraph 6
Other disadvantages of technology include
pollution caused by rapid industrial development
and the use of motor vehicles. We are using more
fossil fuels than ever before. This massive usage
of fossil fuels has resulted in pollution and also
depletion of natural resources, and these are not little
issues; they are big issues for our generation because
nothing would be possible if natural resources ran
out, and living on the earth would become much
more difficult due to climate change.

Paragraph 7
The good news is that the cure
of disease caused by technology is
technology itself. We are now focusing
on sustainable development and relying
on renewable sources of energy like
wind energy, solar energy, tidal energy
etc. This will help us save the precious
non-renewable sources of energy and
also prevent climate change as renewable
energy sources are eco-friendly. Similarly, the development of electric vehicles is revolutionary as they are
also eco-friendly and do not harm the environment.

Paragraph 8
In conclusion, we can say that technology is crucial to the development of human society, humanity
is what it is now because of technological advances. Because of modern technology, physically disabled
people can regain use of their limbs through the use of prosthetic limbs, organ transplants are now possible,
and someone thousands of miles distant from their family can chat to and see them whenever they want
through video conversations. So, we should not let some people who misuse technology ruin the potential
of a better world for everyone.
(Retrieved and adapted from https://www.interestingarticlestoread.com)

Exercise 12. Look at the previewing and predicting part again (Exercise 11). How did your
predictions help you understand the text?

Exercise 13. Each statement tells the main idea of a paragraph of the text. Read a statement, then
write the correct paragraph number next to it.
Paragraph
The advent of technology has changed the way we live.
Technology is a tool that makes our life easier
Production with technology is time efficient and economical.
As it has advantages, technology also has some disadvantages.
Misuse of technology delays the inventions of new technologies.
Excessive use of natural resources may create pollution.
The problems of technology can be solved by the help of technology.
We should not allow people misuse the technology and destroy the world

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Basic Reading Strategies I

Exercise 14. Read the following sentences from the text to choose the correct meaning for the bold
words or phrases. You can guess the meaning from the context.
1. We struggle to put into words the huge 6. We are now focusing on sustainable
impact that technology has had on our development and relying on renewable
world sources of energy like wind energy, solar
A) pressure energy, tidal energy etc.
B) stress A) unstable
C) violence B) changeable
D) effect C) continuous
E) break D) uncertain
E) weak
2. In the past several decades, there have been
a great number of revolutions, most of 7. Similarly, the development of electric
which can be attributed to the development vehicles is revolutionary as they are also eco-
of technology. friendly and do not harm the environment.
A) wars A) Likewise
B) regression B) Contrary
C) evolutions C) Differently
D) evaluations D) Divergently
E) depressions E) Unusually
3. Nuclear technology could have been a 8. Technology is nothing but a technique, skill,
revolutionary technology as it could be used machinery, equipment or information that
to generate enormous amounts of energy. can make human life easier and convenient.
A) destroy A) household
B) terminate B) furniture
C) charge C) tool
D) receive D) content
E) produce E) object
4. This massive usage of fossil fuels has 9. In conclusion, we can say that technology
resulted in pollution and also depletion of is crucial to the development of human
natural resources. society.
A) minor A) optional
B) huge B) minor
C) young C) unimportant
D) tiny D) additional
E) moderate E) essential
5. We should not let some people who misuse
technology ruin the potential of a better
world for everyone.
A) certainty
B) accuracy
C) realness
D) possibility
E) vitality
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GENERAL PRACTICE 3
You are going to read a story about a wind-farm. Before you read, use previewing and predicting
strategies to answer the questions in Exercise 15. After skimming the text, try to answer the questions in
Exercise 16.

Exercise 15. Look at the text below and try to use previewing and predicting strategies to answer
the following questions.
1. What form of writing is this?

2. What is the text mainly about?

3. What do the pictures imply about the topic of the text?

4. Is there a connection between the title and the pictures?

5. Are you familiar with this topic?

THE WIND-FARM CONTROVERSY

Twelve large wind turbines have been in place
on Kirkby Moor, a windy upland in the north
of England, since 1993. RWE Energy, the firm
in charge of running the facility, now plans to
install six new, 115-metre-tall turbines to replace
the site’s existing 45-metre-tall ones.
Although they will generate more clean,
renewable energy, some people do not want these
turbines. The wind farm is less than a kilometre
from the edge of the Lake District National Park,
and is visible for miles around. The site is also
classified as an SSSI, or Site of Special Scientific
Interest, on account of its wildlife.
An official inspector was chosen to investigate
the controversy when the first wind farm was
planned. He determined that while the wind farm
would not have any significant environmental
consequences, but “the visual impact of the
scheme would be sufficiently harmful”. The new
115-metre wind turbines will be considerably
more noticeable.
The need to produce clean, renewable energy
is almost universally acknowledged, yet wind
farms have long been controversial. Some people
adore them, while others do not want them for
purely aesthetic reasons. Do we need to install
large wind turbines in scenic rural areas?

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Basic Reading Strategies I

In Favour of Wind-Farms
Britain should take advantage of its wind since it is a windy country. If doing so requires building wind
farms on the top of each breezy hill in Britain, then that is exactly what we should be doing. Saying “Stop,
you cannot install a wind farm there because this is a National Park, or near a National Park, and wind
farms do not look nice” is absurd. The majority of the windy mountains in England and Wales just so
happen to be in National Parks or on National Trust property close to the shore.
“Some people claim that wind farms are ugly, but this is quite dishonest because they simply do not
want to see any modernization on their favourite stretches of picturesque countryside. It is comparable to
those who criticise brand-new high-speed rail systems. Half of them commute into London every day, and
use roads and railway lines; yet they complain as soon as someone suggests building something near them.
Not In My Back Yard, or NIMBY, syndrome. As long as it is not close to me, you are free to construct your
wind farms, high-speed lines, prisons, factories, and garbage dumps wherever you please. These individuals
claim to be environmentalists, but in my opinion, they are merely hopping on the green bandwagon to
protect their own interests.
Questions of aesthetics are not really important; what is important is that we move over to clean energy
sources as fast as possible, and get rid of pollution and the nuclear risk. That is the real issue. After all, if
we do not, we will end up destroying the environment that National Parks are meant to protect, through
pollution and climate change.”
Against Wind-Farms
In England, thousands of different species of plants, insects, and animals have vanished, and the
majority of our natural habitat has already been gone. We must do all in our power to preserve what is still
there. No matter what kind of energy they use, more power plants are not the solution. Instead, the public
should utilise more public transportation and less petrol.
Okay, so we ought to use more renewable energy, but we also need to strike a balance between energy
use and environmental protection. National Parks more than any other areas need to be safeguarded
against development in some regions. They exist to accomplish that. Of course, Kirkby Moor is just
outside a park, but it is close enough to affect the park.
There are many more locations where wind farms could be constructed. Additionally, there are other
types of renewable energy besides wind. We should focus on developing wave power, which is also present.
All of Britain’s electrical requirements could be met without any issues by floating wave power generators.

Renewable energy is not required. The solution is nuclear energy since, as long as it is properly
maintained, it is both clean and safe. Although there is now a concern with nuclear waste, scientists will
eventually find a successful technique to treat it.
The government inspector, who should know what he is talking about, recommended against moving
further with the project. Britain’s Kirkby Moor is a stunning region, and it should not be defaced. If you
construct a wind farm, you must also erect buildings and overhead electricity cables. Additionally, you
must hire staff to run the facility. Another unspoilt area of the countryside will be changed.
(Retrieved and adapted from https://linguapress.com)

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Exercise 16. Skim the text above and write suitable reasons for each item.
Almost everyone agrees that we must produce clean renewable energy; but wind-farms have always
been controversial.
Some people support them because
1.

2.

3.

Others are against them because

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Exercise 17. Read the following sentences from the text to choose the correct meaning for the bold
words or phrases. You can guess the meaning from the context.
1. The need to produce clean, renewable energy 3. The site is also classified as an SSSI, or Site
is almost universally acknowledged, yet of Special Scientific Interest, on account of
wind farms have long been controversial. its wildlife.
A) definite A) in case of
B) specific B) regardless of
C) questionable C) in contrast to
D) certain D) due to
E) secure E) in spite of

2. He determined that while the wind 4. The wind farm is less than a kilometre from
farm would not have any significant the edge of the Lake District National Park,
environmental consequences, but “the and is visible for miles around.
visual impact of the scheme would be A) hidden
sufficiently harmful”.
B) apparent
A) effect
C) ambiguous
B) pressure
D) doubtful
C) dominance
E) audible
D) reaction
E) power

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Basic Reading Strategies I

5. Wind-farm is just outside a park, but it is 7. Half of them commute into London every
close enough to affect the park. day, and use roads and railway lines; yet
A) worsen they complain as soon as someone suggests
building something near them.
B) improve
A) arrange
C) enhance
B) develop
D) destroy
C) discover
E) influence
D) travel
6. An official inspector was chosen to E) involve
investigate the controversy when the first
wind farm was planned. 8. What is important is that we move over to
clean energy sources as fast as possible, and
A) examiner
get rid of pollution and the nuclear risk.
B) worker
A) intimidate
C) officer
B) eliminate
D) administrator
C) get along with
E) conductor
D) collect
E) increase

ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
So far, you have read many different texts. These texts contain some academic vocabulary. Read the
sentences taken from the texts you have read and try to answer the questions in Exercise 18.

Exercise 18. Academic Vocabulary: Read the following sentences from the text to choose the
correct meaning for the bold words or phrases. You can guess the meaning from the context.

1. Studies on background music in the work 3. I have discovered that music helps to
environment have shown that music with significantly increase the intensity, speed
lyrics reduces our mental performance at and duration of my workouts.
work. A) point
A) physiological B) end
B) intellectual C) beginning
C) academic D) birth
D) physical E) period
E) actual
4. When we listen to unfamiliar music we are
2. If you are about to read a lengthy and more likely to lose focus, while adjusting to
comprehensive document, you are the new sound.
probably better off listening to classical A) listening
music than rock or pop music.
B) adapting
A) complete
C) playing
B) empty
D) composing
C) short
E) recording
D) partial
E) specific

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5. The participants were required to complete 8. Studies have Music has played a significant
the tests while either listening to pop music, role in our most memorable life events.
or in silence. A) minor
A) audience B) small
B) volunteers C) important
C) performer D) little
D) contributors special
E) victim
9. Various studies have discovered that certain
6. Ultimately, you would have to experiment regions in our brain are more active when
with different types of music in different we listen to familiar rather than unfamiliar
conditions to find what works best for you. music.
A) Finally A) areas
B) Firstly B) territories
C) Later C) nerves
D) Then D) hemispheres
E) Primarily E) neurons

7. You could work in silence and periodically 10. Music alters my mood on the days when I
step away to listen to music, before do not feel like exercising.
returning back to work. A) keep
A) frequently B) remain
B) often C) continue
C) regularly D) ruin
D) ordinarily E) change
E) normally

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Basic Reading Strategies I

to use previewing and predicting

LO 1 strategies before reading a text.

To understand the gist of the text, the readers should know pre-reading strategies. Before reading a text,
the readers should know the stages of previewing and predicting strategies. These strategies require the
readers to read the main title and subtitles, look at the pictures, graphs, charts, maps, dates, names,
footnotes, sidebars, symbols, italicised and bold words. After that the readers should check text type,
organisation, length of the text. Then, the readers should read the first and final sentences of the text to
Summary

combine their prior knowledge with the new information. Finally, the readers should predict the topic of
the text.

to find out the main idea of a text

LO 2 by using a skimming strategy.

When the readers read a lot in a limited period of time, they should use the skimming strategy. The readers
skim the text to get the main idea/topic (gist) and a few, but not all the details. To skim a text, the readers
should read as fast as possible to identify the topic of an article, the writer’s point of view, the organisation
or pattern of an article, or some facts, names and numbers, but not unnecessary details.

to skim to identify the structure

LO 3 and organisation of a text.

Knowing the organisation of a text may help readers comprehend the ideas easily and make better
connections about the content of the text. Skimming strategy is used to understand structure or
organisation of the text. Information in a text can be ordered in different ways. The author may compare
in a compare and contrast essay, list something by the order of importance, explain reasons in cause and
effect essay or propose an argument.

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

to skim to determine the tone or

LO 4 intention of the author.

Skimming strategy is also used to find the tone or intention of the author. In a text, an author may state
a fact or an opinion. The author might disagree with a concept, be unbiased, or both. A quick scan of a
paragraph may indicate the author’s perspective. Knowing the perspective of the author helps the readers
put themselves in the author’s place, which makes the text easier to comprehend.

Summary
to skim to identify keywords
LO 5 necessary for reading
comprehension.

Using the keywords such as adjectives, pronouns, adverbs, conjunctions, and listing words gives the reader
clues about the organisation of text or intention of the author. The author may use specific conjunctions,
listing words or compare contrast words in a text. A good reader should benefit from these keywords to
understand the intention of the author.

LO 6 to apply steps of active reading.

Applying steps of active reading makes reading easier. Before reading a text, the reader should set his/
her purpose. Then, the reader should apply previewing and predicting strategies and activate his/her
background knowledge. Before reading for detailed information, the reader should skim for the main
ideas of the text.

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Basic Reading Strategies I

1 What kind of reading strategy do you use if 7 Which of the following is not one of the
you want to get the gist of a text? steps of active reading?
A. Skimming A. Set your purpose
B. Scanning B. Skim for the main idea
Test Yourself

C. Reading for detailed information C. Reading irrelevant parts

D. Previewing D. Activate your background knowledge
E. Predicting E. Preview

2 What kind of reading strategy do you use if 8 I. Use your prior knowledge
you want to know the topic of a text? II. Look at the charts
A. Skimming III. Look at the text type
B. Scanning IV. Read the main title
C. Reading for detailed information In which of the following options, some of the
D. Previewing steps of previewing and predicting are ordered
E. Predicting correctly?

3 A. I, II, III, IV B. III, I, II, IV

In which reading strategy do you combine
your previous knowledge with the new knowledge C. IV, II, I, III D. IV, II, III, I
in a text? E. IV, I, III, II
A. Skimming
B. Scanning 9 The many varieties of lime are nearly identical
C. Reading for detailed information in shape and appearance, but their degree of acidity
ranges from nearly neutral to extremely sour.
D. Previewing
E. Predicting What type of pattern of organisation is used in the
sentence above?
4
What kind of reading strategy do you use if A. Listing
you have a lot to read in a limited period of time? B. Compare-contrast
C. Cause-effect
A. Skimming
D. Opinion
B. Scanning
E. Argumentation
C. Reading for detailed information
D. Previewing
E. Predicting 10 Esperanto, an artificial language invented in
1887 for international use, is considered by many
to be one of the easiest languages to master because
5 Which of the following signalling words it is known for its simplicity, beauty and flexibility
show comparison and contrast text structure? as a medium for translation.
A. Because/since B. Obviously/of course What type of pattern of organisation is used in the
C. Such as/for instance D. Similar to/unlike sentence above?
E. First/second
A. Listing
B. Cause-effect
6 Which of the following signalling words C. Opinion
show cause and effect text structure? D. Argumentation
A. After/before B. Another/besides E. Compare-contrast
C. Consequently/finally D. Claim/think
E. For this reason/moreover

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1. A If your answer is wrong, please review the 6. E If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Reading Strategy 2: Skimming” section. “Identifying Keywords” section.

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

2. A If your answer is wrong, please review the 7. C If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Reading Strategy 2: Skimming” section. “Steps of Active Reading” section.

If your answer is wrong, please review If your answer is wrong, please review
3. E 8. D
the “Reading Strategy 1: Previewing And the “Reading Strategy 1: Previewing and
Predicting” section. Predicting” section.

4. A If your answer is wrong, please review the 9. B If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Reading Strategy 2: Skimming” section. “Identifying Keywords” section.

5. D If your answer is wrong, please review the 10. B If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Identifying Keywords” section. “Identifying Keywords” section.

Why do you use previewing and predicting strategies?

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

By previewing just for a few seconds, readers may have a great deal of
your turn 1 information about the text and decide to read or not to read it. Predicting is
the link between your prior knowledge and new information in the text.

What are the purposes of the skimming strategy?

To decide if you want to read something or not, to find out the main idea or
your turn 2 topic of a text, to evaluate your sources while writing a research paper.

Why do you skim? For organisation or structure?

your turn 3 Knowing the organisation of a text may help readers comprehend the ideas
easily and make better connections.

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Basic Reading Strategies I

What kind of clues can you use for skimming tone or

intention of the author?
Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

While skimming for tone or intention of the author, make use of the signal
your turn 4 words such as adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs.

How do the keywords help the reader comprehend a

text?

Some signal words help us define the organisation of essays we read. These
your turn 5 keywords are used to explain cause and effect of something, to offer solutions
to a problem, to convince the reader, to describe events in order of importance
or steps or just to describe.

What are the steps of active reading?

Before reading a text, set your purpose. Then, apply previewing and predicting
your turn 6 strategies to activate your background knowledge. After these strategies, apply
skimming to get the gist of the text.

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

References
https://www.eapfoundation.com/writing/cohesion/#:~:text=History%20shows%20that%20human%20
beings,luxuries%20they%20never%20previously%20imagined. 09.03.2022.
https://linguapress.com/intermediate/wind-farm-controversy.htm 16.03.2022
https://www.forbes.com/advisor/investing/cryptocurrency/what-is-cryptocurrency/#:~:text=Cryptocurrency
%20is%20decentralized%20digital%20money,19%2C000%20different%20cryptocurrencies%20in%20
circulation. 05.02.2022
https://www.mayooshin.com/tag/music-and-productivity/ 25.04.2022
https://www.interestingarticlestoread.com/short-essay-on-technology-has-made-our-life-easier/ 15.06.2022

59
 Chapter 3 Basic Reading Strategies II
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
Learning Outcomes

1 Define the stages of scanning strategy.

2 Apply scanning strategy to find specific
information in a text.

3 Interpret charts, graphs, and tables in a text.

4 Read for detailed information.

5 Practice all basic reading strategies.

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction Scanning
Reading Strategy 1: Scanning Organisation
Reading Strategy 2: Reading for Detailed Indexes
Information Graphs
Understanding Organisation Detailed Information
General Practice 1
Academic Vocabulary

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INTRODUCTION sequence or other aids are used to locate where the

You have learned previewing and predicting answer might be in scanning strategies.
strategies in the previous chapter. You have learned We use scanning strategy more often than
how to use visuals, titles, italicised and bold words we anticipate in our daily life, for example when
to predict the topic of a reading text. You have also looking up a word in a dictionary, searching for
covered how to find main ideas, text structure, specific information in a website or checking bus/
and tone or intention of the author by using your train schedule. Before using scanning strategy,
skimming skill. In this chapter you are going to the readers should know the organisation of the
learn how to use scanning strategy to interpret text. This information helps the readers locate the
charts, graphs, and tables. In addition, you are going information more quickly. For example, when you
to interpret how to read for detailed information. are looking for a word in a word list or checking an
While reading for detailed information, you will index, you already know that the information you
deal with main ideas, supporting ideas, cohesion, are looking for is organised alphabetically. Therefore,
cohesive devices and reference words. you skip most of the text and scan only the related
part. Thus, you are expected to use scanning strategy
in combination with skimming to have knowledge
READING STRATEGY 1:
about the organisation of the text. After you have
SCANNING
learned the organisation of text, make use of clues
1. How do you read if you are searching for such as keywords, headings, names, numbers etc.
specific information? When you have decided the part of the text to scan,
2. How do you answer a particular question you may use your fingers to focus your attention.
concerned with names, dates or numbers in Now look at the text below and try to apply scanning
a text? strategies to answer the following questions. Below
Scanning is a strategy that is used for finding the questions, you are going to see the steps of how
out a specific piece of information or a fact and to apply scanning strategies.
the answer to a particular question. Scanning is a
type of selective reading and can be best described In 2019, just prior to the COVID-19 pandemic,
as moving the eyes through the text rather than a 19.86% of adults experienced a mental illness,
reading process. In the scanning process, the eyes go equivalent to nearly 50 million Americans. A
up and down until the reader finds the references growing percentage of youth in the U.S. live with
beginning with the keywords. The reader knows major depression. 15.08% of youth experienced a
exactly what to look for in scanning. It enables major depressive episode in the past year, a 1.24%
the reader to locate keywords, names, phrases, increase from last year’s dataset. In the bottom-
ranked states, up to 19% of youth ages 12-17
numbers, definitions, dates or other specific items.
experienced major depression. Over half of adults
Scanning may look like a skimming strategy,
with a mental illness do not receive treatment,
but the reader does not read for the general idea
totalling over 27 million adults in the U.S. who
of the text, instead looks for only very specific are going untreated. In Hawaii, the bottom-
information. The readers do not need to or should ranked state, 67% of adults with a mental illness
not read everything in skimming and scanning did not receive treatment. Even in Vermont,
strategy. However, effective scanning requires the top-ranked state in the U.S., 43% of adults
careful reading and skimming skills. Author’s use experiencing a mental illness were not receiving
of organisers such as headings, numbers, word of treatment.

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Basic Reading Strategies II

1. What is the rate of adults suffering from a mental illness in America?

_______________________________________________________

2. What is the number of adults who do not receive treatment in the US?
_______________________________________________________

3. Which state of the US has the highest rate of adults not receiving treatment?
_______________________________________________________

First, skim the text to have a general idea on what the text is about. Then, to answer this question, the
readers are expected to scan for a percentage. The word ‘rate’ in the question is a clue leading the reader
to look for a percentage sign (%) in the text. There are totally 6 different percentages in the text: 19.86%,
15.08%, 1.24%, 19%, 67%, and 43%. Now you are expected to focus on the word ‘adult’. As can be
seen in the first sentence of the text, the only percentage related to adults suffering from a mental illness
is 19.86%.
To answer this question, the readers are expected to realise the difference between the rate and the
number. Since this question asks for a number, the readers are expected to search for a number in the
text. There are only 2 different numbers in the text: 50 million Americans and 27 million adults. When
the readers have found the specific information, number in this question, they should read the sentence
carefully to validate the information. In this case, the answer is over 27 million adults.
To answer this question, the readers are expected to scan for states of the US. There are only two
states mentioned in the text: Hawaii and Vermont. In the sentences related to the states, there are two
percentages: 67% and 43%. When you read the sentence with a higher percentage, you will find the
relevant answer.
After the application of scanning strategy in the example text above, you are going to see the steps of
scanning strategy in the chart below.

1. Identify the specific information you are looking for.

2. Try to predict what aids you might use to locate the answer.

3. Check the organisation of the text. It will give you an idea where to start.
Steps of Scanning

4. Look at the related charts and tables if your answers are in there.

5. Use titles or sub-titles that are related to information you are looking for.

6. Selectively read for the specific information you are looking for.

7. Move your eyes through (or down) the text in a systematic way.

8. When you have found the specific information, read the sentence carefully
to validate you have found the correct information.

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Scanning Alphabetical List

In our daily life, many lists such as dictionaries, telephone directory, and indexes are ordered
alphabetically. Looking up words or numbers is one of the common uses of scanning skills. Therefore, the
readers should practice scanning strategy in alphabetically ordered lists.

Exercise 1. Look briefly at the alphabetical list below. Scan the word list to find each of the words
in the table below. After you locate each word, write the preceding and subsequent words.

Alphabetical List
access contract illustrate proceed
achieve contrast immigrate process
acquire contribute impact publish
adequate coordinate imply purchase
affect corporate indicate range
analyse correspond individual react
approach credit initial register
appropriate criteria institute regulate
area culture interact relevant
aspect data interpret remove
assess debate involve research
assist deduce issue resource
assume define item restrict
attitude demonstrate journal section
authority dimension legal sector
comment distinct locate secure
communicate document maintain seek
community economy major select
compensate emphasis method strategy
complex ensure normal structure
component establish occur sufficient
concentrate estimate outcome survey
concept evaluate perceive technical
consequent final period technology
considerable finance previous theory
consist function primary transfer
constant identify principle valid

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Basic Reading Strategies II

Scan the list to fill in the blanks in the table below.

Word to Locate Preceding Word Subsequent word
1. economy
2. assist
3. affect
4. structure
5. remove
6. purchase
7. credit
8. final
9. period
10. involve
11. occur
12. major
13. research
14. publish
15. communicate

Scanning Indexes
Many textbooks include an index at the end. By using scanning strategy, you can check whether the
book includes a particular topic you are looking for and, if so, on what page the topic is located. Indexes
are designed to help readers find information quickly and easily. All-important names, topics, events, and
concepts are generally listed alphabetically in an index. Many indexes list various sub-headings under the
major headings.

Exercise 2. Look briefly at the index below. Scan the index to find each of the words in the table
below. After you locate each entity, write page numbers.

magazine articles 8 see also multicultural classrooms

marginalisation of readers 16, 17, 58 multiliteracies 107
marginalised social groups 73 multimodality 8, 44, 107
metacognitive awareness 164, 184 Native speaker norms 5
metacritical awareness 42, 48, 91, 157, 164, 165, native speakers of English 5, 77, 180, 181
176, 184 necessity for CLA 199
metalanguage 37, 76, 89, 136, 150, 162, 184, 195 new ethnicities 55
metalinguistic knowledge 37 the new grammar 65
modality 83, 84, 87, 88, 126, 127 New Literacies Studies 8
mode of discourse 83, 129 New London Group 33
model reader 16, 42, 57, 109, 115, 117, 136–7, 176 news reports 119
mood 83, 84, 126 newspapers 1, 8, 118–19, 170
moral absolutes 53 non-native speakers of English 4, 5, 181
multicultural classrooms 59, 75, 89 non-native speaker readers 42
multiculturalism 36 see also foreign language learners normativity
multiethnic classrooms 55 76, 99

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

noticeability 57 of analyst 23
noticing 30, 32, 194 of teacher 197, 198
opinions 88, 179, 180, 185, 189–90 politics of writing 65
opposition 45, 73, 87 politics 52
oppositional practices 70 of alliance 72
oppression 60, 73, 94 postmodernism 49
orientalism 57, 177 power 2, 15, 26, 27–30, 60, 63–4, 93
‘the other’ 106, 177 of access 48
overhearers (readers as) 17 print literacy 8
overt instruction 33–4 privileged groups 73
ownership of texts 10 problem posing 63
process writing 63
see also authorial ownership
progressivism 63, 66
pedagogic discourse 115–16
pronouns
pedagogy 46, 179–80, 181
personal pronouns 82, 83
periphery countries 59
of power and solidarity 83
periphery scholars 71
putative reader 17
phonocentrism 67
quality of argument 51, 68, 84, 88, 154
planning time 125
questions 84, 85, 86, 126
pluralised English 70
exploratory questions 86, 146, 147
plurality of interpretations 53
guess what teacher thinks questions 86, 143, 153
political discourse 137 ideological questions 86, 120, 124, 126, 151
politically committed position managerial questions 139
Scan the index to write the page numbers of related information.
Information to locate Page numbers Information to locate Page numbers
1. news reports 11. planning time
2. opposition 12. mood
3. pronouns 13. overt instruction
4. ownership of texts 14. postmodernism
5. politics of alliance 15. power
6. mode of discourse 16. multiculturalism
7. modality 17. normativity
8. periphery scholars 18. problem posing
9. progressivism 19. newspapers
10. phonocentrism 20. print literacy

Scanning Schedules
People scan not only for reading texts but also train/bus schedules, TV guides, or newspaper stories.
Scanning is a practical strategy that is used to find specific information in texts, schedules or guides. In a
specific scan or targeted scan, you look for specific content such as a number, a place, people or time. Train
schedules or bus schedules contain a variety of travel information. Train schedules tell you which trains run
between which cities, on what days, and what time. Schedules also inform you about the stops and arrival
time of the trains. Therefore, scanning strategy is a useful skill you use in every part of your life.

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Basic Reading Strategies II

Exercise 3. Look briefly at the schedule below. Read each of the following questions and scan the
schedule to answer the questions.

1. Which is the fastest way to go from İstanbul to Ankara?

2. Which trains should you take to go from İstanbul to Diyarbakır?

3. How long does it take to go from Ankara to Diyarbakır?

4. Which trains should you take to go from İstanbul to Malatya?

5. How long does it take to go from Elazığ to Tatvan?

6. Which days can you take a train to go from Ankara to Elazığ?

Image 3.1 Train schedule from Istanbul to Eastern Turkey

Scanning Charts, Graphs, and Tables

Scanning is also an effective skill to extract information from charts, graphs, and tables. If you are looking
for specific information in charts, graphs, or tables, it is enough for you to scan it without reading all the
text about the charts, graphs, and tables. Charts, graphs, and tables are frequently used in academic texts and
readers should know how to read these figures to find specific information or to fully understand the articles.
Tables, graphs and charts are generally presented in the result section of academic articles and they aim to
concisely summarise the result of the experiment. Here are the tips to read charts, graphs, and tables:
• Read the title of the article first and try to understand the topic/subject of the text.
• Skim the text material to understand terms or abbreviations used in the charts, graphs, and tables.

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

• Carefully read the title of the charts, graphs, and tables. The title summarises the purpose of charts,
graphs, and tables.
• Read labels carefully and find the related part.

Exercise 4. Look briefly at the text below and scan the charts, graphs, and tables to answer the questions.
The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2021
The population residing in Turkey increased by 1 million 65 thousand 911 people compared to the
previous year, and reached 84 million 680 thousand 273 people as of 31 December 2021. Male population
was 42 million 428 thousand 101 people and the female population was 42 million 252 thousand 172
people. While 50.1% of the total population were males, 49.9% of the total population were females.
According to the results of the Address Based Population Registration System (ABPRS), foreign
population residing in Turkey increased by 458 thousand 626 people and became 1 million 792 thousand
36 people. 49.7% of this population were males and 50.3% of this population were females.

Annual population growth rate of Turkey was 12.7 in thousands

Annual population growth rate increased to 12.7 per thousand in 2021 from 5.5 per thousand in 2020.

Population and annual population growth rate, 2007-2021

Population Growth rate

(Million) (Per thousand)
86 30
84
82 25
80
78 20
76 13.1 13.5
74 12.7 15
72 10
5.5
70
68 5
66 70.6 71.5 72.6 73.7 74.7 75.6 76.7 77.7 78.7 79.8 80.8 82.0 83.2 83.6 84.7
64 0
0 07 0 08 0 09 0 10 011 0 12 0 13 0 14 0 15 0 16 0 17 0 18 0 19 0 20 0 21
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Population Growth rate

Proportion of population living in province and district centres was 93.2%

Proportion of population residing in province and district centres, which was 93% in 2020, became 93.2%
in 2021. Besides, the proportion of population living in towns and villages decreased to 6.8% from 7%.

The population of İstanbul became 15 million 840 thousand 900 people

The population residing in İstanbul increased by 378 thousand 448 people compared to the previous
year and became 15 million 840 thousand 900 people. İstanbul, constituting 18.71% of Turkey’s
population, was followed by Ankara with 5 million 747 thousand 325 inhabitants, İzmir with 4 million
425 thousand 789 inhabitants, Bursa with 3 million 147 thousand 818 inhabitants and Antalya with 2
million 619 thousand 832 inhabitants.

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Basic Reading Strategies II

The first 5 provinces with the largest population by sex, 2021

Proportion in the total population

(%)
Provinces Total Male Female Total Male Female
İstanbul 15 840 900 7 933 686 7 907 214 18.71 18.70 18.71
Ankara 5 747 325 2 843 409 2 903 916 6.79 6.70 6.87
İzmir 4 425 789 2 199 287 2 226 502 5.23 5.18 5.27
Bursa 3 147 818 1 573 362 1 574 456 3.72 3.71 3.73
Antalya 2 619 832 1 314 755 1 305 077 3.09 3.10 3.09

The least populated province was Tunceli with 83 thousand 645

Tunceli was the least populated province with 83 thousand 645 inhabitants. This province was followed
by Bayburt with 85 thousand 42 inhabitants, Ardahan with 94 thousand 932 inhabitants, Kilis with 145
thousand 826 inhabitants and Gümüşhane with 150 thousand 119 inhabitants.

The first 5 provinces with the lowest population by sex, 2021

Proportion in the total population

(%)
Provinces Total Male Female Total Male Female
Tunceli 83 645 44 423 39 222 0.10 0.10 0.09
Bayburt 85 042 43 402 41 640 0.10 0.10 0.10
Ardahan 94 932 49 168 45 764 0.11 0.12 0.11
Kilis 145 826 73 803 72 023 0.17 0.17 0.17
Gümüşhane 150 119 75 481 74 638 0.18 0.18 0.18

Structural change in population pyramid continued

Population pyramids are the graphs that show the changes in the age-sex structure of population. When
the population pyramids of Turkey were compared for the years 2007 and 2021, it was seen that the elderly
population and median age increased due to the decline in fertility and mortality rates.

Population pyramid, 2007, 2021

Age group 2007 Age group 2021
90+ 90+
85-89 85-89
80-84 80-84
75-79 75-79
70-74 70-74
65-69 65-69
60-64 60-64
55-59 55-59
50-54 50-54
45-49 45-49
40-44 40-44
35-39 35-39
30-34 30-34
25-29 25-29
20-24 20-24
15-19 15-19
10-14 10-14
5-9 5-9
0-4 (%) 0-4 (%)
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 6 4 2 0 2 4 6
Male Female

Median age of Turkey’s population increased to 33.1

The median age is the age of the person in the middle when the ages of all people in the population are
sorted from the new-born baby to the oldest. Median age is also one of the important indicators used in
the interpretation of the age structure of the population.

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The median age of the population in Turkey increased to 33.1 in 2021 from 32.7 in 2020. When it was
analysed by sex, it was seen that the median age increased from 32.1 to 32.4 for males while it increased
from 33.4 to 33.8 for females.

Median age by sex, 2007-2021

Male Female
Age Age
35 35 33.4 33.8
34 34
33 32.1 32.4 33 32.0
32 30.8 32
31 31
30 30 28.8
29 27.7 29
28 28
27 27
26 26
07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Sinop had the highest median age while Şanlıurfa had the lowest median age
When the median age was examined by provinces, it was seen that Sinop had the highest median age
with 41.8. This province was followed by Kastamonu with 41.2, and Balıkesir and Giresun with 41. On
the other side, Şanlıurfa had the lowest median age with 20.6. This province was followed by Şırnak with
21.6 and Siirt with 22.7.

Sinop had the highest median age for both males and females
When the median age was examined by sex and provinces, it was seen that, for the male population,
Sinop had the highest median age with 40.7 and Şanlıurfa had the lowest median age with 20.1. For the
female population, Sinop had the highest median age with 42.9 while Şanlıurfa had the lowest median
age with 21.1.

The first 5 provinces with the highest and the lowest median age by sex, 2021
Age Male Age Female
50 50
45 40.7 40.0 39.9 39.6 39.4 45 42.9 42.5 42.4 42.0 41.9
40 40
35 TURKEY 32.4 35 TURKEY 33.8
30 30
25 23.2 23.0 22.6 21.7 25 23.1 22.9 22.6 21.4 21.1
20.1
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
r
op sun onu esi tvin uş ğrı Siirt nak urfa r
op sun onu esi tvin uş ğrı Siirt nak urfa
Sin ire am alık Ar M A
Şır anlı Sin ire am alık Ar M A
Şır anlı
G st B Ş G st B Ş
K a K a

Proportion of population in working age group was 67.9%

The proportion of the working age population aged 15-64 increased from 66.5% in 2007 to 67.9% in
2021. On the other hand, the proportion of child population aged 0-14 decreased from 26.4% to 22.4%
and the proportion of population aged 65 and over increased from 7.1% to 9.7%.

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Proportion of population by age groups, 2007, 2021

2007 2021
% %

26.4 0-14 age 22.4

66.5 15-64 age 67.9

7.1 65 + age 9.7

(Retrieved and adapted from https://data.tuik.gov.tr)

Questions
1. When did the highest drop happen in the population growth rate of Turkey?

2. What is the population of Turkey as of 31st of December, 2021?

3. What is the proportion of the Istanbul population in the total population of Turkey?

4. Which cities have the lowest proportion in the total population of Turkey?

5. Which is the least populated city of Turkey?

6. What is the proportion of the least populated city in the total population of Turkey?

7. What is the population of the second most crowded city of Turkey?

8. What is the proportion of the second most populated city in the total population of Turkey?

9. Is there an increase or decrease in the rate of 25-29 age group population between 2007 and 2021?

10. What is the tendency in the population of 0-4 male age groups between 2007 and 2021?

11. How can you interpret the aging tendency of Turkey when you look at ‘median age by sex’ graphic?

12. Which cities are below the median age of Turkey according to the 2021 population?

13. What is the rate of increase in the working age population between 2007 and 2021?

14. According to the ‘proportion of population by age groups’ chart bar, which age group has a lower
rate compared to 2007?

15. How can you interpret when you compare the population pyramid of 2007 and 2021?

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1
What do you do when you scan for specific information?

READING STRATEGY 2: READING FOR DETAILED INFORMATION

Reading for detailed information or detailed reading is a reading strategy that is used to get accurate
information. To fully understand a text, a paragraph or a report, you have to read it more carefully. In
other words, detailed reading is done for a deeper understanding of the text. After you apply previewing
and predicting to get the gist of the text and use the skimming and scanning strategies to find what to
focus on, you can slow down and read more carefully to have a deeper understanding about the related
parts of the text. This type of reading will provide you with full or detailed understanding of the specific
information, facts, or opinions on a topic. Sometimes, reading for detailed information involves looking
for new information or reading to see if information is contained in a text.
People who are not reading for a purpose often read paragraphs several times because they have not
fully understood it for the first time. Therefore, readers should set their purpose of reading and ask the
following questions to fully understand what they are reading:
1. What are the arguments of the author?
2. Are they credible?
3. What evidence does the author use to support the arguments?
4. What do you infer from the text?
5. Do you agree with the author? Why? Why not?
6. How can you use the information in the text?
As understood from the questions, detailed reading requires active engagement of the reader with
the text. While interacting with the text, readers should also benefit from some techniques to help
comprehension. The most frequently used technique in detailed reading is note-taking. Making notes
will help you remember the key points or important details while you are reading. Underline or highlight
phrases and words that seem to you the most important. To engage with the text and to take an active role,
ask questions while reading. And finally try to summarise what you are reading in your own words. Some
techniques that are used in detailed reading are shown in the chart below.

Take notes of the key points or important details.

Underline or highlight the most important phrases and words.

Take an active role and ask questions while reading.

Summarise in your own words.

Image 3.2 The techniques that are used in detailed reading

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Exercise 5. Now look at the text below to see an example of how to apply reading for detailed
information strategy to answer the following questions:

A Short History of Kites

Kites first appeared in Asia at least 2,000 years ago. The first ones were made of paper or silk with
bamboo spars and silk string.
Legend tells of China’s General Han Hsin, who - aided by a kite - overthrew a tyrannical emperor in
200 BC. One version of the legend says that Han flew a kite over the emperor’s palace and marked the
string so he’d know how long to dig a tunnel under the castle walls. In another version, a short-of-stature
Han was flown over the castle in a huge kite at night. He so frightened the enemy soldiers with ghostly
threats that they fled.
Kites also came in handy in 1066, when the Normans used them for signalling during their invasion
of England (the Battle of Hastings).
By 1749, Scottish scientists had used kites to collect weather data, a practice that continued until the
early 1930s.
In the United States, Benjamin Franklin became closely associated with kites. In 1752 he used one
to prove that lightning was electricity. The current that coursed through the wet kite string and sparked
around a key tied to it could have been fatal. Franklin was saved by the fact that he held a dry silk ribbon
tied to the kite string.
In 1887 an English meteorologist took the first aerial photograph with the help of a kite.
Later, a kite helped wireless-telegraph inventor Guglielmo Marconi lift an antenna to receive the first
transatlantic radio message on Dec. 12, 1901.
For centuries, though, kites have been children’s playthings. Since World War II, more and more
grown-ups have been playing with them, too.
(retrieved and adapted from https://www.csmonitor.com)

1. According to the passage, General Han overthrew an emperor by the aid of a kite, since . . .
A. kites helped Han to use electricity against the enemy.
B. kites provided some kind of protection against bad spirits.
C. kites were used for measuring distances in Asian countries.
D. kites helped Han to communicate with allies.
E. Han used kites for signalling during their invasion.

2. According to the passage, kites might be deathly because. . .

A. they may take the electricity from lightning and transfer it to the kite runner.
B. kites can collect all the radio signals to help locate war areas.
C. more and more grown-ups have been injured during flying kites.
D. bamboo spars of the kite may be stuck in the kite runner.
E. the current can easily pass through the wet string of the kite.

To answer the first question about the passage related to the short history of kites, the reader should
read the title and a few sentences to understand the general topic of the passage. In other words, the reader
should use the skimming strategy to have a general understanding of the text. The first question asks how
General Han brought an emperor down by using a kite. Secondly, the reader should seek the part about
General Han in the passage. After applying skimming and scanning strategies, the reader will realise that the
second paragraph of the text is about how General Han overthrew an emperor. Now, the reader should slow
down and read this part carefully to answer the question. The sentence “Han flew a kite over the emperor’s
palace and marked the string so he’d know how long to dig a tunnel under the castle walls.” The text shows
us that General Han made some calculations to dig a tunnel. The correct answer for that question is C.

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To answer the second question of the text, the readers should use skimming and scanning strategies as
they applied them to answer the first question. The paragraph starting with “In the United States” explains
how Benjamin Franklin survived after the experiment with kites. The readers should slow down there and
read this part more closely. The sentence “The current that coursed through the wet kite string and sparked
around a key tied to it could have been fatal.” show us that the correct answer for that question is E.

Exercise 6. Read the texts below and use skimming, scanning, and reading for detailed information
strategies to answer the related questions.

What Would Happen If All the Bees Died?

There are about 20,000 species
of bees in the world, and they are
probably the most important insect
pollinators. The thousands of bee
species have unique flight patterns
and floral preferences, and many have
coevolved with flowers in such a way
that their body sizes and behaviours
almost perfectly complement the
flowers they pollinate. Sadly, bees of
all types are in decline worldwide, as
are many other insects. The familiar
honeybee has suffered greatly from
colony collapse disorder, in which
hives suddenly lose their adult
members. Populations of bumblebees and other solitary bees have steeply declined in many places, largely
because of insecticide and herbicide use, habitat loss, and global warming. Some species, such as the rusty
patched bumblebee, are even listed as endangered species.
If all of the world’s bees died off, there would be major rippling effects throughout ecosystems. A
number of plants, such as many of the bee orchids, are pollinated exclusively by specific bees, and they
would die off without human intervention. This would alter the composition of their habitats and affect
the food webs they are part of and would likely trigger additional extinctions or declines of dependent
organisms. Other plants may utilise a variety of pollinators, but many are most successfully pollinated by
bees. Without bees, they would set fewer seeds and would have lower reproductive success. This too would
alter ecosystems. Beyond plants, many animals, such as the beautiful bee-eater birds, would lose their prey
in the event of a die-off, and this would also impact natural systems and food webs.
In terms of agriculture, the loss
of bees would dramatically alter
human food systems but would not
likely lead to famine. The majority of
human calories still come from cereal
grains, which are wind-pollinated
and are therefore unaffected by
bee populations. Many fruits and
vegetables, however, are insect-
pollinated and could not be grown
at such a large scale, or so cheaply,
without bees. Blueberries and cherries,
for example, rely on honeybees for up
to 90 percent of their pollination.
Although hand-pollination is a

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possibility for most fruit and vegetable crops, it is incredibly labour-intensive and expensive. Tiny robotic
pollinator drones have been developed in Japan but remain prohibitively expensive for entire orchards or
fields of time-sensitive flowers. Without bees, the availability and diversity of fresh produce would decline
substantially, and human nutrition would likely suffer. Crops that would not be cost-effective to hand- or
robot-pollinate would likely be lost or persist only with the dedication of human hobbyists.
(Retrieved and adapted from https://www.britannica.com)

1. According to the text, the number of bees is negatively influenced because …

A. the rusty patched bumblebee population is growing at a higher rate.
B. the other species of insects are eating bees.
C. many flower types have evolved in a compatible way.
D. humans have a considerable impact on the environment.
E. young members of bee colonies die without any reason.

2. According to the text, if all the bees go extinct, …

A. people would die out of hunger.
B. other insects would pollinate the flowers.
C. tiny robots will be used to pollinate the flowers cheaply.
D. this will negatively influence all the food webs available.
E. the food cycle will be partly changed.

3. According to the passage, pollinating the flowers manually, …

A. is possible for all types of fruit and vegetable crops.
B. would be a costly alternative to pollinate some crops.
C. is a traditional version of tiny robot pollinating.
D. would lead to illnesses among some animal types.
E. would increase the yield of the blueberries and cherries.

Can a robot ever be conscious and how would we know if it were?

There is disagreement over whether machines can
ever be conscious, let alone how we would know if
one were. Your view may depend on how you see
consciousness.
If the subjective feeling of consciousness is an
illusion created by brain processes, then machines
that replicate such processes would be conscious in
the way that we are. How would we know this? Daniel
Dennett at Tufts University in Massachusetts thinks
a Turing test, in which a machine has to convince
a human interrogator that it is conscious, should, if
conducted “with suitable vigour and aggression and
cleverness”, be enough.
Michael Graziano at Princeton University thinks
we could take a more direct approach. His attention
schema hypothesis sees consciousness as the brain’s

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simplified model of its own workings – a representation of how it represents things. He believes it is
possible to build a machine that possesses a similar self-reflective model. “If we can build it in a way that
we [can] see into its guts, then we will know this is a machine that has a rich self-description,” he says.
“It is a machine that thinks and believes it has consciousness. And those are confirmable because you can
understand, in principle, how the machine is processing information.”
(Retrieved and adapted from https://www.newscientist.com)

4. According to the text, robots having consciousness depends on …

A. their ability to convince a human interrogator to be only clever.
B. how one assumes what consciousness is.
C. human-like physical appearance and mental abilities.
D. their ability to pass the test conducted by Micheal Graziano.
E. the latest technological development in computer coding.

5. One can infer from the text that …

A. robots will never have human-like consciousness.
B. Turing test is the best method to reveal a robot’s consciousness.
C. the consciousness issue in robots is a debatable one.
D. information processing is the best indicator of consciousness.
E. attention schema hypothesis is the only way to discover consciousness.

Exercise 7. Read the text below and use skimming, scanning, and reading for detailed information
strategies to answer the related questions.

The Title
Road traffic noise outside schools may impair the development of a child’s attention span and short-
term memory. Previous studies have shown that noise pollution from road traffic can disrupt sleep and
increase stress in adults. Meanwhile, local aircraft noise has been shown to reduce academic performance
and reading comprehension in children. However, it was not known whether road traffic noise outside
schools impacts cognitive development in children. To learn more, Maria Foraster at the Barcelona Institute
for Global Health and her colleagues recruited 2680 children aged 7 to 10 from 38 schools throughout
Barcelona. The researchers stood in a certain point of each school and measured the noise coming in from
the outside before lessons began. This was repeated six months later to calculate an average baseline level
of noise pollution at each site.
Using online cognitive tests, the team tested the children’s short-term memory and attentiveness every
three months for a year. The children in schools with higher average indoor noise levels – defined as above
30 decibels, about the volume of whispering – saw a slower improvement in attentiveness, measured by
comparing their performance on tests at the start of the year with those at the end of the year. Further analysis
revealed that a greater level of fluctuation in indoor noise levels was more strongly associated with a slower
improvement of both working memory and attentiveness, compared with more consistent noise levels.
“This study has broken new ground in studies of environmental noise and children’s learning,” says
Stephen Stansfeld at Queen Mary University of London, who was not involved in the research. Children
may be more likely to notice fluctuating noise levels, he says. “Attention to noise may interfere with their
attention to other tasks related to normal cognitive development.”
The analysis accounted for levels of local air pollution, as well as the socioeconomic status, age and sex
of the participants. “They have adjusted for a very wide range of potential confounding factors in their
analyses, thus ruling out many other explanations,” says Stansfeld. Nevertheless, further research with a
more diverse group of participants is required. For example, “the sample of families involved in this study
was better educated than the general population”, he says.
(Retrieved and adapted from https://www.newscientist.com)
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1. According to the text above, noise pollution from traffic …

A. is the cause of stress in children.
B. increases academic achievement of adult.
C. influences adults more than aircraft noise.
D. lowers the attention of the children just at the beginning of the lesson.
E. shortens the working memory span of the children.

2. One can infer from the text above …

A. the study should be repeated with other samples to generalise the results.
B. the results of the study are not affected by the age of the participants.
C. children can notice all types of noise better than adults.
D. 30 decibel noise is higher than the level of shouting.
E. this study is the most comprehensible one conducted about the noise.

3. Which could be the best title for this text?

A. The influence of noise types on adults
B. Comparison of traffic and aircraft noise on children
C. Traffic noise at schools may hinder a child’s memory and attentiveness
D. The only study conducted about noise
E. The effects of socioeconomic status on children’s success

2
Why do you read for detailed information?

UNDERSTANDING ORGANISATION
We generally make sense of the world by arranging the information into mental networks. These
networks are organised in patterns and we use those patterns to understand, learn, and remember what
we see and what we experience. Similarly, information in a reading text is often organised by rhetorical
patterns. Determining the patterns of the text makes it easier to understand. For instance, a reading text
may state the main idea and give a list of supporting details or the author may compare two things by
stating advantages or disadvantages. The text may inform people about a problem by stating possible
solutions or in the cause-effect pattern, the text may explain the reasons or the results of an action. In
addition, the relationship between opinions or ideas is often implied through transitional words or phrases.
These transitional words and phrases can inform the reader whether an opinion is going to be explained
or whether there will be a change in the opinions. Transitions may connect the paragraphs or smaller parts
and sentences in the paragraphs. Understanding rhetorical patterns and paying attention to transitions can
help readers divide the paragraphs into more manageable parts.
In addition to rhetorical patterns and transitional words, repeated vocabularies and topic sentences can
give structural clues about the most important parts of a text. Realising transitions, repeated words and
topic sentences, which show the coherence of written text, can help readers comprehend difficult texts. In
the following paragraph excerpt, the first sentence gives information about the topic of the paragraph. The

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topic of the paragraph is whether there are other forms of life. The excerpt continues with an answer, which
is there is no concrete proof for this question. And then, a new sentence starting with ‘however’ emerges,
which shows a shift in the opinions of the writer. As seen in this example, transitions (the words written
in red) give information about the direction of thoughts in a paragraph and repeated words (the words
written in blue) give structural or context clues about the topic of the text.
Are we alone in the universe? This is a question that has bothered scientists for a long time. A number
of researchers over the years have attempted to find any trace of alien life in the farthest corners of the
universe but till now, no concrete proof has emerged from the studies. However, according to a professor at
the University of California Los Angeles, there can be intelligent alien life on Dyson spheres around white
dwarf stars in the Milky Way.

3
How do you scan specific information in a chart?

GENERAL PRACTICE 1
You are going to read a text about Electrical Vehicles and Gas Vehicles. Before you read, apply previewing
and predicting strategies to answer the questions in Exercise 8. After carefully reading the text, fill in Table
3.1 with advantages or disadvantages of EVs over gasoline cars.

Exercise 8. Look at the text below and apply previewing and predicting strategies to answer the
following questions.
1. What type of text is it?

2. What is the text mainly about?

3. What do the pictures imply about the topic of the text?

4. Is there a connection between the title and the pictures?

5. What are the signal words that give information about the organisation of the article? How?

6. Can you list some of the repeated words in the article?

7. Are you familiar with this topic?

8. Is there a connection between the bold words and the topic?

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How do EVs Compare to Gas Cars?

While it is undeniable that the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has set back the automotive industry
in what was to be a crucial year for the market for electric vehicles (EVs), EVs have an important role
to play in reshaping the future as many people are already advocating for sustainable ways to rebuild the
economy when the pandemic over.
Despite the fact that interest in EVs has been continuously increasing over the past ten years, many
prospective car purchasers still have misconceptions that keep them from switching to an electric vehicle.
These myths mainly revolve regarding the price, utility, performance, and real environmental advantages of
EVs. Here, we examine the most prevalent consumer worries and determine whether they are warranted.

Part 1. Are EVs as affordable as gasoline cars?

Due to the misconception
Electric Vehicle VS. Gas Car Cost: that owning an EV will be
Comparing The Cumulative Cost
Of Ownership Per Year expensive, some buyers are afraid
of electric and hybrid vehicles.
2020 Hyundai Kona AWD 2020 Hyundai Kona Electric (Includes $9.500 EV
tax credit & incentive) However, EVs are currently
$80,000 significantly less expensive to
purchase and typically more
$60,000 cost-effective over time. For
instance, the Nissan Leaf, one of
$40,000 the most popular EV models on
the market, is offered in Spain
$20,000
for €25.900, while SEAT’s Mii
electric’s suggested retail price
$0
is under €17.900. Additionally,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 a number of electric vehicle
incentives are readily available
Source: Vehicle Cost Calculator from the U.S. Department of Energy:https://afdc.energy.gov/calc/ across Europe, saving you up to
€6.000 off the purchase price.
This lowers the price of many
EVs relative to current fuel-powered vehicles. Additionally, EVs are less expensive to own than their gas-
powered counterparts. According to US studies, EV owners typically spend $632 less per year operating
their vehicles than drivers of fuel-powered vehicles. This means that after a few years, more expensive EV
cars could still be more cost-effective than their less expensive gas counterparts (see graphic above).
What are the main causes of this savings, then? Apart from the aforementioned EV incentives,
the main benefits are fuel savings and lower maintenance expenses. Electric vehicles (EVs) are more
efficient than gas-powered vehicles, therefore the first factor comes down to less expensive “fuel” costs per
kilometre. Second, the United States Department of Energy claims that the reduced number of fluids (oil
and transmission fluid) and far fewer moving parts that require upkeep or replacement accounts for the
cheaper maintenance costs for EVs. Last but not least, regenerative braking is a technique employed by
electric vehicles. It makes use of the kinetic energy that is typically lost and feeds it back into the battery.
Over time, this also leads to less frequent need for new brake pads.
It is crucial to keep in mind that tire rotation and replacement may be necessary more frequently with
electric cars than with traditional vehicles due to their larger bodies and instantaneous torque. The battery
of an EV must eventually be replaced, which can be expensive. However, the majority of EV batteries are
expected to survive for about 10 years, and reports indicate that by the time you’ll need to replace them,
car battery prices will have drastically decreased. Keep in mind that a fuel car’s motor repair or replacement
can cost up to $10,000, and that overall, EVs are significantly less expensive to own and require fewer visits
to the mechanic.

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Part 2. Are EVs as fast as fuel cars?

Many people mistakenly believe that EVs lack speed and performance because they are silent, as
opposed to the powerful roar of running engines. In actuality, the reverse is true. EVs accelerate faster than
gas-powered cars and have more than enough speed for every-day usage.
The reason for this is that internal combustion engines are substantially more complex than electric
motors. Consequently, EVs may provide their full torque — the force that drives the vehicle forward —
from 0 kilometres, resulting in instant acceleration. Traditional combustion engines, by contrast, take
more time to transfer power from the engine to the wheels. Traditional gasoline vehicles are less efficient
since the power must pass through more moving parts, such as the transmission.
Nevertheless, there is a disadvantage to the electric car’s simplified motor. Car manufacturers must
choose between acceleration and top speed because the majority of EVs only have one gear. This problem
can be compared to having to select just one gear level for your bicycle — the highest would be difficult
to start, and the lowest would make it ineffective to travel faster. As a result, many EV models choose
a balanced approach, which frequently results in slower top speeds compared to their multi-gear, gas-
powered competitors. Even so, the top speeds of the most widely used EVs exceed the highest speeds
permitted in the majority of the world, making them quick enough for any everyday use. So, unless you
are a race car driver, the top speed of your EV will be more than sufficient.

Part 3. How does EV range compare to fuel cars?

Range anxiety, or the fear
of how far electric vehicles can Range Of New Electric
travel, is the most frequent issue Vehicle Models
among prospective purchasers,
800
according to a recent survey. This
worry can be allayed, though, as
many more recent EV models 600
610
already match the range of a
typical gas vehicle due to ongoing 459 482 484
400 455
performance improvements.
For instance, most electric 200
vehicles have a range of 200-490
km (124-304 miles) on a single
charge, compared to an average 0
Kia Chevrolet Average Hyundai Tesla Model S
gas-powered car’s 482 km (300 km e-Niro Bolt EV fuel car Kona Electric Long Range
miles) on a full tank. Newer EV
vehicles like the Hyundai Kona Electric (484 km), Chevrolet Bolt EV (459 km), and Kia e-Niro (455 km)
already have ranges that are comparable to those of a typical fuel-powered vehicle, according to WLTP-
measured data. To put things in perspective, this implies that you could go without stopping for charging
from Brussels to Paris (316 km) or from London to Liverpool (350 km). Additionally, luxury vehicles like
the Tesla Model S Long-Range can travel up to 610 km on a single charge, making it possible to travel
from Barcelona to Madrid on a single charge. The typical daily driving distance, according to a survey by
the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, is between 40 and 90 km, making even older EV
models capable of covering daily distances (see bar chart above).

Part 4. Are there enough charging stations?

Many people are also concerned about whether the current charging network is strong enough to
support EV driving. The answer to this question is not as important as it may seem. Most people travel
between 40 and 90 km each day, which enables them to charge overnight at home without ever needing
to go to a public charging station. Comparing the quantity of public charging stations to the quantity of
gas stations is not practical because the majority of gas-powered car owners do not fill their tanks at home.

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Additionally, as the number of charging stations increases quickly around the globe, this issue will
only become less and less important over time. Maps of EV charging stations, such as Open Charge Map,
PlugShare, Chargemap, or even Google Maps, make these clear to observe. Additionally, studies estimate
that in 2020, there will be more than 190.000 public charging stations across Europe, up from just 2.379
in 2011. Recently, incentives and programs have been implemented by governments and businesses to
increase the number of charging stations available, and this trend is expected to continue.

Part 5. Is EV charging fast enough?

Another common misconception
amongst potential buyers centres around
the time it takes to recharge an EV. But
since EVs allow you to charge at home,
you can just plug in your car when you get
home and let it run all night. This makes
EV charging considerably more practical
and ensures that your car is completely
loaded every morning.
Additionally, charging times have
substantially decreased recently, thanks to
technological advancements. For instance,
a Nissan Leaf (30 kW battery capacity) can
now be fully charged in around 90 minutes
using a 22 kW fast charger. Furthermore,
150kW or greater ultra-fast EV chargers
are only now beginning to appear on the market, so soon you’ll be able to charge any EV in a matter of
minutes rather than hours.

Part 6. Are EVs really cleaner & greener choices?

Additionally, some people have questioned whether electric cars are actually better for the environment.
Yes, electrified transportation actually is “greener” and opens the door to a more sustainable future, to put
it briefly. For instance, it has been demonstrated that the average midsize car’s electric model surpasses its
fuel-powered version in terms of air pollution.
Driving an EV is more environmentally friendly than using a gas vehicle because they are powered by
energy. Naturally, it is equally crucial that the energy utilised to power EVs originates from a clean source.
EVs have another benefit because the energy generation from renewable sources frequently varies by the
day or the season. By combining EV electricity consumption with the availability of renewable energy,
smart charging technology makes charging your EV even greener.
The environmental friendliness of the EV manufacturing process is the subject of another question.
Over the course of their lifetime, EVs emit far fewer pollution than do gas-powered vehicles, according to
research. However, waste and hazardous pollutants are produced during the production of raw materials
and lithium-ion batteries. To further increase the environmental friendliness of EVs, it will be critical to
make improvements to the entire supply chain, its procedures, and how they affect all stakeholders.
There have already been some positive changes, with the amount of emissions created by lithium-ion
battery production now being less than half of what it was in 2017. Examining the sites and procedures
of manufacturing can potentially reveal other areas for improvement. For instance, batteries produced in
Europe would have a lower carbon footprint since their manufacturing facilities are powered by cleaner
energy sources. Emissions could be greatly reduced by implementing better production techniques and
recycling procedures.

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Additionally, programs are being implemented to address post-life battery usage. For instance, batteries
that have reached the end of their useful lives can still provide up to 70% of their power when used as
energy storage systems. As recycling techniques advance, more businesses will be able to remove valuable
metals from batteries for reusing, helping to both prevent contamination and meet the rising demand for
raw materials that is causing overmining.
All things considered, it is still obvious that EVs are the cleaner, greener option for transportation.

Electric vehicles are future-proof

The pandemic is undoubtedly hurting sales across all markets. Despite declining auto sales, surveys
indicate that interest in electric vehicles is continuing to grow. Even though overall registrations in the UK
declined by nearly half the predicted rate, registrations of electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles increased
dramatically. Customers are expressing a strong desire to switch to electric vehicles, and not simply as a
choice for a private car. They are requesting increased funding for infrastructure, improvements to public
transportation, and tax reform.
Long-term efforts to phase out fossil fuel cars will be greatly aided by the public’s willingness to make
these adjustments. It’s up to us to make the decision, and it’s simpler than you might think. In many
circumstances, electric vehicles are even more practical, economical, and enjoyable to drive than gas-
powered ones. Assisting us collectively in our transition to a more sustainable future.
(Retrieved and adapted from https://blog.wallbox.com/en/)

Exercise 9. Skim the text above and answer the following questions.
1. What does the “electric car vs gas car cost” graphic indicate?

2. What does the “range of cars” graphic indicate?

3. Are EVs as affordable as gasoline cars?

4. Are EVs as fast as fuel cars?

5. How does EV range compare to fuel cars?

6. Is EV charging fast enough?

7. Are EVs really cleaner & greener choices?

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Exercise 10. Read the text carefully and fill in the table with advantages or disadvantages of EVs
over gasoline cars.

Table 3.1 Advantages or disadvantages of EVs over gasoline cars.

Main Idea of the There are misconceptions about cost, performance, practicality, and the true
text environmental benefits of EVs compared to gasoline cars.
EVs are currently significantly less expensive to purchase and typically more cost-
Main idea of part 1
effective over time.
Advantage
Advantage
Advantage
Disadvantage
Disadvantage
EVs accelerate faster than gas-powered cars and have more than enough speed
Main idea of part 2
for every-day usage.
Advantage
Disadvantage
Range anxiety, or the fear of how far electric vehicles can travel, is the most
Main idea of part 3
frequent issue among prospective purchasers.
Advantage
Many people are also concerned about whether the current charging network is
Main idea of part 4 strong enough to support EV driving.

Advantage
Disadvantage
Another common misconception amongst potential buyers centres around the
Main idea of part 5
time it takes to recharge an EV.
Advantage
Advantage
Main idea of part 6
Advantage
Advantage
Over the course of their lifetime, EVs emit far fewer pollution than do gas-powered
Advantage
vehicles
Advantage
Waste and hazardous pollutants are produced during the production of raw
Disadvantage
materials and lithium-ion batteries.

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Exercise 11. Read the texts above and use reading for detailed information strategies to answer
the related questions.
1. What are the main concerns of people not buying EVs?

2. Why are gasoline cars as expensive as EVs according to the text?

3. What could be the possible expenses of an EV?

4. What are the possible advantages of electric motors over internal combustion engines?

5. How do the engineers solve the acceleration and top speed dilemma in EVs?

6. What does range anxiety mean according to the text?

7. What are the recent improvements in terms of charging EVs?

8. What makes EVs a cleaner and environment-friendly alternative?

9. What can you say about the future of gasoline cars?

10. What does the author of the article think about EVs in general?

4
Why do you read for detailed information?

ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
So far, you have read many different texts. These texts contain some academic vocabulary. Read the
sentences taken from the texts you have read and try to answer the questions in Exercise 12.

Exercise 12. Read the following sentences from the text to choose the correct meaning for the bold
words or phrases. You can guess the meaning from the context.

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1. The familiar honeybee has suffered greatly 7. Further analysis revealed that a greater level of
from colony collapse disorder, in which hives fluctuation in indoor noise levels was more
suddenly lose their adult members. strongly associated with a slower improvement
A. improvement of working memory.
B. success A. variation
C. miracle B. stability
D. breakdown C. balance
E. inflation D. support
E. assurance
2. A number of plants are pollinated exclusively
by specific bees, and they would die off without
human intervention. 8. Further research with a more diverse group of
A. nature participants is required to generalise the result.
B. interference A. volunteers
C. effectiveness B. audiences
D. strength C. attendants
E. efficiency D. victims
E. members
3. This would trigger additional extinctions or
declines of dependent organisms.
A. lead to 9. One version of the legend says that Han flew a
B. destroy kite over the emperor’s palace and marked the
string so he’d know how long to dig a tunnel
C. prevent
under the castle walls.
D. alter
A. component
E. specify
B. type
4. Blueberries and cherries rely on honeybees for C. part
up to 90 percent of their pollination. D. obligation
A. disbelieve E. opportunity
B. mistrust
C. reject
10. In terms of agriculture, the loss of bees would
D. assume dramatically alter human food systems but
E. depend on would not likely lead to famine.
5. Without bees, the availability and diversity of A. calmly
fresh produce would decline substantially. B. easily
A. agreement C. partially
B. similarity D. respectively
C. variety E. significantly
D. mismatch
E. uniqueness
6. Daniel Dennett thinks that a machine has
to convince a human interrogator that it is
conscious.
5
A. satisfy
What are the basic strategies you use before or during
B. discourage
reading?
C. confuse
D. persuade
E. prevent

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to define the stages of scanning

LO 1 strategy.

Scanning is a technique used to locate a specific fact or piece of information as well as the answer to a
specific question. The readers should identify the specific information they are looking for, try to predict
what aids they might use to locate the answer and check the organisation of the text, which gives an idea
where to start. Then, the readers should look at the related charts and tables if the answers are there and
use the related titles and subtitles.The readers should read selectively for the specific information and

Summary
move their eyes through the text systematically. When the readers find the specific information they are
looking for, they should read the sentence carefully.

to apply scanning strategy to find

LO 2 specific information in a text.

Scanning is a type of selective reading and can be best described as moving the eyes through the text
rather than a reading process. In the scanning process, the eyes go up and down until the reader finds
the references beginning with the keywords. The reader knows exactly what to look for in scanning. It
enables the reader to locate keywords, names, phrases, numbers, definitions, dates or other specific items.
Scanning may look like a skimming strategy, but the reader does not read for the general idea of the text,
instead looks for only very specific information.

to interpret charts, graphs, and

LO 3 tables in a text.

Scanning is also an effective skill to extract information from charts, graphs, and tables. If the readers
are looking for specific information in charts, graphs, or tables, it is enough for them to scan it without
reading all the text. The readers should know how to read these figures to find specific information or to
fully understand the articles.

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LO 4 to read for detailed information.

A reading technique used to obtain accurate information is reading for detailed information or detailed
reading. The readers must study a text, paragraph, or report more carefully in order to completely
comprehend it. Detailed reading is done for a deeper understanding of the text. The readers will gain a
complete or in-depth comprehension of the information, facts, or perspectives on a subject through this
kind of reading. Sometimes reading for in-depth information entails searching for new data or reading to
Summary

see if information is contained in a text.

to practice all basic reading

LO 5 strategies.

In the previous chapter, you have learnt previewing and predicting strategies in the previous chapter. You
have learned how to use visuals, titles, italicised and bold words to predict the topic of a reading text. You
have also learned how to find main ideas, text structure, and tone or intention of the author by using your
skimming skill. In this chapter you have learned how to use scanning strategy to interpret charts, graphs,
and tables. In addition, you know how to read for detailed information. Therefore, to fully comprehend
a text, the readers should apply all these strategies.

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1
What kind of reading strategy do you use if 5 According to the graph above, what time
you are searching for specific information? does the temperature get the lowest?
A. Skimming A. 9 am
B. Scanning B. 11 am

Test Yourself
C. Reading for detailed information C. 12 pm
D. Previewing D. 3 pm
E. Predicting E. 4 pm

2 What kind of reading strategy do you use if 6 Despite widespread privacy concerns,
you answer a particular question concerned with
names, dates or numbers in a text? Facebook-backed WhatsApp dominates in
Singapore—with three out of four respondents (75
A. Skimming %) saying that their use of the online messaging
B. Scanning platform increased during the pandemic. This was
C. Reading for detailed information followed by Telegram (60.3 percent), Facebook
D. Previewing (60.2 %) and Instagram (59.7 %).
E. Predicting
According to the passage above, which social
media platform dominates in Singapore?
3 What kind of reading strategy do you use if
you want to have a deeper understanding of a text? A. Telegram
B. Facebook
A. Skimming
C. Instagram
B. Scanning
C. Reading for detailed information D. Whatsapp
D. Previewing E. Twitter
E. Predicting
Temperature on 1 st September
7 According to the passage above, what is
20 the percentage of Facebook used as an online
18 messaging platform in Singapore?
16
14 A. 59.7%
Temperature °C

12 B. 60.2%
10
C. 75%
8

6
D. 92.2%
4 E. 60.3%
2

0
9am 10am 11am 12am
Time
1pm 2pm 3pm 4pm
8 According to the passage above, what is the
least used social media messaging platform in
4 According to the graph above, what time Singapore?
does the temperature get the highest?
A. Telegram
A. 9 am
B. 11 am B. Facebook
C. 12 pm C. Instagram
D. 3 pm D. Whatsapp
E. 4 pm E. Twitter

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9 Which one of the following is not a technique 10 In which of the following situations you
that is used in detailed reading? don’t have to use a scanning strategy?
A. Taking notes A. Looking up a word in the dictionary
B. Highlighting B. Searching for specific information on a website
Test Yourself

C. Asking questions C. Checking bus/train schedules

D. Summarising D. Reading an important report
E. Checking answers E. Looking for a name in an index

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1. B If your answer is wrong, please review the 6. D If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Reading strategy I: Scanning” section. “Reading strategy I: Scanning” section.

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

2. B If your answer is wrong, please review the 7. B If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Reading strategy I: Scanning” section. “Reading strategy I: Scanning” section.

If your answer is wrong, please review the

3. C 8. C If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Reading Strategy 2: Reading for detailed
“Reading strategy I: Scanning” section.
information” section.

If your answer is wrong, please review the

4. E If your answer is wrong, please review the 9. E
“Reading Strategy 2: Reading for detailed
“Reading strategy I: Scanning” section.
information” section.

5. A If your answer is wrong, please review the 10. D If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Reading strategy I: Scanning” section. “Reading strategy I: Scanning” section.

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

What do you do when you scan for specific information?

First identify the specific information, then look at the related parts. Use titles
your turn 1 and subtitles that are related and move your eyes through. When you have
found the specific information, read the sentence carefully.

Why do you read for detailed information?

Indexes are designed to help readers find information quickly and easily.
All important names, topics, events, and concepts are generally listed
your turn 2
alphabetically in an index. Check the first letter of the particular name you
are looking for and look at the related part in the index.

How do you scan specific information in a chart?

If you are looking for specific information in charts, it is enough for you to
your turn 3 scan it without reading all the text about the chart. The charts generally aim
to concisely summarise the result of a research.

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Why do you read for detailed information?

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

Reading for detailed information or detailed reading is a reading strategy that

is used to get accurate information. To fully understand a text, a paragraph or
your turn 4
a report, you have to read it more carefully. In other words, detailed reading is
done for a deeper understanding of the text.

What are the basic strategies you use before or during

reading?

Previewing and predicting, skimming, scanning, reading for detailed

your turn 5 information.

References
https://www.britannica.com/explore/savingearth/what-would-happen-if-all-the-bees-died 25.04.2022
https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2021-
45500&dil=2 30.04.2022
https://www.csmonitor.com/1999/0302/p22s2.html 12.05.2022
https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg25033420-900-can-a-robot-ever-be-conscious-and-how-would-we-
know-if-it-were/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CIf%20we%20can%20build%20it,the%20machine%20is%20p-
rocessing%20information.%E2%80%9D 19.05.2022
https://www.newscientist.com/article/2322853-traffic-noise-at-schools-may-hinder-a-childs-memory-and-
attentiveness/#:~:text=Traffic%20noise%20at%20schools%20may%20hinder%20a%20child’s%20
memory%20and%20attentiveness&text=Road%20traffic%20noise%20outside%20schools,and%20
increase%20stress%20in%20adults. 06.06.2022
https://blog.wallbox.com/how-do-evs-compare-to-gas-cars/#:~:text=EVs%20accelerate%20faster%20
than%20gas,simpler%20than%20internal%20combustion%20engines. 15.06.202

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 Chapter 4 Reading Critically
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
Learning Outcomes

1 Activate their background knowledge before

reading a text.
2 Find key words in a text.

3 Identify main ideas of a text.

4 Make inferences while reading a text.

5 Use note-making for reading comprehension.

6 Use an ideas map for reading comprehension.

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction Critical Reading
Activating Background Knowledge Main Ideas
Finding Key Words in a Text Inferences
Finding Main Ideas Note-Making
Making Inferences
Note-Making
Ideas Map

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INTRODUCTION
During your education, you will encounter many academic texts that you need to read for a variety
of purposes. These may be journal or newspaper articles or chapters in textbooks. They may seem quite
difficult, especially to begin with. If you learn how to activate your background knowledge, find key words
or main ideas in a text, make inferences and use note-making, there is nothing you should worry about!
These are precisely the strategies we will cover in this chapter.

ACTIVATING BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

1. How do you start reading a text?
2. Do examine the title/images in a text and think about these elements before reading?
In reading comprehension and critical reading, activating
background knowledge is an essential skill. It refers to accessing what
you already know about the topic of a text and building an initial
knowledge that you need to comprehend the text. 1
To activate your background knowledge, you can make different Explain why we need to examine
connections before you read the text. These connections can be between a text before reading it.
your experience and the text (1), between different texts (2), or between
the text and events occurring in the world (3).

Exercise 1. Have a look at the title of an article and photo below. Make a list of whatever comes
to your mind based on the title and photo and what you already know. Then, check whether your list
overlaps with what is mentioned in the article.

Children get COVID-19 vaccine

The U.S. enters a new phase on Wednesday in its
COVID-19 vaccination campaign, with shots now
available to millions of elementary-age children. According
to health officials, this sets a major breakthrough after
more than 18 months of illness, hospitalizations, deaths
and disrupted education. With the federal government
promising enough vaccines to protect the nation’s 28
million kids aged 5-11, paediatricians’ offices, pharmacies,
hospitals, schools and health clinics began the shots after
the final approval late Tuesday. While some people are
concerned about the risks, Dr. Rochelle Walensky, director
of the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, said
on Wednesday, “The benefits of this vaccine so much
outweigh the risks of COVID itself.” Regarding the
scepticism questioning the need of vaccination for kids, the government authorities stated that paediatricians and
family doctors, whom parents depend on to give routine childhood vaccinations, could help build trust.

(Retrieved and adapted from Tanner, 2021)

Just by looking at this title and photo, you can briefly think about the following (1): the moment you
have got vaccinated (if you have) against COVID-19 and why you decided to do it, and what you have been
through during the pandemic. Then, if you previously read a text or a news article on this topic, you can try
to remember what it was about or what you learned from it (2). You can think about the difficulties you have
had during distance education because of the pandemic (3). Lastly, you can relate the title and the photo to
issues currently covered by the media or events occurring in the world (4); for instance, you can think about

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the vaccination rates reported on TV or newspapers Exercise 3. The following is a paragraph

and their importance to end a pandemic, possible from the Bannister’s biography on Wikipedia.
risks of vaccination, why children may need to Underline the key words.
get vaccinated, or the current situation with the
pandemic. In this way, you can get yourself familiar Bannister was born on 23 March 1929 in Harrow,
with the text that you are going to read. London. His parents Ralph and Alice were both
from working class families in Lancashire. Ralph
had moved to London at the age of 15 to work in
FINDING KEY WORDS IN A TEXT the Civil Service, and met Alice on a trip home.
1. What words are the key words in a text? They married in 1925, and had a daughter, Joyce,
before Roger was born.
2. How useful are they if we find them?
Finding key words is an important part of (Retrieved and adapted from Wikipedia)
skimming a text. You can identify and underline
key words as you read the paragraphs, which will
help you better understand the text. FINDING MAIN IDEAS
You can underline the key words to understand 1. How can you find the main message of a text?
the paragraph by retrieving important information 2. How different is it to find specific details
from it. These can be words such as names, and the main message in a text?
locations, facts and figures. Understanding the main ideas of a text is
The following is an excerpt from a text you are important when we read. In a paragraph, the main
going to read in this chapter: idea is the author’s message about the topic. It is
usually stated directly, and can often be found in
On the day of the race, shortly after Bannister the first sentence or sometimes in the concluding
arrived at Iffley Road Track in Oxford, nearly 1,200 sentences of a paragraph. Identifying the main idea
spectators gathered to watch it under damp weather can help you better understand a text and become
conditions. Six runners, including Bannister, prepared a more effective reader. You can even skim for main
to run the race of their lives. ideas as you read.
Read the following paragraph and identify the
As you can see, a name (Bannister), a place
main idea.
(Iffley Road Track in Oxford) and numbers (1,200
spectators, six runners) are underlined in the Most cases and deaths continue to affect
paragraph. Highlighting key words like this makes unvaccinated individuals. Further sickness and
it easier for you to locate information in the text. death are largely preventable, just as most of the
For instance, as you can see above, if you need to illness and death in recent months were. Vaccine
find where the race took place (Iffley Road Track in refusal, in the absence of valid medical reasons,
Oxford), you could easily do that because you had and not adhering to infection prevention measures
already underlined it. are largely responsible for the continued hardship
of the pandemic.

(Retrieved and adapted from Willet, 2022)

2 The main idea of this paragraph is that individuals

What words are the key words in a text? who are not vaccinated are more likely to be infected
and die. This is expressed in the first sentence. The
second and third sentences provide the supporting
Exercise 2. The following is another paragraph details that contribute to the main idea.
from the same text. Underline the key words.
Within 46 days, Bannister’s rival, John Landy,
ran a four-minute mile and broke the record with a
time of 3 minutes 57.9 seconds. A year later, three 3
runners ran four-minute miles in a single race. By the Explain what a main idea is and
end of 1978, over 200 runners had broken the once where we can find it in a text.
impossible barrier of the four-minute mile.
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Exercise 4. Read the following paragraph and identify the main idea.

Ethnic minority groups have suffered the highest risk of COVID mortality in the UK, according to the latest official
figures. In the first wave (before the vaccine roll-out), the risk of death was highest for those with a black African
background. During the second and third waves, it was consistently highest among those with Bangladeshi origins.

(Retrieved and adapted from Olarewaju & Olarewaju, 2022)

Main Idea:

Exercise 5. Read the following paragraph and identify the main idea.

After the approval of kids’ vaccination against

COVID-19, some sceptics have questioned the need
for kids to get vaccinated since they are less likely than
adults to develop severe COVID-19. But with the delta
variant, they get infected and transmit “just as readily
as adults do,” Dr. Anthony Fauci said at a recent
White House briefing. Moreover, since the pandemic
began, at least 94 children aged 5 to 11 have died from
COVID-19, more than 8,300 have been hospitalized
and over 5,000 have developed a serious inflammatory
condition linked to the coronavirus. Black and Latino
youngsters and those with chronic conditions are among
the hardest hit.

(Retrieved and adapted from Tanner, 2021)

Main Idea:

MAKING INFERENCES
1. Have you ever heard the expression “reading between the lines”?
2. Can you guess what it means?
Making inferences as we read is a significant aspect of reading comprehension. We frequently make
inferences about information provided to us in a text. This is sometimes called “reading between the lines”.
We make a guess about the information by using what the author tells us, the way they express it, and what
we already know about the topic. We use the clues available in the text as well as our own knowledge and
experiences to infer what is not directly said. Examine the following sentence and try to make an inference:

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Reading Critically

Joe was washing his car when his boss called him. Note-making helps you improve your
By examining this simple sentence, you can understanding of a text and take a critical
make at least two inferences. First, Joe has got a perspective to the content. It refers to creating
car, and second, he has a job. Since he cannot wash a record of important details from the text and
his car without owning one or he cannot be called putting information into your own words. It
by a boss unless he has a job, you can infer these does not mean writing down everything you
two pieces of information. Mind that they are not read. Note-making is the process of reviewing,
directly stated in the sentence, but using the clues connecting and synthesising ideas/information
available, it is not difficult to make these inferences. from your reading.
One way to make notes as you read is the KWL
method. KWL stands for Know, Want-to-know
and Learned. In this method, (1) you first write
4 down what you already know about the topic of
Explain what we consider when we the text before you read it. Then, (2) you write
make inferences while reading a text. about what you want to know by reading the
text. In this part, you can ask some questions to
answer later. Lastly, (3) you read the text and then,
Exercise 6. Read the paragraph below and in your own words, write about what you learned
make inference based on the information from your reading. For this purpose, you can use a
presented in the sentences. simple table as in the following example:
The Singapore Women’s Everest Team was the first
all-female expedition from Singapore to reach Why Self-Efficacy Matters For Employees
the summit of Mount Everest, the world’s highest During COVID-19
mountain at 8,850 m above sea level. Lee Li Hui
was the first member to scale the peak at 3.45 am Having high self-efficacy has such a strong impact
Nepal time on 20 May 2009, followed by Esther on how people feel and function because it
Tan nine minutes later and Jane Lee at 4.43 am. promotes positive thoughts about themselves — it
Another two members of the team, Joanne Soo contributes to an internal sense of strength and
and Lee Peh Gee, reached the summit on 22 May, competence. It’s also a key piece to remote work.
while Sim Yi Hui did not make the final ascent Recent research revealed that self-efficacy and
due to chest pains. organisational efficacy are two cultural factors
that contribute positively to working from home.
(Retrieved and adapted from Chan, 2017)
(Retrieved and adapted from Peterson, n.d.)

NOTE-MAKING
1. Have you ever practised note-making, not
note-taking?
2. How do you think note-making can be
helpful?
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Table 4.1 KWL Table

I know I want to know I learned

• If people have self-efficacy,

they feel stronger and more
• Self-efficacy is one’s beliefs • What is the use of self-efficacy in competent.
about him/herself. the workplace? • Since people have had to work
• It is important to achieve goals. • How does it relate to COVID-19? from home during COVID-19,
self-efficacy also affects this
process positively.

5
List the steps for the KWL method.

Exercise 7. Use the KWL method for the paragraph below. Make sure you follow the first two
steps before you read, and the third step after you read. Use the table and your own words.

What Teachers Need to Know about Self-Efficacy

When a student is struggling, just telling them to
work harder without providing the means to translate
effort to success can be demoralising. Nor is it helpful
to tell students who are encountering difficulties that
they are highly talented. Instead, academic interest
and competency are best developed through mastery
experiences. With support from their teachers, students
can learn to break down ambitious long-term goals
into a series of more manageable subgoals that, when
mastered, build confidence and highlight their growing
capabilities.

(Retrieved and adapted from Adweek, 2020)

Table 4.2 KWL Table

I know I want to know I learned

• • •
• • •
• • •

IDEAS MAP
1. Have you ever used a map to better understand a text?
2. How useful was it?

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When you need to read and study a text, or organise your ideas to write a text, it is useful to create
an ideas map, sometimes called a mind map, which helps you see how main ideas, supporting ideas and
examples are related. It is a basic diagram that enables you to visualise what you are reading and find
connections between different pieces of information presented in the text.
In an ideas map, you put the subject of the text
in the centre or the starting point. Then, you place
WHAT HAPPENS
the main ideas, supporting ideas, examples and notes
UNDER STRESS around the subject. In this way, you have a visual
representation of the text and the relationships between
the ideas constituting it. This facilitates your reading
comprehension and makes it more memorable for you.
ADRENALINE CORTISOL Have a look at the following paragraph and
examine the ideas map below.

Under stress, several hormones are released into the

FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT human bloodstream including the two major players
RESPONSE called adrenaline and cortisol, which are both released
from the adrenal glands. These hormones trigger a ‘fight-
or-flight’ response to external stimuli and suppress the
normal functioning of the body, including the digestive
NEGATIVE EFFECTS ON and reproductive system.
BODY FUNCTIONS
(Retrieved and adapted from Oshin, 2020a)

6
Explain in what ways an ideas map can help us comprehend a text.

Exercise 8. Read the paragraph below and

HOW PEOPLE REACT complete the ideas map. If you need, you can
TO STRESS draw additional circles or rectangles in the map.

People react differently to stressful situations. What

is stressful for one person may not be stressful for
another, and almost any event can potentially cause
stress. For some people, just thinking about a trigger
or several smaller triggers can cause stress. There is
no identifiable reason why one person may feel less
stressed than another when facing the same stressor.

(Retrieved and adapted from Felman, 2020)

Since we covered activating your background knowledge, how to identify key words and the main idea
of a text, making inferences, note-making, and using an ideas map, we have got some clues for making our
reading more effective. Now, it is time to practice these skills in longer texts.

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GENERAL PRACTICE 1
Preparing to Read
You are going to read a text about an achievement in athletics. Before you read, go over some of the
words from the text in Exercise A, make a guess about what the text involves in Exercise B and study the
Skill Note.

A. Match the words/expressions (1-10) to their definitions (a-j).

1. mile a. a unit equal to approximately 91.4 cm
2. yard b. continue in a strong and determined way until the end
3. passion c. beyond the capacity of someone to achieve something
4. damp d. waiting anxiously or excitedly for something
5. power through e. a unit equal to 1,760 yards or 1.6 km
6. take the lead f. slightly wet
7. hold one’s breath g. take a position that is ahead of others
8. burst h. an extreme interest in doing something
9. out of reach i. despite what has just been said
10. yet j. a sudden increase in something

B. Read the title of the text. In your opinion, what information does the text contain? Then, check
if you are right after reading the text.
☐ a failure ☐ an achievement ☐ a world record ☐ a risk

C. Based on the title of the text, try to activate your background knowledge by answering the
following questions.
1. Do you ever think you cannot achieve something, or it is impossible? What is it?
2. What do you think the following quotation means?
“Whether you think you can, or you think you cannot – you’re right.” Henry Ford
The 4-minute mile: Why some people achieve the impossible and others don’t

On May 6, 1954, Roger Bannister, a 25-year-old medical student, worked his usual morning shift
at St. Mary’s Hospital and took an afternoon break for training from Paddington Station to Oxford as
he prepared for a one-mile race against Oxford University. However, for nearly 10 years until that day,
Bannister ran mostly out of fear to escape bullies, and bombs he heard during the World War II.

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Despite his passion for running, Bannister wasn’t exactly a successful athlete. His job as a full-time
medical student on regular hospital shifts left him with little time to practice. So, training was limited to
only three half-hour sessions per week, and lack of coaching forced him to create his own system to prepare
for races.
On the day of the race, shortly after Bannister arrived at Iffley Road Track in Oxford, nearly 1,200
spectators gathered to watch it under damp weather conditions. Six runners, including Bannister, prepared
to run the race of their lives.
Like Bannister, the majority of mile runners had one goal in mind other than winning: to break the
four-minute mile. Since 1886, the most talented runners and best coaches had given their best, but failed
to run a mile in under four minutes. According to Bannister, the four-minute mile had become a goal like
climbing Everest, something many people dreamed of achieving.
At 6.00 pm, the race kicked off. Two runners, Brasher and Chataway took the lead during the first
three minutes of the race. On the final leg of the race with less than 275 yards to go, Bannister powered
through with his signature explosive kick, took the lead and won the race.
There was an era of silence all around the stadium as the crowd held their breath to hear the
announcement of the race times. Then suddenly, the race commentator announced that Roger Bannister,
a medical student, had set a new World Record time of 3 minutes fifty-nine and four-tenths of a second
(3:59.4), becoming the first ever person in history to break the mythical barrier of the four-minute mile.
But the story isn’t over yet.
Within 46 days, Bannister’s rival, John Landy, ran a four-minute mile and broke the record with a time
of 3 minutes 57.9 seconds. A year later, three runners ran four-minute miles in a single race. By the end of
1978, over 200 runners had broken the once impossible barrier of the four-minute mile.
Why did Bannister, of all people, break the four-minute mile? Was it a coincidence, the sudden burst
of four-minute mile runners shortly after Bannister proved it was possible? Most importantly, what can we
learn from this about achieving the impossible despite limitations?
The Missing Link
Prior to Bannister’s world record, the spotlight was on his rival, John Landy, a talented Australian
runner who was close to breaking the four-minute mile.
In December 1952, Landy missed the chance by running a time of four minutes and two seconds. After
the race, Landy shook hands with the prime minister, went to his locker room and came out to speak to
reporters with frustration on his face, saying that the four-minute mile was beyond his capabilities.
Unlike Bannister, Landy believed the four-minute mile was out of his reach. His repeated failures and
those of other runners made him believe that it was an impossible feat. Despite this, a few months after
Bannister destroyed the myth, Landy broke the record, and thousands of runners subsequently did so too.
One of the best explanations for this is the theory of self-efficacy developed by the well-known
psychologist, Albert Bandura. According to Bandura, self-efficacy is people’s beliefs in their capabilities
to organise and carry out actions required to achieve goals. This theory suggests that individuals with
high self-efficacy are more likely to take more action towards their goals and show persistence when they
encounter difficulties.
Even though Landy was the more talented runner, he lacked the self-efficacy that Bannister had.
Bannister’s high self-efficacy enabled him to think beyond the idea of what was possible at the time.
In short, there is a key difference between individuals with low versus high self-efficacy. Those with
high self-efficacy generally believe that they are in control of their own lives, and that their own actions
and decisions shape their lives. Yet, those with low self-efficacy may see their lives as outside their
control.
(Retrieved and adapted from Oshin (2020b)

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D. Choose the answer that best completes each sentence based on the text.
1. Bannister broke the four-minute mile in _____.
a. 1952
b. 1954
c. 1978
d. 1944

2. In 1954, Bannister was a student studying ______.

a. sociology
b. sports
c. medicine
d. linguistics

3. Before Bannister broke the four-minute mile, his rival, Landy, _____.
a. wasn’t even close to running a mile under four minutes
b. did not aim the record
c. missed the record with just a few seconds
d. did not lose faith in his abilities

4. Following Bannister’s record, many other runners ________.

a. repeated the same achievement
b. got close to the record
c. were anywhere near the record
d. wanted but failed to run the four-minute mile

5. As a result, _______ ran a mile under a minute.

a. only few runners
b. only Bannister
c. both Bannister and Landy
d. Bannister and his brother

6. The main idea of the text is that _______.

a. People’s beliefs in their skills are a major factor in their success
b. As a runner, Bannister was more talented than Landy
c. Running a mile under a minute was not impossible
d. If one person can do something, others can do it.

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E. Read the sentences and write T (true) or F (false). If false, correct the sentence(s).
___ 1. Before he broke the record, Bannister had trained hard to do it for almost 10 years.
___ 2. In his daily schedule, Bannister had enough time to train for the race.
___ 3. Landy’s frustration after missing the records with two seconds can be due to his high self-
efficacy.
___ 4. People with high self-efficacy are more persistent when they come across challenges.
___ 5. Individuals tend to think that they are not in control of their lives if they have low self-
efficacy.

F. Write What You Think

Write what you think about the following statements and questions.
1. Why was the race in May 1954 so important?
2. Why do you think Landy achieved the four-minute mile after Bannister?
3. Have you ever achieved something difficult because you were motivated and had high self-efficacy?
How did it happen?

G. Academic Vocabulary
Read the following sentences from the text. Choose the correct meaning for the bold words or
phrases. You can guess the meaning from the context, or if you cannot, you can consult a dictionary.
1. The four-minute mile had become a goal like climbing Everest, something many people dreamed
of achieving.
a. reach an aim
b. avoid to do something
c. set a goal
d. make a plan

2. Despite his passion for running, Bannister wasn’t exactly a successful athlete.
a. in addition to
b. related to
c. in terms of
d. in spite of

3. Landy came out to speak to reporters with frustration on his face, saying that the four-minute mile
was beyond his capabilities.
a. incompetence
b. ability to do something
c. weakness
d. strength

4. Landy broke the record, and thousands of runners subsequently did so too.
a. something that precedes something else
b. at the same time
c. before something happens
d. after something else

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5. Even though Landy was the more talented runner, he lacked the self-efficacy that Bannister had.
a. one’s belief that he/she can be successful in a task
b. lack of self-confidence
c. having anxiety
d. belief that others can achieve a task

6. Bannister’s high self-efficacy enabled him to think beyond the idea of what was possible at the
time.
a. help somebody do something
b. make someone able to do something
c. prevent something from happening
d. neglect to do something

7. Why did Bannister, of all people, break the four-minute mile? Was it a coincidence?
a. hard work
b. commitment
c. chance or luck
d. consequence

8. Self-efficacy is people’s beliefs in their capabilities to organise and carry out actions required to
achieve goals.
a. aim or purpose
b. dream
c. skill
d. defeat

9. Like Bannister, the majority of mile runners had one goal in mind other than winning: to break
the four-minute mile.
a. the larger number or part of something
b. a smaller number or part
c. half of something
d. pioneers of something

10. Prior to Bannister’s world record, the spotlight was on his rival, John Landy.
a. after or following something
b. in spite of
c. existing or happening before something else
d. in addition to

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GENERAL PRACTICE 2
Preparing to Read
You are going to read a text about why thousands of people ran to California in 1849. Before you
read, go over some of the words from the text in Exercise A, make a guess about what the text involves in
Exercise B and study the Skill Note.

A. Match the words/expressions (1-10) to their definitions (a-j).

1. dust a. a leather seat for a rider on a horse
2. saddle b. dig in the ground to look for old buildings or objects
3. disease c. a powder that contains very small pieces of sand, earth, etc.
4. rush d. across the land, not by sea or air
5. excavate e. a small piece of a valuable metal or mineral, especially gold
6. overland f. a sudden strong movement
7. nugget g. not feeling sympathy for other people’s suffering
8. unfeeling h. illness, often caused by infection

B. Read the title of the text. In your opinion, what information does the text contain? Then, check
if you are right after reading the text.

☐ a lot of violence ☐ greedy people ☐ poverty ☐ prosperity

C. Based on the title of the text, try to activate your background knowledge by answering the
following questions.
1. Is the Wild West really wild? What might have happened when someone found gold in the Wild
West?
2. Have you ever seen people on the news who unlawfully dig the ground to look for gold or treasures?
Do you think it is sensible?

Gold in the Wild West!

John Augustus Sutter was Swiss, but at the age of thirty-one he left Europe and went to the United
States of America. He was healthy and strong, and America was the land of opportunity. He found that
the opportunities in the eastern states were limited, and he decided to join the adventurous few who were
discovering the west.

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When he arrived in California, Sutter asked the some terrible disease. Workmen ran away from
Governor for a large piece of land in the Central their work, sailors left their ships, teachers left
Valley near Sacramento. He wanted the land for their classes, men left their wives —all to rush to
himself and a group of farmers. Most people wanted the Sacramento Valley. The 1849 Gold Rush had
land near the coast, so the Governor considered begun.
Sutter’s request. The following autumn, people started arriving
As the name Sacramento suggests, there had from the eastern states. The way overland was
been a Spanish church and settlement there for long and difficult, over unfriendly countries, high
many years. But at the time of Sutter’s arrival there mountains, and dry deserts—the 5,000 kilometre
were only American Indians living in the valley. journey allowed only the strongest to complete it.
The Governor agreed to let Sutter have the land on Those who could afford to do so went by ship. They
the condition that he would try to keep peace and sailed to Panama, crossed the unhealthy Isthmus to
order there. Sutter made friends with the Indians Panama City, and then took another ship to San
and they helped him to build houses. Some of Francisco—if they could find room on one. Some
them looked after his sheep and cattle. Life became paid as much as $600 for a ticket but still had to
very pleasant when the first hard work and anxious travel in terribly crowded conditions.
months were over. One afternoon in 1848 he was More than 80,000 people arrived in California
sitting at home, working at his accounts. He heard in the year 1849. About 25,000 of them travelled
a horse being ridden hard towards the house. ‘If it’s
by sea, and 55,000 by land. Many walked from the
one of my horses,’ he thought, `I’ll have to speak to
coast to the Sacramento Valley. There they found
the rider. It’s not right to ride as fast as that—uphill,
thousands of miners already working on claims
too.’ The rider came up to the house and stopped
among the creeks and canyons.
the horse in a cloud of dust. One of Sutter’s men,
Marshall, threw himself from the saddle and ran Some were lucky and found gold. They did not
into the house. He was red in the face and he was always live for long enough to sell it—they were in
breathing hard. the Wild West.
`Gold!’ he shouted. `We’ll be rich! Millions Very many of the Forty-niners—the men of the
of dollars! Look at it!’ And he threw several gold 1849 gold rush—found so little gold that they were
nuggets on the table. never able to go back to the east. Some of them,
like Clementine’s father, still went on excavating
Marshall had been preparing the ground for a
hopefully:
new farm building for Sutter. He had found the
nuggets in the soil. Sutter went out with him In a cave, in a canyon,
to see the place. Had the gold been left there by Excavating for a mine,
Indians? There were more nuggets in the place Lived a miner, Forty-niner,
where Marshall had been working. They tried other
And his daughter, Clementine
places; the soil was full of small pieces of the yellow
metal, and they found one or two more nuggets. It was a hard life, and it produced hard men.
Perhaps they were not all so unfeeling as the ‘I’ of
Sutter and Marshall agreed to keep their find
the song. He describes the beauty (and very large
secret, but it was too late. Marshall’s excited arrival
feet) of his darling Clementine. He seems to enjoy
at the house had drawn the attention of some of
the details of her heart-breaking death, and then
the farm workers. They had watched Sutter and
he ends:
Marshall, and some of them had started digging
for themselves. They, too, found gold. But I kissed her little sister,
It was not long before the news of the strike And forgot my Clementine.
reached San Francisco. Gold fever hit the town like (Retrieved and adapted from Lewis, 1973)

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D. Choose the answer that best completes each sentence based on the text.
1. In California, Sutter requested land _____.
a. near the coast
b. in the valley
c. in the mountains
d. in the city

2. When they found out about the gold, Sutter and Marshall ______.
a. kept the news to themselves
b. shared the good news with others
c. wanted but couldn’t keep it as a secret
d. had a fight with each other

3. During the Gold Rush, most people went to Sacramento _____.

a. by land
b. by sea
c. by car
d. by air

4. ________ found gold in Sacramento.

a. Anyone who wanted
b. Only some people
c. Most people
d. Several people

5. The way to Sacramento from the east coast _______.

a. was affordable
b. was very convenient
c. was enjoyable
d. required strength

6. The main idea of the text is that _______.

a. thousands of people joined the 1849 Gold Rush despite harsh conditions, but only few were
successful
b. Californians became rich during the Gold Rush as there was enough gold for everyone
c. the 1849 Gold Rush involved people from all occupations and social classes
d. if you make the right investment in the right place, you can be rich

E. Read the sentences and write T (true) or F (false). If false, correct the sentence(s).
___ 1. While Marshall was riding towards Sutter to give him the news about gold, Sutter was about
to give Marshall a warning.
___ 2. Those who could afford to travel by ship had a comfortable journey.
___ 3. Some people who found gold were killed before they could sell it.
___ 4. The Governor of California knew that Sutter and his farmers would find gold in Sacramento.
___ 5. Clementine’s father was one of the men who joined the Gold Rush, but she died before he
was back.
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F. Write What You Think

Write what you think about the following statements and questions.
1. Why did Sutter and Marshal want to keep the discovery as a secret? Would you do the same?
2. Think about the thousands of men who left home to find gold in a faraway place. Would you do it
yourself? What would be the risks and outcomes?

G. Academic Vocabulary
Read the following sentences from the text. Choose the correct meaning for the bold words or
phrases. You can guess the meaning from the context, or if you cannot, you can consult a dictionary.

1. Life became very pleasant when the first hard work and anxious months were over.
a. exciting
b. easy
c. long and harsh
d. worried and nervous

2. Marshall had been preparing the ground for a new farm building for Sutter. He had found the
nuggets in the soil.
a. a hole in the ground where substances are removed
b. the material on the surface of the ground in which plants grow
c. a large hole in the side of a hill or mountain
d. a thick liquid that is used as a fuel

3. The way overland was long and difficult, over unfriendly countries, high mountains, and dry
deserts—the 5,000 kilometre journey allowed only the strongest to complete it. Those who could
afford to do so went by ship.
a. to be mean about spending money
b. to be able to buy or do something
c. to be good at investing
d. to be generous
4. Marshall’s excited arrival at the house had drawn the attention of some of the farm workers.
a. to cause someone to focus on something
b. to urge someone to avoid something
c. to ask someone to do something
d. to encourage someone to neglect something

5. Sutter made friends with the Indians and they helped him to build houses.
a. people who look for gold
b. people who work in mines
c. people who find gold
d. people who are Native Americans

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6. …the 5,000 kilometre journey allowed only the strongest to complete it.
a. to have trouble in doing something
b. to finish doing something
c. to start doing something
d. to be motivated to do something

7. He found that the opportunities in the eastern states were limited, and he decided to join the
adventurous few who were discovering the west.
a. to find something for the first time
b. to go to a place
c. to make an announcement
d. to talk about an invention

8. Most people wanted land near the coast, so the Governor considered Sutter’s request.
a. to make a plan
b. to try to make a decision
c. to solve a problem before it gets worse
d. to spend time thinking about something

GENERAL PRACTICE 3
Preparing to Read
You are going to read a text about how coffee became such a popular beverage. Before you read, go
over some of the words from the text in Exercise A, make a guess about what the text involves in Exercise
B and study the Skill Note.

A. Match the words/expressions (1-10) to their definitions (a-j).

1. beloved a. an area of land surrounded by water but is joined to a larger land
2. monk b. any type of drink except water
3. peninsula c. to appear or develop quickly
4. cultivation d. loved very much
5. be kept current e. constantly updated
6. pilgrim f. having similar ideas and interests
7. beverage g. the act of growing a particular crop
8. spring up h. a person who travels to a holy place for religious reasons
9. like-minded i. terrible or extremely unpleasant
10. horrendous j. religious men who do not marry and usually live in a monastery

B. Read the title of the text. In your opinion, what information does the text contain? Then,
check if you are right after reading the text.
☐ discovery of coffee ☐ harms of coffee ☐ how to make coffee ☐ how it became popular

C. Based on the title of the text, try to activate your background knowledge by answering the
following questions.
1. Is coffee an old beverage?
2. Do many people drink it? Why?
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The History of Coffee

No one knows exactly how or when coffee was discovered, though there are many legends about its
origin.
An Ethiopian Legend
Coffee grown worldwide can trace its heritage back centuries to the ancient coffee forests on the
Ethiopian plateau. There, legend says the goat shepherd Kaldi first discovered the potential of these
beloved beans.
The story goes that Kaldi discovered coffee after he noticed that after eating the berries from a certain
tree, his goats became so energetic that they did not want to sleep at night.
Kaldi reported his findings to the bishop of the local monastery, who made a drink with the berries and
found that it kept him alert through the long hours of evening prayer. The bishop shared his discovery with
the other monks at the monastery, and knowledge of the energising berries began to spread.
As word moved east and coffee reached the Arabian Peninsula, it began a journey which would bring
these beans across the globe.
The Arabian Peninsula
Coffee cultivation and trade began on the Arabian Peninsula. By the 15th century, coffee was being grown
in the Yemen district of Arabia and by the 16th century it was known in Persia, Egypt, Syria, and Turkey.
Coffee was not only enjoyed in homes, but also in the many public coffee houses — called qahveh
khaneh — which began to appear in cities across the Near East. The coffee houses were very popular and
were frequently visited by people for all kinds of social activity.
Not only did the patrons drink coffee and engage in conversation, but they also listened to music,
watched performers, played chess and kept current on the news. Coffee houses quickly became such an
important centre for the exchange of information that they were often referred to as “Schools of the Wise.”
With thousands of pilgrims visiting the holy city of Mecca each year from all over the world, knowledge
of this “wine of Araby” began to spread.
Coffee Comes to Europe
European travellers to the Near East brought back stories of an unusual dark black beverage. By the
17th century, coffee had made its way to Europe and was becoming popular across the continent.
Some people reacted to this new beverage with suspicion or fear, calling it the “bitter invention of
Satan.” The local religious leaders condemned coffee when it came to Venice in 1615. The controversy
was so great that Pope Clement VIII was asked to intervene. He decided to taste the beverage for himself
before making a decision, and found the drink so satisfying that he gave it papal approval.

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Despite such controversy, coffee houses were quickly becoming centers of social activity and
communication in the major cities of England, Austria, France, Germany and Holland. In England “penny
universities” sprang up, so called because for the price of a penny one could purchase a cup of coffee and
engage in stimulating conversation.
Coffee began to replace the common breakfast drink beverages of the time — beer and wine. Those
who drank coffee instead of alcohol began the day alert and energised, and not surprisingly, the quality of
their work was greatly improved.
By the mid-17th century, there were over 300 coffee houses in London, many of which attracted
like-minded patrons, including merchants, shippers, brokers and artists. Many businesses grew out of
these specialised coffee houses. Lloyd’s of London, for example, came into existence at the Edward Lloyd’s
Coffee House.
The New World
In the mid-1600’s, coffee was brought to New Amsterdam, later called New York by the British.
Though coffee houses rapidly began to appear, tea continued to be the favoured drink in the New
World until 1773, when the colonists revolted against a heavy tax on tea imposed by King George III. The
revolt, known as the Boston Tea Party, would forever change the American drinking preference to coffee.
Plantations Around the World
As demand for the beverage continued to spread, there was fierce competition to cultivate coffee outside
of Arabia.
The Dutch finally got seedlings in the latter half of the 17th century. Their first attempts to plant them
in India failed, but they were successful with their efforts in Batavia, on the island of Java in what is now
Indonesia.
The plants thrived and soon the Dutch had a productive and growing trade in coffee. They then
expanded the cultivation of coffee trees to the islands of Sumatra and Celebes.
Coming to the Americas
In 1714, the Mayor of Amsterdam presented a gift of a young coffee plant to King Louis XIV of France.
The King ordered it to be planted in the Royal Botanical Garden in Paris. In 1723, a young naval officer,
Gabriel de Clieu obtained a seedling from the King’s plant. Despite a challenging voyage — complete with
horrendous weather, a saboteur who tried to destroy the seedling, and a pirate attack — he managed to
transport it safely to Martinique.
Once planted, the seedling not only thrived, but it’s credited with the spread of over 18 million coffee
trees on the island of Martinique in the next 50 years. Even more incredible is that this seedling was the
parent of all coffee trees throughout the Caribbean, South and Central America.
The famed Brazilian coffee owes its existence to Francisco de Mello Palheta, who was sent by the
emperor to French Guiana to get coffee seedlings. The French were not willing to share, but the French
Governor’s wife, captivated by his good looks, gave him a large bouquet of flowers before he left— buried
inside were enough coffee seeds to begin what is today a billion-dollar industry.
Missionaries and travellers, traders and colonists continued to carry coffee seeds to new lands, and coffee
trees were planted worldwide. Plantations were established in magnificent tropical forests and on rocky
mountain highlands. Some crops flourished, while others were short-lived. New nations were established
on coffee economies. Fortunes were made and lost. By the end of the 18th century, coffee had become
one of the world’s most profitable export crops. After crude oil, coffee is the most sought commodity in
the world.
(Retrieved and adapted from National Coffee Association, n.d.)

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D. Choose the answer that best completes each sentence based on the text.
1. How coffee was discovered _____.
a. is attributed to local tribes in South Africa
b. is not exactly known, but there are legends
c. is interesting for many people who do not even drink coffee
d. is not appealing to most people

2. ______ quickly became popular for people from all social classes.
a. coffee cups
b. talking about coffee
c. growing coffee
d. coffee houses

3. Until the Boston Tea Party, _____ was more popular than ____.
a. tea / coffee
b. coffee / tea
c. tea / beer
d. beer / coffee

4. Coffee plantations started in the Americas ________.

a. when a naval officer brought it to Martinique
b. before the Dutch obtained coffee seedlings
c. as soon as coffee trade began in Arabia
d. when the German donated seedlings to American missionaries

5. When coffee started to be planted across the world, _______.

a. all plantations fruitful
b. seedlings were generously shared with locals
c. there was no demand for coffee outside of the Arabia
d. some corps were successful, some were not

6. The main idea of the text is that _______.

a. coffee seedlings were very expensive and most people did not want to drink coffee because it
was thought to be a satanic beverage
b. although the history of coffee is not exactly known, it led to a competitive industry across the
globe following its arrival to the Arabian Peninsula and despite some religious opposition
c. coffee contains a certain ratio of alcohol and that is why it was called the “wine of Araby”
d. due to the negative consequences of climate change, most coffee plantations in South America
will vanish in the following decades

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E. Read the sentences and write T (true) or F (false). If false, correct the sentence(s).
___ 1. One can trace the history of coffee several decades back.
___ 2. In addition to social interaction, coffee houses were also a place for exchanging information.
___ 3. In the 17th century, religious leaders including the Pope objected to the idea of drinking coffee.
___ 4. According to a story, it was thanks to goats that coffee was discovered.
___ 5. The quality of people’s work was enhanced when they started the day with a cup of coffee.
___ 6. There is more demand for coffee than crude oil in the world.

F. Write What You Think

Write what you think about the following statements and questions.
1. What are some milestones in the popularity of coffee in the course of time?
2. Think about the popularity of coffee today. If you had lived in the 17th century and possessed a
coffee seedling, would you have shared it with others? Or would you have used it for yourself?

G. Academic Vocabulary
Read the following sentences from the text. Choose the correct meaning for the bold words or
phrases. You can guess the meaning from the context, or if you cannot, you can consult a dictionary.
1. Coffee grown worldwide can trace its heritage back centuries to the ancient coffee forests on the
Ethiopian plateau.
a. to learn a lesson from past
b. to look for an inventor
c. to find the origin of something
d. to see things clearly

2. There, legend says the goat shepherd Kaldi first discovered the potential of these beloved beans.
a. someone’s or something’s ability to develop
b. benefits of something
c. harm that something may cause
d. the future of a product

3. As word moved east and coffee reached the Arabian Peninsula, it began a journey which would
bring these beans across the globe.
a. the world
b. a large land
c. a strategic region
d. homeland

4. Some people reacted to this new beverage with suspicion or fear, calling it the “bitter invention of
Satan.”
a. to show anger against something
b. to be satisfied
c. to ask for people’s approval
d. to act in a particular way in response to something

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5. The local religious leaders condemned coffee when it came to Venice in 1615. The controversy was
so great that Pope Clement VIII was asked to intervene.
a. a prayer with many people
b. a type of communication
c. a lot of disagreement or argument about something
d. a pleasant engagement among people

6. In England “penny universities” sprang up, so called because for the price of a penny one could
purchase a cup of coffee and engage in stimulating conversation.
a. to have a deal with someone
b. to buy something
c. to ask for a discount
d. to reach a financial agreement

7. …when the colonists revolted against a heavy tax on tea imposed by King George III.
a. to stand up against a leader
b. to exempt some people from a tax
c. to make a rule optional
d. to introduce a new law, rule, tax, etc.

8. The Dutch finally got seedlings in the latter half of the 17th century.
a. after a long time with some difficulty, or in the last step of a process
b. with most difficulty
c. extremely easily
d. after a short period of struggle

9. They then expanded the cultivation of coffee trees to the islands of Sumatra and Celebes.
a. to limit the size of a business operation
b. to make something greater in size, number or importance
c. to employ more people for a business
d. to eliminate something in size

10. After crude oil, coffee is the most sought commodity in the world.
a. a product that has a low level of demand
b. a product that is exhibited but not sold
c. a product that can be bought or sold
d. a product that is very expensive

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to activate their background

LO 1 knowledge before reading a text.

Many skills are involved in reading comprehension. Activating background knowledge is an essential skill
because it helps facilitate your comprehension process by relating what you already know with what you
are going to read.

LO 2
Summary

to find key words in a text.

While you skim a text, finding key words is an important competency. To help you better understand the
text, you can find and highlight the key words as you read the paragraphs. Key words may include words
such as names, locations, facts and figures.

LO 3 to identify main ideas of a text.

The author’s message about the topic is the main idea of the text, which is usually stated directly, and can
often be found in the first sentence or sometimes in the concluding sentences of a paragraph. However,
you may need to infer the main idea as well. Identifying the main idea can help you better understand a
text. For some texts, you can even skim for main ideas as you read.

to make inferences while reading

LO 4 a text.

Making inferences is a significant aspect of reading comprehension. We frequently make inferences about
information provided to us in a text. Basically, we read between the lines and get to know what is more
than said by the author.

to use note-making for reading

LO 5 comprehension.

To enhance your reading comprehension, note-making can be useful and help you take a critical perspective
to the content. It is called “making” notes because it does not mean writing down everything you read.

to use an ideas map for reading

LO 6 comprehension.

When you need to read and study a text, or organise your ideas to write a text, it is useful to create an
ideas map. An ideas map, sometimes called a mind map, is a basic diagram that helps you visualise what
you are reading.

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Answer the questions 1-5 according to the text

below. 3 We need precious metals like nickel and
Asteroids to Provide Earth’s Future Resources platinum on androids because _________.

Mitch Hunter-Scullion is describing a robot with A. they are of better quality

six legs called Scar-e, the Space Capable Asteroid B. there is a limited supply of them in the world
C. their cost is lower compared to those on earth

Test Yourself
Robotic Explorer. Mitch aims to send this robot
to an asteroid to drill for precious metals such as D. we want them in space
iron, nickel and platinum. While these metals are E. human beings have always wanted to examine
essential for phones, laptops and cars, some metals androids
like platinum will also be needed to help produce
hydrogen as we transition to greener energy.
However, we only have a finite supply of them 4 The way tarantulas hang on to walls was the
on earth. So, people are increasingly looking to inspiration for ________.
space to meet this increased demand. That’s where A. looking for precious metals in asteroids
Scar-e, the six-legged robot, comes in. Its powerful B. finding asteroids in space
claw should grip on to an asteroid in space to stop C. using metals for phones and laptops
it from floating away. It has been inspired by the
D. drilling rocks to extract metals
way tarantulas hang on to walls. (https://www.bbc.
com/news/technology-61421787) E. inventing a robot to grip on to asteroids

5 Which one of the following can be the main

1 Scar-e will be sent to space to ________. idea for the text above?
A. explore the possibility of life in space A. Scar-e, a six-legged robot, can help meet the
B. find asteroids and drag them wherever we want world’s demand for precious metals by holding
C. look for asteroids on to asteroids and drilling them.
D. hold on to an asteroid and drill it for metals B. Mitch Hunter-Scullion is an important
E. prevent dangerous asteroids from hitting the inventor of this century and will send robots to
earth space.
C. Precious metals like nickel and platinum on
earth will be insufficient soon because of the
2 Scar-e has six legs because ______. high demand.
A. it needs to grip on to a huge object D. If Scar-e fails, the production of phones,
B. it should look like a tarantula laptops and cars will be impossible.
C. it looks nice with so many legs E. Scar-e is a life-saving invention that has
D. it can be useful when walking numerous contributions to human life on
E. it is easier to fly earth.

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Answer the questions 6-10 according to the text 8 A big challenge for green energy is ________.
below.
A. the cost of producing solar panels
Sand Energy as a Solution for Green Energy’s
B. the land needed to set up plants
Big Problem?
C. having supply for a whole year
Test Yourself

With Russia halting gas and electricity supplies to D. efficiency during storms
Finland, concerns over sources of heat and light, E. deciding whether to use solar or wind power
especially with the long, cold Finnish winter are
preoccupying politicians and citizens. But in a
corner of small power plant in western Finland 9 Which of the following is true based on the
stands a new piece of technology that has the text?
potential to ease some of these worries. The key
A. Solar energy can be used effectively any time.
element in this device? Around 100 tonnes of
builder’s sand, piled high inside a dull grey silo. B. Russia may re-start selling energy to Finland.
These rough and ready grains may well represent C. Finland has a particularly short winter.
a simple, cost-effective way of storing power for D. Sand battery has solved Finland’s energy
when its needed most. In this facility, Finnish problem.
researchers have installed the world’s first fully E. In Finland, energy is needed the most in winter.
working “sand battery” which can store green
power for months at a time. The developers say
this could solve the problem of year-round supply,
10 Which one of the following can be the main
idea for the text above?
a major issue for green energy. Using low-grade
sand, the device is charged up with heat made from A. Solar or wind energy are the two options
cheap electricity produced by solar or wind. The Finland have for its energy needs.
sand stores the heat at around 500C, which can B. Heating homes is extremely expensive for
then warm homes in winter when energy is more Finnish homes after Russia halted gas and
expensive. (https://www.bbc.com/news/science- electricity supplies to Finland.
environment-61996520) C. Sand energy can provide Finland the energy
it needs in winter by storing energy for a long
time.
6 Finnish people are concerned because D. Storing heat in sand may be a disappointment
________.
for the people of Finland.
A. Finland is very cold in winter E. Sand can store high temperature, but how to
B. Russia stopped the energy flow to Finland use it to heat homes is a big question.
C. Finland and Russia are likely to go to war
D. green energy is not possible in Finland
E. it is very expensive to produce green energy

7 The advantage of a sand battery is that

________.
A. it can produce cheap energy
B. it is readily available in nature
C. it has never been used before
D. it can store power in a cost-effective way
E. it will be the future of renewable energy
industry

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If your answer is wrong, please review

1. D 6. B If your answer is wrong, please review the
the “Making Inferences” and “Activating
“Making Inferences” section.
Background Knowledge” sections.

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

If your answer is wrong, please review
2. A If your answer is wrong, please review the 7. D
the “Making Inferences” and “Activating
“Finding Key Words in a Text” section.
Background Knowledge” sections.

If your answer is wrong, please review

3. B If your answer is wrong, please review the 8. C
the “Making Inferences” and “Activating
“Making Inferences” section.
Background Knowledge” sections.

If your answer is wrong, please review the

4. E If your answer is wrong, please review the 9. E
“Making Inferences”, “Note-Making” and
“Making Inferences” section.
“Ideas Map” sections.

If your answer is wrong, please review the If your answer is wrong, please review the
5. A “Finding Main Ideas”, “Note-Making” and
10. C
“Finding Main Ideas”, “Note-Making” and
“Ideas Map” sections. “Ideas Map” sections.

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

Explain why we need to examine a text before reading it.

We examine a text before reading it so that we can activate our background

knowledge. Activating background knowledge is about accessing what we
already know about the topic of a text, and building an initial knowledge that
your turn 1 we need to comprehend the text. In this way, we can get ourselves familiar
with the text that we are going to read, which will facilitate our reading
comprehension.

What words are the key words in a text?

your turn 2 Key words can be words such as names, locations, facts and figures.

Explain what a main idea is and where we can

find it in a text.

In a paragraph, the main idea is the author’s message about the topic. It
your turn 3 is usually stated directly, and can often be found in the first sentence or
sometimes in the concluding sentences of a paragraph.

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Explain what we consider when we make inferences

while reading a text.
Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

While reading a text, we make a guess about the information by using what
the author tells us, the way they express it, and what we already know about
your turn 4 the topic. We use the clues available in the text as well as our own knowledge
and experiences to infer what is not directly said.

List the steps for the KWL method.

In the KWL method, (1) you first write down what you know about the topic
of the text before you read it. Then, (2) you write about what you want to
your turn 5 know by reading the text. Lastly, (3) you read the text and then, in your own
words, write about what you learned from your reading.

Explain in what ways an ideas map can help us

comprehend a text.

An ideas map helps you see how main ideas, supporting ideas and examples are
your turn 6 related. It enables you to visualise what you are reading and find connections
between different pieces of information presented in the text.

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References
Adweek (2020). What Teachers Need to Know About Self-Efficacy. https://www.edweek.org/education/
opinion-what-teachers-need-to-know-about-self-efficacy/2020/10
Chan, M. C. (2017). Singapore Women’s Everest Team (2009). https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/
SIP_1862_2011-12-31.html
Felman, A. (2020). Why stress happens and how to manage it. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/
articles/145855#causes
Lewis, R. (1973). Reading for Adults 2. Longman.
National Coffee Association (n.d.). The History of Coffee. https://www.ncausa.org/about-coffee/history-of-
coffee
Olarewaju, T. & Olarewaju, T. (2022). COVID: how the pandemic could make poverty levels among ethnic
minorities even worse. https://theconversation.com/covid-how-the-pandemic-could-make-poverty-levels-
among-ethnic-minorities-even-worse-175280
Oshin, M. (2020a). The 5 Hidden Causes Of Stress and Anxiety. https://www.mayooshin.com/hidden-causes-
of-stress-and-anxiety
Oshin, M. (2020b). The Four-Minute Mile: Why Some People Achieve the Impossible and Others Don’t.
https://www.mayooshin.com/four-minute-mile
Peterson, M. (n.d.). Tips to Increase Self-Efficacy in the Workplace. https://www.limeade.com/resources/blog/
tips-to-increase-self-efficacy-in-the-workplace
Tanner, L. (2021). First children receive COVID-19 vaccine as part of national rollout. https://www.pbs.org/
newshour/nation/first-children-receive-covid-19-vaccine-as-national-rollout-begins
Wikipedia (n.d.). Roger Bannister. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bannister
Willet, J. D. S. (2022). Omicron: Vaccines remain the best defence against this COVID-19 variant and others.
https://theconversation.com/omicron-vaccines-remain-the-best-defence-against-this-covid-19-variant-
and-others-174195

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 Chapter 5 Paraphrasing
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
Learning Outcomes

1 Identify what is paraphrasing and what is not.

2 Follow different steps for paraphrasing.

3 Use different techniques for paraphrasing.

4 Pay attention to “don’ts” of paraphrasing.

5 Distinguish what is and what is not plagiarism.

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction Paraphrasing
What is Paraphrasing? Paraphrasing Techniques
Five Steps for Paraphrasing Plagiarism
Five Techniques for Paraphrasing
How Not to Paraphrase
Plagiarism

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INTRODUCTION It should be noted that when you paraphrase

Paraphrasing is a crucial tool for many a sentence from a source or a text and use this
purposes: reading comprehension, listening paraphrased sentence in your own work like a term
comprehension, academic writing, and paper or an essay, you should still cite the source,
succeeding in proficiency tests. With a good skill meaning that you should make clear that the
of paraphrasing, you can successfully manage a sentence is not entirely of your own. It is better to
variety of tasks you need to complete in English, consult your instructor about citing requirements
particularly in your university courses and also and conventions if it is an assignment. Furthermore,
when paraphrasing, due attention should be paid
in your professional career. It is especially useful
not to use wording or expressions that are too
when you do not want to, or are not allowed to
similar or almost the same as the original. In that
quote information from a source directly. Another
case, you may be committing plagiarism, especially
advantage of paraphrasing is that it indicates that
if you do not cite the source.
you have understood the text or source and your
writing flows more smoothly.

WHAT IS PARAPHRASING?
To paraphrase basically means to rewrite a
sentence or a phrase in your own words. Thus,
you stick to the same meaning or message, but
you state it differently, using different words
and/or grammatical structures. When you are
paraphrasing a sentence in a text, you use the key
words of the author, but other than that, you use
many words of your own in possibly a different In the rest of this chapter, you will learn what
sentence structure. The following is an example steps are included in paraphrasing and practice
with an original sentence and its paraphrase: different techniques for effective paraphrasing.
While reading the chapter, examine the examples
The student asked the teacher to excuse his absence, carefully and pay due attention to the practice tasks.
but the teacher refused. (Original)
The teacher turned down the student’s request for
an excused absence. (Paraphrase)
1
As you can see, the message in both sentences
Briefly explain the concept of paraphrasing.
is the same: there is a student asking or requesting
the teacher to make him a favor for an absence
because he has an excuse, and the teacher denies
this request. However, some words are different in FIVE STEPS FOR PARAPHRASING
these sentences: to ask (verb) and request (noun), Paraphrasing can be a challenging skill,
to refuse (verb) and to turn down (phrasal verb). especially for novice writers. It requires certain steps
In addition, the subjects of the sentences are to be followed so that we can come up with good
different: the student in the first sentence and paraphrases. Although there are not necessarily
the teacher in the second. Nevertheless, the same universal steps and it is sometimes regarded as an
meaning is successfully stated in the paraphrased individual process, five basic (Figure 5.1) steps can
sentence. be practiced and followed.

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Read Read the text several times

Highlight Highlight or note down the key concepts

Write Write your own version

Compare Compare the original and your own version

Cite Cite the source you have used

Figure 5.1 Five Steps for Paraphrasing

Read it Several Times Note Down the Key Concepts

When you want to use a sentence or a phrase in The second step you can follow after reading the
your own work by paraphrasing, it is best that you original section or sentence several times is noting
read that section several times and make sure you fully down or highlighting the key concepts. These key
understand the message. If you can not comprehend concepts should be the words and/or phrases that
the message, it will be difficult for you to state it in should tell the main message of the author without
your own words. Otherwise, you will write down even putting them into a sentence. Now, examine
your misinterpretation of the original message. That the same paragraph with key words highlighted
is why it is usually useful to read the original sentence below:
or section several times. Have a look at the following
paragraph from an article by Ilan Alon published in While the world might recover from the Wuhan,
the journal “FIIB Business Review” and read it twice China-based 2020 novel coronavirus, it is likely that
to find out the main message: the virus will leave the world governance system in
a different state. Globalization as we knew it is over
While the world might recover from the Wuhan, and a new world order will emerge, with dramatic
China-based 2020 novel coronavirus, it is likely that consequences to our field.
the virus will leave the world governance system in
a different state. Globalization as we knew it is over When you look at these key words, they tell us
and a new world order will emerge, with dramatic the main message of this paragraph. Even without
consequences to our field*. proper sentences, just by reading these key words
*business and phrases, we can infer the main message: the
world may recover from COVID-19, many
Do not do any paraphrasing for now, just changes in terms of governance, a different world
read the paragraph several times. Then, try to order, the end of globalization, significant results
brainstorm about how you can state the main in the field. Thus, identifying the key concepts is
message differently. You can think about what kind quite important before we paraphrase a sentence
of changes you can make in the structure of the or a section of a text. Otherwise, our paraphrase
sentences, but be careful that even though you will would most likely be a false interpretation of the
say it in different words and in a different sentence original message.
structure, you should still be saying the same thing.

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Write Your Own Version

Having highlighted or noted down the key concepts, now we can paraphrase, or write our own version
of this paragraph. Following in this chapter, we will see different techniques we can use to paraphrase, but
before that we will paraphrase this paragraph as we are covering the steps included in this process. Please
examine the paraphrase below, and see the differences between the original text and the paraphrased one:

The world may overcome COVID-19, but it will probably lead to many changes in terms of governance. As
a result, we will face a different world order with the end of globalization, bringing significant changes in the
field of business.

Our paraphrase above makes reference to all the key concepts we highlighted before. The key concepts
are just put into grammatical and proper sentences in a coherent way. What differences do you observe
between the original text and the paraphrase? You can think about this question in terms of vocabulary,
grammar and also meaning. Are we finished? No, not yet.

Compare the Texts

After writing your own version of the text by making use of key concepts, we need to evaluate this new
version. We can ask ourselves several questions to make sure that the original text and the paraphrased version
deliver the same message, without causing misinterpretations or ending up with partial interpretations.
These questions may include the following:
• Have I used all the key concepts?
• Have I clearly stated the author’s main idea?
• Are my version and the original text too similar to each other?
• Do my version and the original text say the same thing?
As we stated above, key concepts are an integral part of a paraphrase, so they should be mentioned in
your version as well. While you work on your paraphrase, you should stick to the author’s main idea and
message; otherwise, you would be saying something else. Another crucial issue is that your version and
the original text should not be too similar; in that case, your instructor or readers may think that you are
taking someone else’s work or thoughts as they are, and it may be seen as plagiarism, which we will discuss
more closely below. Therefore, you should avoid being too similar to the original text. Lastly, you can ask
yourself whether your version and the original text say the same message. Now, let’s examine the example
above and compare the original paragraph with our paraphrased version.

Original
While the world might recover from Paraphrase
the Wuhan, China-based 2020 novel The world may overcome COVID-19,
coronavirus, it is likely that the virus but it will probably lead to many changes
will leave the world governance system in terms of governance. As a result, we
in a different state. Globalization as we will face a different world order with the
knew it is over and a new world order end of globalization, bringing significant
will emerge, with dramatic consequences changes in the field of business.
to our field.

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As you can see, the key concepts in the original their writing conventions to see what citation style
text like “recover”, “coronavirus”, “governance” they use. Before we move on to the next section, let’s
and “globalization” are also mentioned in the examine the basics of APA style for citing, which is
paraphrased version. Yet, the new version contains quite common in social sciences.
many synonyms for words in the original one: In the APA style, you cite a journal article, a
overcome, probably, end, change, COVID-19 and book or a website in the text (i.e. in-text citation)
order. So, they are not too similar. The main as in the following:
idea, which is COVID-19 leading to significant
• Journal article: You provide the last name(s)
consequences in the field of business with the end
of the author(s), and then the year of
of globalization, is also stated in the paraphrase,
publication in parentheses as in Biber and
and both versions virtually say the same thing.
Barbieri (2007) within a sentence, or both
last names and year of publication separated
Cite the Source with a comma within parentheses at the
With technology, it is easy to copy and paste end of a sentence as in (Biber & Barbieri,
other people’s work. However, using others’ ideas 2007).
without any change and most importantly, not • Book: The in-text citation for a book is the
giving them credit can be called ‘cheating’, or in same as citing a journal article; Hunston
academic contexts, ‘plagiarism’. Therefore, when (2002) within a sentence, or (Hunston,
we benefit from other sources to compile our own 2002) at the end of a sentence.
work, we cannot simply copy and paste; we need • Website: When citing a page on a website,
to put some thought on what we find, state it in you provide the last name(s) of the
our own words and cite it. Citing means making author(s) (i.e. if the author is known),
reference to the original author of a work when and the year of the date that appears on
you use them in your own assignment or paper. the page as in Felman (2020) within a
This is crucial because you may not want to be seen sentence, or (Felman, 2020) at the end of
as cheating by taking someone else’s work without a sentence.
any reference to that person. Now, have a look at
our paraphrase and pay attention to the citation. After citing a source in the text, which is
provided in a short form with only the last name(s)
The world may overcome COVID-19, but it will of the author(s) and the publication year, you
probably lead to many changes in terms of governance should also provide the full form of these references
(Alon, 2020). at the end of the text. In the APA style, you can
provide end-of-text citations for a journal article, a
The author of the article from which the above book or a website as in the following:
sentence was taken and paraphrased is Ilan Alon • Journal article: You provide the last name(s)
and the article was published in 2020. In this case, of the author(s) with a comma and the first
“Alon, 2020” is how you would cite this source if letter of the first name(s) of the author(s),
you used the APA style for citing. APA (American followed by the year of publication in
Psychological Association) style is quite common in parentheses, the title of the article, the
fields like psychology or education. However, there journal, the volume and issue of the journal
are other styles as well, including MLA style (i.e. (i.e. issue in parentheses) in which the
common in literature or languages), NB in Chicago article is published, and the page interval
style (i.e. common in humanities) and IEEE styles on which the article is published. Examine
(i.e. common in fields related to engineering). this example:
Therefore, if you are asked to write an assignment by
an instructor, you need to know whether you should Biber, D. & Barbieri, F. (2007). Lexical
follow a specific citation style for citing the sources bundles in university spoken and written
that you use. If you plan to submit your work to a registers. English for Specific Purposes, 26(3),
journal or a publishing body, you need to examine 263–286.

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• Book: You mention the authors with their last name(s) and first letter of their first name(s), followed
by the publication year in parentheses. Then, you provide the title of the book and the publisher.
Examine this example:

Hunston, S. (2002). Corpora in Applied Linguistics. Cambridge University Press.

• Website: After mentioning the last name(s) of the author(s) and the first letter of their first name(s)
and the year on the web page, you provide the title of the page and then the link to the page.
Examine this example:

Felman, A. (2020). Why stress happens and how to manage it. https://www.medicalnewstoday.
com/articles/145855#causes

For more information about the APA style for citing and to learn about how to cite other types of
sources like a chapter in an edited book, you can refer to the website https://apastyle.apa.org/. To sum up,
citing the sources you benefit from and using a proper citation style to do this is the best way to be on
the safe side when you compile an assignment, essay
or any written work. Do not forget to check which
citation style you should follow, for which you can
2
consult your instructor if it is an assignment, or refer
to the journal/conference website if it is a submission List different steps for paraphrasing.
for publication.

FIVE TECHNIQUES FOR PARAPHRASING

We have covered five steps you can follow when you need to paraphrase a sentence or a piece of text
from a source. These will guide you in the process of preparing your written works. Among the five
steps, surely the most important step is writing your own version. In this step, you do the actual act of
paraphrasing, putting something in your own words. To maximize the quality of your paraphrases, there
are some techniques (Figure 5.2) you can employ.

Synonyms Make use of synonyms to replace words

Word Forms Use different forms of a word

Voice Change sentence from active to passive voice

Word Order Change the order of words or phrases

Multiple Use more than one technique to paraphrase

Techniques

Figure 5.2 Five Techniques for Paraphrasing

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Synonyms Findings show that students tend to copy and

One of the most common and maybe the most paste from external sources. (Original)
important techniques used in paraphrasing is making Research reveals that students are likely to copy
use of synonyms. A synonym is a word or phrase and paste from other sources. (Paraphrase)
with the same or nearly the same meaning as another
word or phrase. For example, the words “small” and In these examples, some words and/or phrases
“little” are synonyms, or the words “honesty” and are replaced with their synonyms to paraphrase
integrity” are synonyms. Synonyms can be used for the original sentence. Although this is a common
one another depending on the context. technique used in paraphrasing, it requires
attention because not all synonyms of a word can
fit in the context of your sentence. We will discuss
why you should be careful about replacing words
with synonyms later in this chapter.

Exercise 1. Examine the following sentences

and find a synonym for the underlined word(s).
Make sure you look up possible synonyms for
their meaning and usage in a dictionary.
1. The principal proposed that around 300
students should be given scholarships.
2. The teacher was so nice to the people in
class because they studied hard.
When you paraphrase, you can find synonyms 3. The watch he bought was very cheap. It
for the words in the original sentence. For this didn’t even show the time properly.
purpose, you can spot the most important nouns 4. I was so tired that I couldn’t even move my
(or noun phrases) and verbs, and find which head. In addition, I had a lot of things to
synonyms might be able to replace them. Now, do.
have a look at the following examples: 5. When the professor entered the classroom,
all of the students started laughing.
Increasing oil prices have struck the world economy
in 2022. (Original)
Surging oil prices have severely affected the world Use a Different Word Form
economy in 2022. (Paraphrase) Another common way of paraphrasing is by
changing the form of the word(s). In a language,
COVID-19 caused people to have financial a word can exist in different ways. They can exist
difficulties. (Original) as nouns, verbs or adjectives, and they can have
COVID-19 led to financial challenges for people. different prefixes or suffixes.
(Paraphrase)

The teacher asked the students to write an essay on

global wars. (Original)
The teacher assigned the students to write an essay
on wars across the world. (Paraphrase)

A proper diet is necessary to lose weight.

(Original)
An adequate diet is needed to slim down.
(Paraphrase)

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To use a different word form when you paraphrase, you need to have a good understanding of word
classes and different forms of the same words. Have a glance at the following example:

Table 5.1 Examples of different word forms

Noun Adjective Verb Adverb

activity active activate actively

a thing that you do for being busy doing things, make something in a way that involves
interest or pleasure especially physical activities start working doing something

Different forms of the same word family usually have related meanings, but not always. In the example
above, you can use the words activity and active in a context related to exercising and having a healthy
lifestyle, but you may not use the verb form activate and the adverb form actively meaningfully in that
context. Let’s take the following sentence and paraphrase it using different word forms:

Physical activity is an indispensable part of a healthy lifestyle. (Original)

Being physically active is necessary for a healthy lifestyle. (Paraphrase)

In this example, we changed the noun form activity to the adjective form active, and also the adjective
form physical to the adverb form physically. However, while paraphrasing the original sentence, the verb
form activate does just not fit in because it means to make something start working as in He activated the
alarm when the thieves entered the building. Similarly, the adverb form actively does not sound right because
it means that an action is in a way that involves doing something as in The government is actively considering
to take further actions. Therefore, different forms of the same word family are not always useful for our
purpose of paraphrasing.

Exercise 2. Examine the sentences below and change the form of the words in parentheses to
complete the sentence.
1. This issue is very ______ (problem).
2. Can you give me a detailed _______ (describe) of that person?
3. He is quite ______ (know) about martial arts.
4. She was rich, but she was not very _____ (mercy).
5. The boss was ______ (impression) by my work.
6. That house was gorgeous, but there is no way we can _____ (affordable) it.
7. I was _____ (terrify) when I saw her in white clothes.
8. Technology can be really _____ (use) in learning a language.
9. ________ (prepare) is necessary for any difficult task in life.
10. She was listening carefully. So, she was ______ (interest) in the topic.

Change From Active to Passive

To paraphrase, we can sometimes change the grammatical structure of a sentence. One way to do this
is to change the sentence from active to passive voice, or vice-versa. Let’s remember how we can construct
active and passive sentences in English through the following examples:

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Increasing oil prices have struck the world words, the latter is safer because synonyms and
economy in 2022. (Active) different word forms may have meanings that are
The world economy has been struck by increasing not relevant to the original sentence or piece of
oil prices in 2022. (Passive) text you want to paraphrase. Although changing
the word order may seem easy, it can be difficult
The teacher asked the students to write an essay on to decide what words to move and where to move
global wars. (Active) them. It is particularly challenging because when
you change the word order, you should make sure
The students were asked by the teacher to write
that the revised sentence is still grammatical and
an essay on wars across the world. (Passive)
has cohesion (i.e. using words and grammatical
structures to connect ideas).
Parents take their children to the playground at
the weekends. (Active)
If necessary actions are taken, negative effects
Children are taken by their parents to the of global warming can be minimized. However, we
playground at the weekends. (Passive) need to act now because we don’t have any time to
waste. (Original)
The police are chasing the thieves in the park. Negative effects of global warming can be
The thieves are being chased by the police in minimized if necessary actions are taken. However,
the park. we don’t have any time to waste, so we need to act
now. (Changed word order)
Changing a sentence from active to passive
voice does not change its main message, so it is a Paraphrasing a sentence can be a difficult task.
useful technique for paraphrasing. Yet, what it does (Original)
is that it changes the emphasis of the sentence from Paraphrasing a sentence can be a task which is
the subject to the direct object, but the factual difficult. (Changed word order)
information delivered to the reader is still the same.
For example, the last example above indicates When there are two or more clauses in a sentence
that there are the police and the thieves, and the as in the first example, we can change the order of
police are chasing the thieves. This is the meaning these clauses. In the first part, there is a conditional
delivered whether you construct the sentence in if-clause that can be positioned before and after
active voice or in passive voice. the main clause. In the second part, the cause of a
situation is specified with the conjunction because;
Exercise 3. Read the following paragraph and in such a case, we can change the emphasis to the
change the sentence from active to passive voice. result by using so, and thus, changing the word
order in the sentence.
Locals saw three suspects breaking into a house
on Main Street last night. They called the police A sentence can sometimes have an adjective
and told them to come very quickly. They caught modifying a noun, and we can move this adjective
one of the suspects immediately after arriving at into a relative clause modifying the same noun
the crime scene. The other suspects escaped but the
as in the second example above. Simply saying a
difficult task and a task which is difficult delivers
police found them very soon. They took all of the
the same meaning in a different word order. Please
suspects to the police station and questioned them
mind that just because you change the order of
separately. The police charged the suspects with
words, phrases or clauses in a sentence or a piece of
burglary.
text, it does not mean that you paraphrased it. Your
version should not be too similar to the original
Change the Word Order text while maintaining the original message. So,
When you compare using synonyms and you should try to prefer employing the fifth step in
different word forms with changing the order of your paraphrases.

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Exercise 4. Rewrite the following sentences by making the appropriate changes in the word order.
Mind that you should deliver the same meaning in the modified sentence.
1. Because they knew each other for a long time, they got married.
2. To be the youngest graduate of this department, I had to study really hard.
3. I needed a new laptop, but I could not afford it.
4. If you plan to go to Eastern Turkey in winter, you need to take warm clothes.
5. Some viruses kill millions of people annually.

Combine Several Techniques (for best results)

When considered individually, the above-mentioned techniques are useful, but they make our
paraphrases more meaningful when used in combination. In other words, if you can use synonyms,
different word forms, change the sentence from active to passive and also change the word order by
maintaining grammaticality and meaning, then you can produce good paraphrases.

Even if you cannot use all these techniques together -because it may just not be possible- you can still
combine several of these techniques in your own version of a source sentence. Let’s examine the following
excerpt from Drezner (2022), an article published in the journal International Organization:
COVID-19’s effects will matter for any analysis of events in world politics over the next few years. Much of
the international relations discipline, however, is concerned about patterns and regularities that persist for longer
than a few years. (Original)

If you are to follow the five steps we covered above to paraphrase this excerpt, you need read it several
times to fully understand the main idea, note down or highlight the key concepts so that you do not
neglect them in your paraphrase, write your own version, compare the original and your version, and lastly,
cite the source. Now, take your time, follow these steps and try to make use of the techniques we discussed
earlier to write a paraphrase of this excerpt. Then, you can compare your version with the one below. Mind
that there is not a single paraphrase of a text; every individual may come up with a different paraphrase,
still saying the same thing.

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The effects of COVID-19 will be important for the first 72 hours in a missing person investigation are
analyzing events in politics around the world in the most critical. (Wikipedia, n.d.) (Original)
the near future. However, international relations as
a discipline focus more on patterns and regulations Waiting 24 hours to file a report for a missing
that last for a considerably long time period. (Denver, person is hardly ever a necessity. It is vital to launch
2022) (Paraphrase) an investigation right away when there is proof of
violence or an unusual absence. It is recommended by
The paraphrase of the excerpt from Denver the UK government that it is not obligatory to wait
(2022) contains changed word order, synonyms 24 hours to contact the police. In Canada or the USA,
and different word forms. The source is also cited such a waiting period does not exist. As a matter of
at the end. Remember that using several techniques fact, according to criminologists, the most crucial time
in combination will help us come up with better in an investigation of a mission person is the first 72
paraphrases. Now, examine the following excerpt from hours. (Wikipedia, n.d.) (Paraphrase)
Liu, Tsyvinski and Wu (2022) and its paraphrase:
Exercise 6. Read another excerpt from the
There are two views on the cryptocurrency market. article on common misconceptions (Wikipedia,
The first is that most and perhaps all of the coins n.d.) to compare it with its paraphrased version.
represent bubbles and fraud. The second is that the Try to identify the techniques used to paraphrase
blockchain technology embodied in coins may become the text and write down specific examples for
an important innovation and that at least some coins each technique.
may be assets that represent a stake in the future of this The black belt in martial arts does not necessarily
technology. (Original) indicate expert level or mastery. It was introduced for
According to one of the two views on the judo in the 1880s to indicate competency at all of the
cryptocurrency market, most of the coins are bubbles basic techniques of the sport. Promotion beyond 1st
and fraud. The other view states that at least some dan (the first black belt rank) varies among different
coins may be valuable assets of this technology in the martial arts. In judo and derived martial arts such
future and that the blockchain technology included in as Brazilian jiu-jitsu, holders of higher master ranks
coins may be a significant innovation. (Liu, Tsyvinski are awarded alternating red and white panels, and
& Wu, 2022) (Paraphrase) the highest grandmasters wear solid red belts. Some
In this paraphrase, synonyms are used and the other arts such as taekwondo use black belts with a
order of words and clauses are changed as well. In number of gold bars to indicate the holder’s dan rank.
addition, the first two sentences in the original (Wikipedia, n.d.) (Original)
excerpt are combined into a single sentence. As
In martial arts, expert level or mastery is not
long as it makes sense and it is grammatical, you
always represented by the black belt. In the 1880s, it
can also combine sentences to deliver a more
was firstly judo that had it to show mastery of basic
concise message to your reader.
techniques. Beyond 1st dan (the first black belt rank),
Exercise 5. Read the following excerpt from an getting promoted can be different across martial arts.
People who hold higher master ranks in judo and
article on common misconceptions (Wikipedia,
derived martial arts including Brazilian jiu-jitsu are
n.d.) to compare it with its paraphrased version.
presented with alternating red and white panels, while
Try to identify the techniques used to paraphrase
solid red belts are worn by the highest grandmasters.
the text and write down specific examples for
In other arts like Taekwondo, black belts are used with
each technique.
several gold bars to represent the holder’s dan rank.
It is rarely necessary to wait 24 hours before filing (Wikipedia, n.d.) (Paraphrase)
a missing person report. When there is evidence of
violence or of an unusual absence, it is important to
start an investigation promptly. The UK government
advises “You do not have to wait 24 hours before 3
contacting the police.” There is no waiting period in List different techniques for paraphrasing.
Canada or USA, and in fact, criminology experts say

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HOW NOT TO PARAPHRASE few words is not paraphrasing. Otherwise, you may
So far, we have discussed the steps that can be fail in a class due to plagiarism or in your career
followed, and the techniques that can be employed you may be accused of taking someone else’s work
to paraphrase a piece of text. These steps and without credit.
techniques will guide you develop easy-to-read
and meaningful paraphrases. However, there are
things you should definitely avoid when you are
paraphrasing a text. Let’s have a look at these issues.

Do Not Simply Replace Words With

Random Synonyms
In English, most words have many synonyms
when you look the words up in a dictionary or a
thesaurus. However, as we discussed in the section The only case you can copy and paste is when
on synonyms above, we cannot randomly choose you are directly quoting from someone else’s work;
a synonym for a word and replace it in our new in that case, you use quotation marks and cite the
version of the text. The new word may not mean the owner of the work. However, you cannot always
same thing in the new context; therefore, you need directly quote in your work. Most of the time you
to check the meaning of the synonym and in what need to paraphrase from multiple external sources.
contexts it is usually used by speakers and writers. In addition, copying and pasting a sentence or a
Have a look at the following example. Be careful paragraph from a source and merely changing one or
with the paraphrased version. Does it make sense? two words is NOT a paraphrase, even if you cite or
Paraphrasing is to express an idea in your own make reference to the source. See the example below:
words. (Original)
I will argue that the politics of COVID-19 is
Paraphrasing is to fast an idea in your own the politics of crisis. Crises compel leaders to make
words. (Paraphrase) high-stakes decisions under conditions of threat,
First of all, changing just one word in a sentence uncertainty, and time pressure. Crises are important
does not make it a paraphrase. Secondly, we cannot because of their human consequences and their
randomly choose a synonym to replace a word. In this political repercussions. They are also likely to increase
case, we looked up the word “express” in a dictionary in frequency along with economic globalization and
or thesaurus. Without paying close attention to climate change. (Lipscy, 2020) (Original)
meaning, we can find the word “fast” as a synonym I will argue that the politics of COVID-19 is the
to replace the word “express” because “express” means politics of crisis. Crises force leaders to make high-stakes
moving or being sent fast as in “express delivery” and decisions under conditions of threat, uncertainty,
that can be replaced with “fast” which means moving and time pressure. Crises are crucial because of their
or happening quickly. However, this meaning is just human consequences and their political repercussions.
not related to our sentence because “express” is a verb They are also likely to increase in frequency along with
here and means to show a feeling, opinion or a fact. economic globalization and climate change. (Lipscy,
Surely, “fast” as a verb does not convey this meaning 2020) (Paraphrase)
because as a verb it means eating no food for a certain
period of time. Lastly, “to fast an idea” is nothing but In this example, the source is cited, but to
a meaningless word combination. This is why you paraphrase, only two words are replaced with their
should always pay due attention when you look for synonyms. You should be aware that this is NOT
a synonym and make sure both meaning and use fit a paraphrase, but a mere example of copying and
into your sentence. pasting. As is stated many times in this chapter, the
original text and your own version should not be
Do Not Copy and Paste too similar. Remember that paraphrasing is about
Copying and pasting from an external source writing an idea in YOUR OWN WORDS, and
without any changes or with a change of only a taking it as a whole and making superficial changes.

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Do Not Forget to Cite

Giving credit to the owner of the work you
are paraphrasing from is an important aspect of 4
academic writing and reporting. Just because you Explain the “don’ts” of paraphrasing.
modified a text does not mean that it is your work.
You benefit from someone else’s work and you still
need to make reference to that work by citing it.
PLAGIARISM
We mentioned the concept of plagiarism
several times above. We referred to this concept
when highlighting the importance of not taking
someone else’s work with no reference. Plagiarism
is basically the practice of using some other person’s
ideas or work and pretending that it is your own
work. Naturally, this is something you can be
accused of in academic environments. Thus, it is
of great importance that you are aware of what acts
are considered plagiarism and what acts are not.
Acts that are considered plagiarism: If you
take or make use of an idea expressed by someone
else, and if you do not give credit to that person
or cite his/her work, THAT is plagiarism. It does
not matter if you take a piece of text with the exact
words without making any changes, or just change
only a word or two. Likewise, it does not matter
if you paraphrase it or even summarize it. THAT
As we discussed earlier, there are different citation is still plagiarism, unless you state the idea in your
styles. The style used in the examples throughout this own words and cite the author.
chapter is called the APA style. In all style guides, What IS plagiarism also includes paying
writers cite other works in the text, which is called in- someone else to write a text for you, asking someone
text citation, and also cite them at the end of the text, else to do it for you, and buying a text that is already
which is called end-of-text citation. The following are written and using it like it is your own text and you
examples of in-text and end-of-text citations: have written it. These acts of academic dishonesty
are naturally regarded as plagiarism as well.
In-text citation: For some time now, English has
been the lingua franca of academia and is a global Acts that are NOT considered plagiarism:
means of communication in the dissemination of Shared knowledge or a generally accepted fact and
knowledge and science (Björkman, 2013). common-sense observations are NOT plagiarism.
If a fact or a piece of information can be found in
End-of-text citation: Björkman, B. (2013). three or more sources, it can be regarded as shared
English as an Academic Lingua Franca: An knowledge. Examine this example:
Investigation of Form and Communicative
Effectiveness. De Gruyter Mouton. Atatürk was born in Selanik in 1881.

In-text citation: According to Cortes (2004), Since you can find this information in numerous
this difference might be due to the lack of formal texts, you do not need to cite any sources because
this is something most people know and something
instruction that students in different disciplines on the
that is expressed in many papers or studies. So,
frequency and function of such expressions.
this is NOT plagiarism. However, just because a
End-of-text citation: Cortes, V. (2004). Lexical paragraph or a piece of text by someone else includes
bundles in published and student disciplinary shared knowledge, do not take a series of sentences
writing: Examples from history and biology. exactly; this could be regarded as plagiarism.
English for Specific Purposes, 23, 397-423.

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What is NOT plagiarism also includes stating someone else’s idea in your own words and cite the
author, use a direct quote from someone else, and cite the source, and paraphrase or summarize from an
external source and cite it.

Exercise 7.
“Multi-word expressions are an important component of fluent linguistic production and a key factor in
successful language learning.”

Hyland, K. (2008). As can be seen: Lexical bundles and disciplinary variation. English for specific
purposes, 27(1), 4-21.
Based on the quote and its reference above, which of the following can be considered as plagiarism?
1. An article by Hyland (2008) refers to multi-word combinations as a crucial aspect of successful
language learning and being important for fluent linguistic production.
2. For fluent linguistic production, multi-word expressions constitute an important component and
one of the key factors for successful foreign language learning (Hyland, 2008).
3. Multi-word expressions are a significant component of fluent linguistic production and an
important factor in successful language learning.

Academic Vocabulary
As you have seen throughout this chapter, there are several words
commonly used in academic writing and specifically in different
aspects of academic writing. These words come in handy when you 5
are engaged in an academic writing task, and are also necessary to Give an example for what is and what
be fully aware of certain concepts involved in this endeavor. The is not plagiarism.
following is an exercise to practice their meaning and use.

Exercise 8
Match the items from 1 to 8 with their meanings, and then use them in a sentence in 9-16.
1. cite a source a. to present someone else’s ideas/work in a new form
2. synonym b. connecting elements of a text to form a whole
3. paraphrase c. a word meaning the same as another word
4. plagiarism d. a form of a verb in which the subject receives the action
5. source e. materials from which the writer collects ideas and information
6. style guide f. to make a reference to an outside source
7. passive voice g. using someone else’s work without making reference to them
8. cohesion i. rules and guidelines that enable consistent and clear citations
9. You can find ________________ to replace some of the words in the original sentence.
10. APA is a ________________ commonly used in social sciences.
11. When you change the word order while paraphrasing, you should make sure that the revised
sentence is still grammatical and has ________________.
12. In academic writing, you need to ________________ that you use in your work.
13. We can change the grammatical structure of a sentence to ________________ it.
14. If you do not give credit to the external sources you use, then you may be accused of
________________.
15. When you benefit from a ________________, you need to cite it.
16. To paraphrase a sentence, you can also change it from active to ________________, along with
other techniques.
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GENERAL PRACTICE
A. Have a look at the excerpt from the article titled “Leadership styles and skills developed
through game-based learning” by Sousa and Rocha (2019) published in Journal of Business Research.
Consider the steps and techniques for paraphrasing and write your own version of the paragraph.

Leadership skills have been shown to be of considerable value to the success of project teams. In the project
management context, the complexity of the competitive business environment, integration of global cultures, and
technological ubiquity are mighty forces and games, conversely, have shown to be inherent venues of significant
skills development.

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B. Have a look at the excerpt from the article titled “Leadership styles and skills developed
through game-based learning” by Sousa and Rocha (2019) published in Journal of Business Research.
Consider the steps and techniques for paraphrasing and write your own version of the paragraph.

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) triggered a global pandemic and economic contraction unlike anything
seen for roughly a century. COVID-19 is less lethal than many other recent diseases, such as Ebola, Avian
Influenza, and Tuberculosis. However, the virus that causes COVID-19—severe acute respiratory syndrome
coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)—appears to be calibrated to inflict maximum harm on the contemporary world
economy. The virus spread rapidly by taking advantage of globalization and interconnectedness. Unlike virus
transmission in the 2003 SARS epidemic, COVID-infected individuals unknowingly became super-spreaders as
their symptoms developed slowly and often remained mild.

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to identify what is paraphrasing

LO 1 and what is not.

Paraphrasing, or re-writing a sentence or a phrase in your own words, is an important skill in academic
writing. Poor paraphrases can lead to misinterpretations and even to plagiarism, a concept which is of
great importance in today’s academic world.
Summary

to follow different steps for

LO 2 paraphrasing.

While paraphrasing a text, you can follow certain steps including reading the text several times, noting
down or highlighting the key concepts, writing your own version, comparing the texts and citing the
source.

to use different techniques for

LO 3 paraphrasing.

As you write your own version, you can make use of synonyms, use a different word form, change the
sentence from active to passive voice and change the word order, but most importantly, you can combine
several of these techniques.

to pay attention to “don’ts” of

LO 4 paraphrasing.

There are certain issues you should be careful about when paraphrasing, such as not merely using random
synonyms, not simply copying and pasting, and not forgetting to cite the owner of a work.

to distinguish what is and what is

LO 5 not plagiarism.

It is plagiarism when you take or make use of an idea expressed by someone else, and when you do not
give credit to that person or cite his/her work. It is still considered plagiarism when you take a piece of text
with the exact words without making any changes, or when just change only a word or two.

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1 Which of the following can be called 5 Animals can’t easily find water and food in
paraphrasing? winter.
A. Taking others’ words by copying and pasting Which of the following is the closest paraphrase of
B. Simply changing a few words in others’ work this sentence?

Test Yourself
C. Stating someone else’s ideas in your own words A. Water and food are not easy to find in winter.
D. Rewriting others’ ideas in your own words and B. In winter, animals have difficulty finding food
citing the source and water.
E. Paying someone else to write a text for you C. Food and water cannot be found when the
weather changes.
2 Which of the following is not a step for D. The weather is an important factor for finding
paraphrasing? food and water.
A. Reading the text several times E. Food and water are vital for animals in winter.
B. Copying and pasting
C. Citing the source 6 Mr. White always tries to make me feel better
D. Noting down key concepts whenever I’m sad.
E. Comparing with the original text Which of the following is the closest paraphrase of
this sentence?
3 Which of the following is a more effective
A. Mr. White always feels bad and I cheer him up.
technique for paraphrasing?
B. Whenever I’m sad, Mr. White feels happy.
A. Using synonyms C. When I’m sad, Mr. White is also sad.
B. Changing the sentence from active to passive D. Mr. White doesn’t feel good sometimes, neither
voice do I.
C. Changing the word order E. When I don’t feel good, Mr. White is always
D. Combining different techniques there to cheer me up.
E. Using different word forms
7 In a company, an accountant works with
4 He tried to _________ (impress) me with his money and taxes.
charm.
Which of the following is the closest paraphrase of
Which form of the word in parentheses should be this sentence?
used to complete this sentence?
A. Money and taxes are the primary responsibility
A. impressing of an accountant working in a company.
B. impressive B. An accountant counts money and pays taxes.
C. impressed C. The government makes an accountant
D. impression responsible for any tax frauds.
E. impress D. Money and taxes are the two important things
for a company.
E. An accountant may be asked to deal with
money and taxes in a company.

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Paraphrasing

8 The car that just had an accident had been 10 COVID-19 claimed millions of lives all over
pulled by a police officer yesterday. the world.
Which of the following is the closest paraphrase of Which of the following is the closest paraphrase of
this sentence? this sentence?
Test Yourself

A. The car that had an accident was being driven A. Millions of people died due to COVID-19
by a police officer. across the world.
B. A police officer pulled over a car yesterday, and B. COVID-19 is a dangerous disease that killed
that same car just had an accident. many people.
C. The police officer was driving so carelessly that C. Millions of people have been affected by
he had an accident. COVID-19 in the world.
D. Pulling over cars is one of the responsibilities of D. COVID-19 could not have killed many people
a police officer. if a vaccine had been developed in time.
E. The driver was careful, but he still had an E. People all around the world need to take the
accident after being pulled over by the police. necessary precautions against COVID-19.

9 I failed my exam in physics as I didn’t work

hard enough.
Which of the following is the closest paraphrase of
this sentence?
A. I have never been good at physics, so I don’t
study for it at all.
B. The physics exam was so difficult that I failed.
C. Because I didn’t study hard, I could not get a
good score in my physics exam.
D. I never liked the physics course, that’s why I
failed.
E. Every student hates failing in an exam, but this
time I deserved it.

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If your answer is wrong, please review the

1. D If your answer is wrong, please review the 6. E
“Five Techniques for Paraphrasing” and
“Paraphrasing” and “Plagiarism” section.
“How Not to Paraphrase” section.

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

If your answer is wrong, please review the
2. B If your answer is wrong, please review the 7. A
“Five Techniques for Paraphrasing” and
“Five Steps for Paraphrasing” section.
“How Not to Paraphrase” section.

If your answer is wrong, please review the

3. D If your answer is wrong, please review the 8. B
“Five Techniques for Paraphrasing” and
“Five Techniques for Paraphrasing” section.
“How Not to Paraphrase” section.

If your answer is wrong, please review the

4. E If your answer is wrong, please review the 9. C
“Five Techniques for Paraphrasing” and
“Five Techniques for Paraphrasing” section.
“How Not to Paraphrase” section.

If your answer is wrong, please review the If your answer is wrong, please review the
5. B “Five Techniques for Paraphrasing” and
10. A
“Five Techniques for Paraphrasing” and
“How Not to Paraphrase” section. “How Not to Paraphrase” section.

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

Briefly explain the concept of paraphrasing.

your turn 1 Paraphrasing is rewriting a sentence or a phrase in your own words.

List different steps for paraphrasing.

The steps for paraphrasing include reading the text several times, noting down
your turn 2 the key concepts, writing your own version, comparing the original and your
own version, and citing the source you have used.

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Paraphrasing

List different techniques for paraphrasing.

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

Techniques for paraphrasing include using synonyms, different word forms,

your turn 3 passive voice, changing word order, and combining multiple techniques.

Explain the “don’ts” of paraphrasing.

While paraphrasing, we should not simply replace words with random

your turn 4 synonyms. We should not just copy and paste from an external source. We
should not forget to cite the source we have used.

Give an example for what is and what is not plagiarism.

Using someone else’s ideas or words and not giving credit to them is considered
your turn 5 plagiarism. Expressing shared knowledge or a generally accepted fact is not
regarded as plagiarism.

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References
Alon, I. (2020). COVID-19 and international business: A viewpoint. FIIB Business Review, 9(2), 75-77.
Drezner, D. W. (2020). The song remains the same: International relations after COVID-19. International
Organization, 74(S1), E18-E35.
Liu, Y., Tsyvinski, A. and Wu, X. (2022). Common risk factors in cryptocurrency. The Journal of Finance,
77(2), 1133-1177.
Lipscy, P. Y. (2020). COVID-19 and the Politics of Crisis. International Organization, 74(S1), E98-E127.
Sousa, M. J. and Rocha, Á. (2019). Leadership styles and skills developed through game-based learning. Journal
of Business Research, 94, 360-366.
Wikipedia (n.d.). List of common misconceptions. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ common_
misconceptions.

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 Chapter 6 Summarising
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
Learning Outcomes

1 Define the stages of summarising.

2 Number the characteristics of a good summary.

3 Use basic structures needed for summary

writing.
4 Name significant vocabulary items needed for
summary writing.

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction Objectiveness
Stages of Summarising Explicitness
Characteristics of a Good Summary Authenticity
Basic Structures for Summary Writing Style
Academic Vocabulary for Summary Writing Academic Vocabulary Knowledge
General Exercises and Answer Key

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INTRODUCTION
Before we go into detail, let’s have a look at the ‘summary’ of
‘summarising’ below: Shorter version
A summary is basically a shortened version of a longer text. S of a text
Actually, we deal with summaries in our daily life. Summaries of
everyday things, such as dialogues, movies, books, a recipe, etc., Using your own
help us grasp the overall idea in a timely manner. As learners, U words and
however, we deal with many written and spoken texts in academic
life. Most of the time we want to have shorter versions of them
Main ideas only
in our hand for many academic needs, e.g. to study for an exam M
or to write a term paper. In this chapter, we will learn how to
summarise texts in a practical way, starting with the stages of
summarising below.

STAGES OF SUMMARISING
There are some stages of summarising depending on the text. These stages might include a pre-reading
activity, which is followed by reading in detail. While reading the text, locate and/or highlight important
ideas to be included in the summary and make some notes related to them that will help you when writing
up your summary. Before writing the summary, another useful stage might be deciding on the audience
and the style of it based on for what purpose or to whom you are writing it. When you finish writing the
summary, it is always a good idea to check whether you have included all the necessary points you want to
include in your summary by checking that you have excluded longer examples and/or supporting details.
These stages can be summarised as follow:
1. Pre-Reading
2. Reading for Main Ideas
3. Making Notes & Highlighting Important Information
4. Deciding on your Audience & Style
5. Checking (whether you have added all the important points)
Now, we will go through these stages with further explanations and exercises.

Stage I: Pre-Reading: Looking for the Clues

When there is a text to be read, whether to be summarised or not, it is always practical to look for clues
before you actually start reading it. Titles, sub-titles, introductory sentences and/or passages, and images –
if there are any – are good examples of clues; they reveal great insights for the content of the text. Analysing
these clues will help you understand the text better; thus, facilitate your summarising process.

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Exercise 1. Finding the Title and the Sub-headings

Read the text below and answer the related questions.

[P1] : Japanese culture is very rich and weddings are a special part of it. They are
usually held in the spring or autumn, and they often take place in a hotel or wedding hall. A Japanese wedding
normally lasts all day and begins with a religious ceremony. Red and white are happy, lucky colours for many
parts of Japanese culture, and weddings are no exception. In Japan, usually the wedding hall has these colours.
[P2] : There are different religions in Japan, so there are different types of weddings, too:
Christian, Buddhist and Shinto weddings are all common. Brides often wear white kimonos with a big headpiece
and the groom normally wears black. The guests at a Japanese wedding normally dress formally. Women often
wear kimonos, and men wear dark suits. Only close family members can go to the religious ceremony.
[P3] : If you receive an invitation to a Japanese wedding, you should reply as soon as
possible. It is common for guests to give the couple a gift or some amount of money. The money is normally put
inside a special envelope with the name of that guest. In Japanese culture, not giving gifts or money is considered
rude.
[P4] : The cutting of the cake is an important moment in Japanese wedding celebrations.
Often the top parts of the cake are made of plastic or paper. Sometimes there is a break in the reception for the
bride and groom to change their clothes again. After the meal, it is common for the younger guests to continue
the celebrations with a band or a DJ.

1. Which of the following is the most appropriate title for this text?
A. Japanese Culture
B. Japanese Weddings
C. What the Japanese Wear
D. How the Japanese Have Fun

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2. Match the sub-headings with each paragraph. There is one extra!

Paragraph 1 A. How You Should Response
Paragraph 2 B. Religions in Japan
Paragraph 3 C. Time and Place of Weddings
Paragraph 4 D. Dressing Style
E. Activities During the Wedding

Exercise 2. Finding the Sub-headings

EMOJIS

[P1] . Emoji – from the Japanese

meaning “picture character”– entered the Oxford Dictionaries in 2013. Different forms of language –
either spoken or written – enable us to transfer a message, affect the mental well-being and behaviours of
others and change our social and individual status. We utilise language, for example, to propose to our
partner, and to say yes, and then quarrel, and even get divorced. These are, actually, what you can do with
emojis exactly. Emoji is to text-speak what facial expression, body language, and intonation mean for
spoken interaction. Whereas emojis are not actual words, they still provide an important contextualisation
input, which helps us to ornament a dull and emotionally weak digital text that is poor in personal
expression.
[P2] . Instagram has found that nearly
50% of all their captions and comments hold at least one Emoji. Given this fact, it added the ability to
use them as hashtags. Plus, the most popular Emoji artist in the U.S. Fred Benenson, when he was 27,
was able to raise over $3,750 on WellFund to find funding for his translation of Moby Dick into Emojis
— titled “Emoji Dick“, of course. He hired some people through a website and translated all the 200.000
words in Moby Dick into pictures. In March 2013, the Library Congress accepted it as the first ever Emoji
book and added it into the collection. After that, some other companies have been founded or benefited
from these character pictures since emojis have become a sensation. Decodemoji.com, for instance, is a
website that “translates” emojis. Just like any other online translation tool, you can copy and paste an emoji
sentence into it and it will reveal a comprehensible interpretation.

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[P3] . Academicians suggest that

peppering an email with emojis could be harmful for job-related prospects since it will make colleagues
less willing to share information with you. The effect can be so risky that it is a general practice to avoid
emojis at work all together, especially when you talk to someone for the first time. Dr Abbie Wanders, an
expert in business and management at University of Lausanne in Switzerland, said, “Our findings provide
first-time evidence that –contrary to actual smiles– smileys do not increase perceptions of warmth, and
actually decrease perceptions of competence.” Based on her findings, the smileys in an email did not have
any effect on the perception of warmth, and in fact the participants of the study evaluated the sender of
the message as less competent, the study concluded.
[P4] . Although we go through life
mostly without being aware of it, humans copy each others’ emotions and expressions when we’re having
a face-to-face conversation. This emotional transmission is actually a big part of how we build empathy
and develop relationships. However, while chatting online, none of these face-to-face interactions happen
unless we are using emojis. Scientists have found out that when we see a smiley face online, the same parts
of the brain get activated as when we look at a real human face. Our mood changes; we may even change
our facial expressions to match the emoticon’s emotion.
[P5] . Some people wanted to know
why certain images were superior to others. There was an increasing number of emoji professionals –
teachers, chefs, doctors, policemen –but why did they all seem to be men? Why were there many images
to display sushi, but zero for burritos, tacos or enchiladas? Finally why, among the many different emojis
depicting humans, were all of them appear to be white people? These questions led to the Great Emoji
Politicization in 2014. It started with emoji symbolizing food (there were none representing traditional
African cuisine, like fufu or injera), flags (there was the Israeli flag, but not the Palestinian one), families
(issues related to displaying single parents), and more. It wasn’t just the debate of having the right symbol
to show what you ate for lunch – it was about having a digital acceptance and acknowledgement of
your culture. Emoji had appeared as an important way of communication in the digital age, but it was a
language that did not include “people of colour” or “women with jobs”. Some recent updates in the emoji
system also added gender opposite pairs, so we have ‘Mrs Father Christmas’, a well dressed ‘man in tuxedo’,
as a partner for the bride, and a ‘dancing man’, the partner of the dancing lady.
(Adapted from thenextweb.com by the author)

Match the sub-titles (A – E) to the paragraphs (1 – 5).

Paragraph 1 A. Emojis have started to represent different social groups.
Paragraph 2 B. You might want to think twice before you use emojis.
Paragraph 3 C. Emojis are, in many ways, similar to languages.
Paragraph 4 D. Texting without emojis lacks a very important element of communication.
Paragraph 5 E. Our love of emojis caused businesses and institutions to adapt to them.

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Stage II. Reading for Main Ideas

When your aim is to summarise a text, you inevitably want to look for main ideas and ignore the
details. However, do not forget that you will not be able to summarise a text without understanding it in
depth, which includes details and supporting sentences as well. Therefore, in order to be precise in your
summary, read the whole text first paying attention to each and every detail. Once you comprehend the
text with those minor details, you will easily differentiate the main and important ideas, which you will
use in your summary.

Exercise 3. Identifying Main Ideas

Read the text below about hair styles and do the related activity.

Throughout history, hair has always been used to make a fashion statement. It also tells us a lot about culture.
In almost all societies, people have cut or styled their hair for practical or decorative reasons. For example; the
ancient Greeks liked blond hair, so they lightened their hair. On the other hand, the Romans preferred dark hair.
The Assyrian culture made the art of hairstyling. People curled, oiled, and perfumed their hair; they also cut their
hair and beards in layers. The Assyrian people used hairstyles to show their position and occupation. Assyrian
women of high rank, as well as women in Egypt, put on fake beards at meetings to show authority. Ancient
Egyptians shaved their heads for cleanliness and then covered their heads with wigs. The higher the status of a
person, the bigger his or her wig was. However, in England, wigs were powdered white as people thought this
flattered the face and made their eyes look brighter.

Look at the words and/or phrases from the text and put a tick ( ) to the ones that might be
included in the summary and put a cross (X) to the ones that should not be included in the summary.
1. Perfumed their hair
2. Fake beards
3. Fashion statement
4. Wigs
5. Culture
6. Decorative reasons
7. Assyrian
8. Society

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Exercise 4. Identifying Main Ideas

Read the text below about Silicon Valley and do the related activity.

Silicon Valley is possibly the most famous valley in the world. Although the first computer was not built there,
Silicon Valley, which is near San Francisco in California, USA, is the birthplace of the modern computer industry.
Scientists at the universities across California and the Hippies of the 1960’s have an important place in this.
In the nineteen-sixties there were actually two different bodies of youngster culture in the USA; the “Beach
Boy” culture on the one side, and radical students on the other. What they shared in common was their desire
for California. The Beach Boys wanted to get to southern California, where they could sing, surf and drive
cars; the radicals on the other hand, desired San Francisco, “flower power”, and some revolutionary ideas. The
campuses at Stanford and Berkeley, near San Francisco, were hot-beds of new ideas, new culture, new technology
and new ways of living. When they finished university, many of the best students did not want to work for
corporate companies like Ford or Shell. Instead, they just wanted to be free and run their own business.... and
stay somewhere in California, not actually far away from San Francisco.
There was a relatively big high-tech industry around San Francisco. Intel had been founded in 1968, when
the first computer mouse was built at Stanford University. In 1970, a research centre was initiated by Xerox
in Palo Alto. Not long after, companies like Apple, Seagate and Google appeared. “Silicon Valley” had arrived.
There was a kind of primitive Internet to connect any addresses in Silicon Valley, called the Arpanet.
Today, Silicon Valley, which is located in a group of small towns a few miles from San Francisco such as Palo
Alto and San Jose, is the home of the computer industry. It still offers high technology, but it is not the only centre
for high-tech in the USA anymore. Other computer firms from all over the USA and all over the world can be
seen; but Silicon Valley still has the biggest collection of high-tech companies and research centres.
(Adapted from linguapress.com by the author)

Look at the words and/or phrases from the text and put a tick ( ) to the ones that might be
included in the summary and put a cross (X) to the ones that should not be included in the summary.
1. Modern computer industry 5. Xerox
2. Beach boys 6. Arpanet
3. Stanford 7. High-tech
4. Intel

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Stage III. Making Notes

Notes can be considered as small but important pieces of a whole; therefore, the notes that you take
when you are reading or listening to a text will help you while writing the summary of it. There are
different strategies of taking notes while dealing with a text, e.g. using abbreviations, symbols, diagrams,
or drawings. Besides, writing fast is also helpful. It might cause some errors in spelling but it is totally
normal, you can check them later. Another strategy is to highlight important information. Your notes can
be informal as you will just use them to help you write your summary.

Exercise 5. Note-Taking
You are going to read a text about festivals around the world. Imagine you are asked to write a summary
of each paragraph using your notes. Take notes as you are reading the text. The first one is done for you.

The Rio Carnival in Brazil

Notes:
The largest
40 days b4 Easter.
A lot of time and money is spent.
Samba; costumes, decorations.
Not free now (as it is in a new stadium, not in the streets of Rio)

This festival is by far the largest in the world. Hundreds of visitors come every year for the celebrations
before the start of Lent, which is a religious fasting period of forty days before Easter. The carnival takes
place in the Sambadrome, a huge new stadium. There, samba schools compete with each other for the best
costumes and dancing. They spend a lot of time and money on carnival preparations, making fantastic
costumes, masks, decorations, mobile floats and teaching the samba. In the past, the carnival procession
was held in the streets of Rio, where beautifully clothed people threw streamers and confetti and danced
for four days. Nowadays, the world’s biggest street party has become a pleasure only for those who can pay
the entrance fee.

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Oktoberfest

Notes:

Foreign beer-lovers might think that the Germans are unimaginative when it comes to beer because,
good as it is, it all seems to taste very similar. There are, however, many regional and seasonal differences,
particularly in Bavaria and Munich. Oktoberfest, the world’s largest beer festival, actually starts in
September and, to mark the occasion, each of Munich’s many breweries makes a special beer. Because of
this, an astonishing variety of different types and strengths of beer are available at this festival.

The Fellas Festival

Notes:

The most spectacular of Spain’s thousands of festivals must be Valencia’s Fellas Fiesta, a two-day event
celebrating the end of winter. The Fellas Fiesta and street party start at noon on St. Joseph’s Day, 19th
March, with a deafening explosion of fireworks. Then there are contests for the best paella - a traditional
Valencian rice dish. People gather in the streets to admire the costumes of the men dressed up as the Moors
who occupied the city until the 13th century. In the months before the fiesta, craftsmen create around 370
sculptures, the fellas, which are detailed caricatures of local people. At midnight, when the fellas are burnt,
the burst of flames and fireworks symbolically forces out the winter.

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The Tibetan Butter Lamp Festival

Notes:

Buddhists believe that nothing is permanent, and on the 10th of March, they celebrate this belief. Long
before the festival begins, monks make their preparations by mixing brightly coloured dyes into huge
quantities of iced butter. It takes them several months to carve the frozen butter into highly decorated
statues, some of them as much as 8 metres high. On the day of the festival itself, the sculptures, supported
by wooden frames, are carried through the streets and greeted with cheers from the excited crowds.
Afterwards, the figures are thrown into a river by the monks who made them to demonstrate the idea that
not even the most beautiful things last forever.

The Dragon Boat Festival

Notes:

In China, towards the end of June, people celebrate a holiday known as the Dragon Boat Festival. The
festival is held to honour the memory of Qu Xuan, a politician and a poet who, in the year 278 B.C., is
said to have committed suicide by jumping into a river. It is said that local people threw rice dumplings
into the water to save Xuan’s soul from the evil spirits in the river. Nowadays, boat races are held every year
to remind people of the search for the body of the dead poet. Spectators eat rice cakes and crews row large
dragon-shaped boats. Some researchers, however, say that dragon boats existed long before the death of Qu
Xuan, and the modern festival is a combination of several old traditions.
(Adapted from pandia.ru and uchika.in by the author)

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Exercise 6. Note-Taking
You are going to read a text about animals becoming extinct around the world. Imagine you are
asked to write a summary of each animal using your notes. Take notes as you are reading the text.
The first one is done for you.

Notes:
hunt for their meat and skin
almost impossible to see them in the nature
easy prey for humans

Pangolin:
Already rare, pangolins are being
hunted to extinction, for their meat, their
skin (used for handbags) and mostly for
their scales which, in the Far East, are
believed to cure all kinds of illnesses despite
having no medical benefits. It is extremely
difficult to catch a glimpse of them in the
wild; they are shy and nocturnal and, at the
first scent of danger, they curl into a ball,
like a scaly hedgehog. While this is some
defence against their natural predators, it
makes them easy prey for humans.

Sea Angel:

Notes:

The beautiful details of sea angels are impossible to see with the naked eye. They are translucent
molluscs no more than 5 cm long, with stunning flashes of primary colour inside their heads, bodies and
at the tips of their tails. However, if the oceans continue to acidify (the result of carbon dioxide dissolving
into water accelerated by the climate change) their future – and that of the food chain in which they are
a vital link – will be in serious danger. This is expected to put stress on the survival of many other species
relying on them in the food chain.

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Pied Tamarin:

Notes:

When we see those animals, we can’t help thinking about the people these creatures resemble. They
are considered among the most endangered primate species in the Amazon forests. These miniature
monkeys, measuring between 20 and 28 cm, belong to the new world monkeys and can live up to 19
years. They are highly social and live in a family-like structure in the tropical forests. The tamarin’s tiny
home range in the north-eastern Amazon is shrinking, as the city of Manaus expands, leaving them no
space to live and breed.

Yunnan Monkey:

Notes:

With their plumped-up lips and cauterised mauve nostrils, Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys look as if
they have spent too much money on a bad plastic surgeon. They are still curiously alluring, and one of the
few monkey species to coexist in relative harmony with each other. Locals think of them as sacred beings
and call them “the wild gods of the mountains”. Despite the recent creation of a protected reserve around
their habitat, it is still hard to protect them against smugglers who make millions trading them across the
world as lucrative pets. The number of remaining monkeys may be too few to ensure the genetic diversity
needed to breed successfully.

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Summarising

Firefly:

Notes:

There is magic in seeing a host of fireflies twinkling in ancient woodlands. Yet what may appear to be
a lovely light show is actually, scientists have begun to discover a secret and astonishingly precise language.
The conversation, however, is dulled by light pollution, which is harming the fireflies’ habitat.
(Adapted from economist.com and aboutanimal.com by the author)

Stage IV. Deciding on the Audience and Style

After you complete reading the text and taking notes, the important stage is to decide to whom you are
writing the summary. This stage is crucial since it will affect your style as well. You may be summarising
a text for your own studies, which means that you are free in your style. However, if you are to submit
your summary to a teacher or lecturer or to anyone who will read, analyse, and even assess your summary,
then it will be a good idea to adopt a formal writing style. In that case, you should not use vernacular
or inappropriate language in your summary. Keeping a proper academic style, which indicates that your
summary is objective, is an important aspect. Besides, you should avoid using vague terminology such as
‘some’, ‘all types’, ‘few’, etc.
Formal writing also asserts that you avoid using first and second personal pronouns (I, you). In
addition, you should not use contractions (e.g. you should write ‘are not’ instead of ‘aren’t’) as well. In
formal writing, one-word numbers are spelled (such as ‘three’, ‘forty’, instead of ‘3’ and ‘40’), and it is also
important to be consistent in writing numbers. If you are summarising a literary item, you should refer to
the author by a full name (‘Edgar Allen Poe’ instead of ‘Poe). Depending on what you are summarising,
you may adopt different tenses (e.g. present simple for a literary text or past simple for a past event);
however, it is of importance to keep the tenses consistent throughout the summary. Finally, if you are asked
to comment or argue about a point in your summary, it will be a practical idea to avoid being absolute in
your argument (e.g. you should prefer ‘the author’s tone might be unrealistic for young learners’ instead of
‘the author’s tone is unrealistic for young learners’).

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Table 6.1 Formal Writing Guidelines

Rule Wrong Usage Preferred Usage

First and second personal In this summary, I will write
This summary is about …
pronouns are not preferred. about …
Contractions are not used. The author doesn’t go into detail. The author does not go into detail.
One-word numbers are spelled. There were 5 people in the room. There were five people in the room.
Author names are given as a full Hemingway makes a good point Ernest Hemingway makes a good
name. in this book. point in this book.
The main character goes into a small
and dark room. Then he finds his lost
The main character goes into a glasses there.
It is important to be consistent
small and dark room. Then he or
with the tenses.
found his lost glasses there. The main character went into a small
and dark room. Then he found his
lost glasses there.
This short story has the potential to
This short story changes its
It is important to avoid being affect its readers’ views on cultural
readers views on cultural aspects
absolute in your argument th aspects of 19th century British
of 19 century British society.
society.

Exercise 7. Formal Summary Writing Activities

Below, you will find summaries of various texts which are written in an informal and inappropriate
way. Read and turn them into formal and appropriate style. The first one is done for you.

Summary 1:
(Informal and Inappropriate)
Chopin wrote ‘The Story of An Hour’ in 1894. It is an ironic story
of one hour of time in the character Mallard’s life. I learnt about the
heart problem of Loise at the beginning. There is Josephine, Loise’s
sister in the story. She tells Loise that her husband, Brently Mallard,
died in a train accident. She feels sad at first, just like me and any other
reader, I guess. Then she realized that it is a freeing thing for her. She
could be free. Then she starts to feel happy. Not so long after, Brently
shows up in the house. Louise got shocked and died there.

(Formal and Appropriate)

‘The Story of An Hour’ is a short story by Kate Chopin written in
1894. It tells the ironic story of one-hour time of Mrs. Louise Mallard,
who has a serious heart problem. Actually, readers get to know about
her illness at the beginning; however, it remains as the central conflict
throughout the story. Loise’s husband, Brently Mallard is reported
among the dead in a train accident. Josephine, Louise’s sister, tells this to Louise. She feels an immediate
grief and heads to her room. Later, she realises that this is the only possibility for her to be free in her life
and starts to feel relieved. When she gets back downstairs, she sees Brently and gets shocked and dies there
as a result of a heart attack. The story concludes her death as ‘the joy that kills’.

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Summary 2:
(Informal and Inappropriate)
Poe wrote Cask of Amontillado in 1846. The bad guy, Montresor,
wanted to punish his friend Fortunato just because he thought he
insulted him. Montresor thought Fortunato knew a lot of things
about wine. He invites Fortunato into the catacombs to have some
wine. Fortunato goes there because he trusts himself but he drank too
much. Montresor ties him to a wall and starts to seal a wall of bricks.
He thought it was a joke at first but Montresor put the last brick and
stuck it. Fortunato stayed there for 50 years. What a revenge!

(Formal and Appropriate)

Summary 3:
(Informal and Inappropriate)
Jacobs wrote ‘Monkey’s Paw’ in 1902. There are Mr. And
Mrs. White, their son Herbert, and Sergeant Morris in the
story. One day Mr. White and his son Herbert were playing
chess while Mr. White was knitting. Morris arrived at their
home to talk about his many years of travelling India and places
like that. They talked about a strange item, a monkey’s paw.
An old fakir separated it to grant three wishes to come true,
but it is dangerous as well. Morris threw the paw into fire but
Mr. White got it back to make the first wish. He wanted just
two hundred pounds (£200), what a fool! Herbert touched
something on the piano and the paw moved! The following day,
Herbert dies at the factory he was working in. The machine
there killed him. The company gave the family exactly £200.
So, the first wish came true! Mr. and Mrs. White are sad and
surprised. Mrs. White tells her husband to wish for his son to
come back to life. They found the paw and wished that their
son came back. Suddenly, there is a knock at the door. They
are scared. The cemetery is like half an hour away from their
home. The knocking got louder and louder. They thought it
was Herbert. Mr. White didn’t want to open it since he knew even if it was Herbert, he would be in a
terrible condition. As Mrs. White wants to open the door anyway, she goes downstairs heavily. At the same
time, Mr. White found the paw and made the third wish – to stop the knocking. Then the knocking stops
all of a sudden. But there is literally no one out there!

(Formal and Appropriate)

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Stage V. Checking and Organisation

This is the final stage where you control whether you have followed the previous stages in your summary.
As we have said earlier, a summary should focus on main ideas. Details and supporting sentences help the
main text to be structured in a better way; however, since this will be a summary, it is time to leave them
out. Therefore, in this stage, you should check whether you have made a distinction between main ideas
and supporting sentences and you have marked all the necessary and important points of the main text.
You can control this stage by taking a look at your notes as well. Another thing to check is whether your
wording and style is appropriate for the audience of your summary. One last but important step to follow
is the organisation of your summary. In order to be consistent with the original text, your summary should
follow the same logical order. This step bears a great significance since it would also affect the cohesion and
coherence of your summary.

Exercise 8. Summary Organisation

Below is a text about the language of the internet. Read the text and order the sentences of the
summary to be in line with the original text.

The Language of the Internet

The importance of English as a global
language is growing all the time. Of course,
there are more native speakers of Chinese
than of English - about a billion compared
to about 400 million. But almost one and
a quarter billion people across the world
use English as a second or foreign language.
And this number is getting bigger every
year. English is the international language
of politics, business, science, transport,
advertising, the media and computers. For
example, about 70 % of websites are in
English, even in countries like Germany.
Almost 90 % of research scientists use
English as their working language every day.
There are some other languages, which are becoming widely used: the number of Arabic, Chinese or
Portuguese speaking people in different countries is escalating too. Some languages like Urdu or Hindi are
growing much faster than English. It is strange, but in the USA, the fastest growing language is Spanish!
But not all languages are so successful. There are about 6,000 languages in the world, but sadly the
future of many of them is not clear. In fact about twenty languages are dying every year. And unfortunately,
in the end, the culture of these languages dies with them, too. The traditions, songs, local foods and many
other important traditional things of these languages will vanish in history. Only the researchers will know
these on papers, but in their own languages!
Surprisingly, the Internet may offer a solution to this problem. It is true that English is the popular
language of the Internet, but the number of websites in other languages is growing very quickly. With chat
sites and messenger programs, people can communicate more easily than before and in any language they
know. So perhaps modern technology can help save some languages from dying out.
(Adapted from Moshtag and Tarabanovska, 2018 by the author)

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I. The internet can help languages in danger with websites dedicated to communication through them.
II. English is the global language of the world.
III. Many languages are dying out together with their cultural elements.
IV. Some languages are growing faster than English.
V. There are more native speakers of Chinese but English is spoken by more people in the world in
total.

The order of the sentences: , , , , .

Exercise 9. Summary Organisation

Below is a guest lecture about career planning. Read the transcript and order the sentences of the
summary to be in line with the original text.

Hello everyone and thank you for having me here ... I’m
here today to help you think about your future careers. The
labour market is always changing. Your great-grandparents
may have worked in agriculture, in the days before mechanised
farming cleared them from the land. Your grandparents
probably worked in industry: coal mines, shipyards, steel
mills and factories with thousands of manual workers running
assembly lines, and actually making things. Your parents are
more likely to be employed in air conditioned offices with faxes
and computers and fiat screens; creating spreadsheets, sending
emails and taking part in video conferences. In this present
computer age, the factories are as deserted as the fields in the
country.
Robots and machines control the assembly lines and the army of blue-collar workers has been replaced
by a handful of white-coated technicians pushing buttons and checking monitors.
But today’s information economy is not immune to change. Machines are replacing white-collar workers
much as tractors replaced farmers, and robots replaced factory workers. How many bank cashiers have
lost their jobs to automatic telling machines? When’s the last time you got straight through to a human
telephone operator? How long will travel agents survive in the High Street now that the Internet has made
it so easy to book online? Accountants, secretaries, personnel managers, customer service advisors: all sorts
of administrative staff are being replaced by machines. And this is only the start.
The computers that we need today may not need us tomorrow. So, in a world where employers use
technology to increase efficiency and cut costs, what are your career prospects? Which jobs are safe bets?
Well, the good news is that software programmes and machines can’t do every job. For example, jobs
which require great creativity: writers, fashion designers, musicians, actors, inventors, games designers
and people working in marketing or research and development. It’s true that not everyone has the skill or
ingenuity to work in those fields. But that doesn’t mean you ‘re condemned to unemployment if you’re not
blessed with a creative temperament. In the future there will be jobs for you: jobs which require emotional
skills; where people work at being people. The information economy of today is going to make way for the
care economy of tomorrow.
Machines don’t care. Machines can’t care. So they can’t replace people in professions where care is what
counts: in the health service, for example. Doctors and nurses will always find work because they possess
the interpersonal skills needed in the care economy. They have to listen; they have to make their patients
feel good; they have to care; they have to be human. Or jobs in personal services: hairdressers, for example.
Hairdressers don’t just cut hair; they also listen to their clients, offer advice and discuss the latest news and

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gossip over a nice cup of tea. I can’t imagine having a machine cut my hair, can you? And there are many
more professions: teachers, beauty therapists, dentists, psychologists, gardeners, fitness coaches etc, whose
skills are beyond the ability of machines and which offer rewarding careers. In the future, flexibility will be
vital and lifelong learning a reality. You may need to retrain for new jobs throughout your working life, so
don’t throw out your pencil sharpeners just yet. Now, let’s look at more jobs in the care economy.
(Adapted from Longman Exam Accelerator – B2 Students’ Book)

(I) Our parents and grandparents did different jobs than we do now.
(II) However, there will always be a need for jobs that involve creativity.
(III) Our grandparents used to work in fields and farms.
(IV) Besides, jobs that require human involvement – such as health sector or personal care – are likely
to exist.
(V) The job market is changing constantly.
(VI) Many types of jobs have disappeared from many sectors because of technology in general (e.g.
computers, the internet, and automation).

The order of the sentences: , , , , , .

1
What are the stages of summarising?

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SUMMARY

A good summary should bear some significant characteristics. These can be summarised as follows:
• Authentic: A summary is written in your own words. It has only the ‘ideas’ of the original text, not
the words and phrases themselves. A good summary uses authentic wording.
• Objective: A good summary gives the message of the longer text. This means that you should not
insert any of your own ideas, thoughts, suggestions or objections regardless of whether they are in
line with the original message or not.

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• Accurate: Similar to being objective, a summary should transfer the ideas of the author of the
original text in an accurate way. As the summarizer, you should make sure that you are following
the author’s points without perverting or twisting them.
• Complete: A summary should reveal the original message in a complete form. As the summarizer,
you should make sure that you include all the necessary points that the author emphasises in the
text.
• Readable: A summary might be written for various purposes; however, all types of summaries have
one general aim, that is to facilitate the reading process. Therefore, in your summary, you should
adopt a reader-friendly format and style.
Following these characteristics will make your summary better. However, there are some things you
should avoid while summarising a text. For example, you should avoid the repetition of similar ideas. Also,
you should not include minor details and examples. Digressions should also be avoided since in a summary
your job is to write about the text, not the actual topic.

Table 6.2 Points to Consider in a Summary

While writing a summary …

Do Don’t
Write in your own words. Copy the original wording.
Write your own ideas, thoughts, suggestions or
Give the message of the original text .
objections.
Adhere to the ideas of the author. Twist or pervert the ideas of the author.
Add all the important and necessary points of the
Miss out any relevant important point of the text
text
Keep a reader friendly style and format Write in a complex and complicated manner
Write in a structured manner Repeat the similar ideas
Give the ‘big picture’ Include minor details and examples
Stick to the aim and content of the text Digress from the topic

Exercise 10. Finding the Best Summary

Read the text below and choose the best summary related to it based on the characteristics that a
summary should have. Explain why you choose
that option.

Why Do Fathers Want to Look After the

Baby?
One of the most extensive surveys of fathers
has now shown that, far from the stereotype, most
men would like to share childcare duties with their
partners or wives. The survey made by The New
York Times (NYT) shows a modern type of father:
the New Dad. He takes part in day-to-day childcare
and does not mind helping with the washing-up
and vacuuming. The NYT interviewed sixty-four
fathers and their partners about their home and
work life. Most fathers agreed that it was important
to ‘be there’ for their children for key events, such
as school sports day, their first appearance in a play

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and for at least one meal a day. Many agreed that parenting classes would be a good way to give them more
confidence around the home.
Based on the survey results, four types of fathers were defined, from the traditional type of dads to the
perfect New Dads, who are as much involved in taking care of the children as the mothers. The survey
found that the majority of men were somewhere between these two. In the first category comes Enforcer
Dad, the old-fashioned disciplinarian who does not see himself as involved in the day-to-day care of his
children. He sees his responsibilities as setting clear limits for them and being a role model. Most fathers do
not see this as their only role. The two biggest categories are Entertainer Dad and Useful Dad. Entertainer
Dad is at his best keeping his children laughing while his partner gets on with household chores and
arranging the children’s school and extra activities. The latter is, however, willing to help out around the
house, even though he expects the mother to be the ‘team leader’ in all things domestic. Finally, and
probably every woman’s dream, is a Fully Involved Dad. He is equally engaged in running the home and the
family, and sees the role of the father and the mother as practically identical. Fully Involved Dads adjust
their work arrangements to their partners’ professional duties. “I do have definite childcare commitments,”
said one father in this category. “There are certain times or occasions where it is non-negotiable and I just
leave the office on time.”
Madeline Harris, chairwoman of The NYT, said that fathers were still not given enough flexibility
at work and mothers would feel fully supported only if employers treated (and paid) both sexes equally.
“Mums and dads should be able to choose how they want to share the responsibilities of bringing up
children and working outside the home,” she said. “But until we have equal pay, decent childcare and
more opportunities to work flexible hours, many fathers will continue to find it hard to be there for their
children, and many women will continue to be disadvantaged at work. This is not necessarily the best
solution for parents, children or employers. Equality at work or home depends on both mums’ and dads’
family responsibilities being acknowledged,” Harris said.
(Adapted from Cambridge Objective FCE Students’ Book by the author)

Summary A This article is talking about how can fathers be more involved in child and household care.
A survey by The New York Times has found that less fathers, compared to the past, would like to take
part in everyday chores of the house including babysitting. The article reveals four types of fathers – from
the least taking responsibility to the most. The biggest one is the first category. The article makes some
suggestions of equal job and payment options.

Summary B This article is about fathers’ involvement in child and household care. A survey by a
newspaper has found that many more fathers, compared to the past, are willing to take part in everyday
chores of the house including babysitting. Four types of fathers were found – from the least taking
responsibility to the most. Majority of fathers were found to be falling in the second and third. The
article concludes with suggestions of equal job and payment options between women and men to increase
equality at home.

Summary C This article is about fathers’ involvement in child and household care. The New York
Times has found that more fathers, compared to the past, want to take part in everyday chores of the house
including childcare. The article reveals two types of fathers – those who take responsibility and those who
do not. The first category is bigger than the second. The article concludes that there should be equal job
and payment options at work to increase equality at work.

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Summary D The author of the article is about fathers’ involvement in child and household care. The
New York Times has found that more fathers, compared to the past, want to take part in everyday chores
of the house including childcare. I imagine my family when I read something like this. My father, for
example, would not like to be involved in child and household care. He would fall in the first category
based on survey results. He is very traditional. I think I would make a better father than him in the future.

The best summary is because .

Exercise 11. Finding the Best Summary

Read the text below and choose the best summary related to it based on the characteristics that a
summary should have. Explain why you choose that option.

The Younger, The Better?

Nowadays it’s very important to be young.
Look around, you will see more young faces on
the covers of magazines and in the ads on TV;
switch on the radio, and you will hear music that
young people love; go shopping, and you will find
all shops packed with items on sale for young
people. People tend to think that being young is
a better situation than being old today. However,
is it always good to be young? And isn’t ‘young’
sometimes ‘too young’?
First of all, let’s remember that this cult of youth
didn’t start so long ago. Before the revolutionary
changes in society and culture of the 1960s, it was exactly the opposite. When you were a teenager, you
only wanted to become an adult, and to look like an adult, too. It’s also important to remember that in
many cultures, even today, there is a lot of respect for the elderly. Such people are well experienced and can
always give you a precious piece of advice.
When people are young, they are usually energetic and brave: they can work for longer periods of
time and they’re ready to take risks. Because they still haven’t had much experience, they don’t have many
inhibitions, which means that there aren’t many things to stand in their way. Young people have also got
potential – they still have time to develop in many different ways. Because of that, employing young
people can be a good investment.
On the other hand, being young doesn’t automatically mean you’re always happy. There is a lot of
competition in society nowadays. That starts even when you’re in school. Getting a good education is
possible but not easy and it costs a lot of money. Next, you have to look for a good job. Although many
companies prefer young people, jobs aren’t just waiting for you. And even if you find one, it’s often only
for a short time.
Statistics show that stress of modern life on young people can sometimes bring them a lot of suffering.
Most of them can deal with problems very well, but some others break down and lose all hope. If we don’t
want this to happen, we should do something. In today’s world, being young is almost like a religion, so
it’s our responsibility to offer help to these people.
(Adapted from Longman Exam Activator by the author)

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Summary A This article presents the positive and negative points about being young in today’s world.
The author makes his point clear by giving specific examples related to being respected in the society and
getting a good education and thus finding a good job. Looking at both sides of the issue, I agree with
the author in his argument about how being young is relatively more advantageous than being old in the
modern world.

Summary B The article introduces the pros and cons of being young in today’s world. Young people
used to want to look like the elderly in the past since it was considered good. However, this is changing in
today’s modern world and everybody wants to be young.

Summary C We read about the good and bad sides about being young in this article. By giving
examples from both today and the past, the author suggests that elderly people have more chances to be
respected in society. Young people are suffering from today’s stressful atmosphere and it is hard for them
to get a good job.

Summary D The article discusses the advantages and disadvantages of being young, with special
reference to being respected in the society and getting employed. The author argues that young people
have the potential and it might be a good idea to invest in them. However, being young is also stressful in
terms of getting a good education and finding a good position in today’s world.

The best summary is because .

2
What are the characteristics of a good summary?

BASIC STRUCTURES FOR SUMMARY WRITING

As in many academic genres, summary writing has basic characteristics. These characteristics can be
outlined as follows:
• Formal: Summaries should follow formal writing style unless you are summarising for your own
studies. Even in cases you are summarising an informal text, your summary should bear the features
of formal writing, especially if it is to be submitted to a lecturer or a teacher.
• Objective: As outlined above, a summary should avoid subjective views. Therefore, your summary
writing style should possess objective wording, which will enable you to present the important
ideas of the text without personalising them.
• Explicit: A summary is written to convey the message(s) of the longer text in a straightforward
manner. Hence, it is a good idea to transfer the important information in the text as directly as
possible. You should not use an implicit wording style in your summary which may confuse the
reader.
In order to provide these features in your summary, there are certain tenses and structures to be followed
in your writing. Most summaries are written in present simple or continuous tense, with some exceptions
written in past simple or continuous if the text to be summarised involves events to be narrated or if it
is a story. Besides, passive voice is usually preferred in order to enhance the formality, objectivity, and
explicitness of the summary.

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Exercise 12. Structures for Summary Writing Summary 2:

The summaries given below include some This study analysed the correlation between the
wording and style that is not appropriate for socio-economic backgrounds of foreign language
academic writing. Each sentence includes one or students and their proficiency in speaking. The
two problematic usages. Find and correct them. researcher worked with a good number of students
The first summary is done for you. (over 100), with a little bit more female students.
Summary 1: They interviewed the students asking them some
questions. The students aren’t that young, they
Dostoevsky wrote ‘Crime and Punishment’.
can be accepted as young adults. They found out
It was one of the early and successful examples
that students coming from rich families are more
of psychological realism. The main character,
proficient in their speaking skills. Of course, this
Raskolnikov, is an old student who lives in poverty.
result can be different somewhere else. But, they
He’s planning to murder a greedy, old pawnbroker
conclude that richer students are better at speaking.
and use take her money to help others. Even though
he is not caught officially, he still experiences
punishment with feelings like self-guilt, isolation, Exercise 13. Review of Verb Tenses
and self-doubt. After going through this moral News report 1: Put in the correct forms of
struggle a lot, Raskolnikov finally asks God and the verbs using the present simple, present
humanity to be forgiven. He eventually talks to the continuous, past simple or past continuous.
police, and gets prison sentence in Siberia. Hello, this 1. (be) Jennifer
Dostoevsky wrote ‘Crime and Punishment’. Arnold. I 2. (speak) to you from
‘Crime and Punishment’ was written by Brussels, where the finals of the World Trivia
Dostoevsky. Championships will be held tomorrow. The
It was one of the early and successful examples favourite is Jack Oliver of Cornwall because he
of psychological realism. It is one of the early 3. (know) everything. Six months
and successful examples of psychological realism. ago no one 4. (know) Jack Oliver
although he 5. (take) part in trivia
The main character, Raskolnikov, is an old competitions at those times. Now suddenly he is
student who lives in poverty. The main really popular. When he 6. (arrive)
character, Raskolnikov, is a former student who here yesterday, tens of fans 7.
lives in poverty. (wait) at the airport to welcome him. Actually,
He’s planning to murder a greedy, old everyone is curious about one thing: How
pawnbroker and use take her money to help 8. he (have)
others. He is planning to murder a greedy, old the answers to almost all questions? He says he
pawnbroker and use take her money to help others. 9. (love) surfing on the internet
Even though he is not caught officially, he still and reading about everything. Most probably, right
experiences punishment with feelings like self- now he 10. (google) in his hotel
guilt, isolation, and self-doubt. Even though bedroom. He is clearly the man to watch!
he is not caught officially, he still experiences
punishment with such feelings as self-guilt, News report 2: Put in the correct forms of the
isolation, and self-doubt. verbs using the present simple, present continuous,
After going through this moral struggle a lot, past simple or past continuous.
Raskolnikov finally asks God and humanity to be
forgiven. After a never-ending moral struggle, The actress Judie Fowler 1.
Raskolnikov finally asks God and humanity to be (disappear) yesterday. She 2. (fail)
forgiven. to arrive at the Old Town Theatre in Prague for her
He eventually talks to the police, and goes to leading role in the comedy “It’s Sunny Now!”. She
prison in Siberia. He eventually confesses to 3. (leave) home at three o’clock
the police, and serves prison sentence in Siberia. yesterday afternoon for the theatre. Actually,
three people 4. (walk) past her
home at that time and they 5.

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(notice) her leave. At half past six the theatre manager had to break the news to the audience: “For now,
nobody 6. (know) where Ms Fowler is. The police 7. (take) the matter
seriously but they 8. (believe) that she is unlikely to be in any danger. Her friends all
9. (want) to hear from her soon.”
(Adapted from Oxford Grammar Practice by the author)

Exercise 14. Review of Passive Voice

Rewrite the sentences given below in passive voice. The first one is done for you.

1. This article suggests three ways of losing weight without feeling hungry.
Three ways of losing weight without feeling hungry are suggested in this article.

2. The instructor told the students to submit their assignment before midnight.

3. The author presents a new approach to criticise a literary work of late 19th century British literature.

4. The students are preparing a group project to find solutions for environmental pollution.

5. The jury is going to interview all the candidates today.

6. Board of directors decided to hold the next years’ conference in Italy.

7. The reviewers asked the author to send the manuscript to a proofreader.

8. In the future, robots will cook traditional recipes from all around the world.

9. The executive committee was going to draft a report; however, the CEO cancelled it.

10. You should pay the application fee to complete the application.

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Complete the following texts by using active or passive forms of the verbs given in parentheses.

Local News of London

Last night in Camden, many trees 1) (blow) down in the storm. One tree
2) (fall) across the main road. It 3) (take) away by the fire
service during the night. Heavy rain also 4) (cause) problems on the roads. Some
roads 5) (cover) by half a meter of water. Many drivers 6)
(leave) their cars and 7) (walk) home.
Now one piece of good news.
Yesterday evening, a black luxurious car 8) (steal) from outside the home of Mr.
Blackwell. He 9) (call) the police. Later that evening, the car 10)
(see) in the High Street by Mr. Blackwell’s wife, Amy. It was outside the Blue
Sky Hotel. The keys were in the car. So, she 11) (drive) it home! The police are
now looking for the careless thief!

The Statue of Liberty

The Statue of Liberty 1) (give) to the USA by France. It was a
gift on the 100th anniversary of the United States. The statue 2) (design) by the
architect Frederic Auguste Bartholdi. It 3) (complete) in France in July 1884. In 350
pieces, the statue then 4) (ship) to New York, where it arrived in 1885. The pieces 5)
(put) together and the opening ceremony took place in 1886. The Statue of Liberty
is 46 metres high (93 metres together with the base). It symbolises the goddess of liberty. She holds a torch
in her right hand and a tablet in her left hand. The date of the Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776)
can be seen on the tablet. Every year, many people from all over the world 6) (visit)
The Statue of Liberty.

3
What are the basic structures needed for summary writing?

ACADEMIC VOCABULARY FOR SUMMARY WRITING

As in many academic forms, your choice of words when writing a summary can help you summarise
the specific piece of information in the text in a better way. As stated earlier, a summary should possess
some certain characteristics such as being formal, explicit, and objective. Certain verbs and adjectives that
you can include in your summary will enhance these characteristics.
Below are two lists; one for verbs and one for adjectives. Match them with their meanings. Use a
dictionary if you need.

Exercise 15. Academic Verbs for Summary Writing

1. reveal a. to give specific examples of an issue, point, or topic, etc
2. handle b. to give reasons for your opinion or belief
3. state c. to say or write something clearly and carefully
4. exemplify d. to say or write words and phrases from a particular source
5. cover e. to talk or write about a subject in detail with different ideas around it

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6. extend f. to add something further on a issue

7. include g. to give a place to something
8. express h. to deal with a topic or issue, especially with challenging ones
9. cite i. to make known or show something surprising or that was previously secret
10. argue j. to mention a subject in your word in a quick manner
11. discuss k. to deal with something or direct your attention to it
12. touch on/upon l. to say or tell something in a direct manner

Exercise 16. Academic Adjectives for Summary Writing

1. accurate a. entirely firm and keeping in a clear manner
2. fluent b. important, noticeable
3. convincing c. next, upcoming, extra
4. solid d. unusual and special and therefore worthy of attention
5. further e. able to make somebody believe that something is true or correct
6. impressive f. able to make you admire or respect
7. substantial g. large in size, value, and importance
8. immersive h. able to present a systematic reasoning
9. significant i. spoken easily, without many pauses
10. argumentative j. able to make you feel that you are completely involved
11. remarkable k. exact, correct, and without any mistake

4
What are some significant vocabulary items needed for summary writing?

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Summarising

to define the stages of

LO 1 summarising.

Summarising is a significant technique in a foreign language, particularly in reading and writing academic
texts. Summarising is basically turning a long text into a shorter one by using your own words and main
ideas or important points given in the longer text. There are five stages of summarising: 1) pre-reading,
2) reading for main ideas, 3) making notes & highlighting important information, 4) deciding on your
audience & style, and 5) checking (whether you have added all the important points). In pre-reading, you
Summary

should look for clues (e.g. titles, sub-titles, pictures, etc.) to help you give an insight for the text before
you read. While reading the text, you should be able to identify main ideas so that you can use them
in your summary. In order to help yourself, you can make notes while reading in various ways such as
abbreviations, symbols, diagrams, or drawings. Before writing your summary, you should decide on the
audience, thus, style. Depending on this, you should take into formal or informal writing guidelines in
your summary. The last stage is to check your summary and its organisation. You should control whether
you have applied the necessary steps in your summary before you make it finalised.

to number the characteristics of a

LO 2 good summary.

A good summary should bear some important characteristics. These can be named as: authentic, objective,
accurate, complete, and readable. An authentic summary means you have written it in your own words.
For an objective summary, you should not include your own ideas regarding the topic. Similarly, for an
accurate summary, you should convey the author’s ideas without perverting them. A complete summary
means it contains all the important ideas and messages of the author. Finally, you should write your
summary in a reader-friendly format by taking your audience into account.

LO 3 to use writing.

Academic writing, in general, requires some certain structures to be used in your writing in order to
provide formality, objectiveness, and explicitness. To supply the readers with such features, it is often
a good idea to use passive voice instead of active voice. However, you should make sure that you need
to be careful about not overusing the passive voice as well. Other than this, depending on the type of
the text you are summarising, you had better use present tenses, particularly present simple and present
continuous since you are talking about a present text already available.

to name significant vocabulary

LO 4 items needed for summary
writing.

In academic writing, it is important to have a good command of specific vocabulary needed for your aim.
There are many academic word list studies conducted by various researchers and freely available on the
internet. In this part of the chapter, we just added 12 verbs and 11 adjectives which are commonly used in
many academic texts. As a learner, enhancing your academic vocabulary knowledge should always be one
your main concerns since such words appear very frequently in listening and reading texts. Besides, once
you get practical with them in your writing, you will be able to use them in speaking as well.

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1 Keep it Fresh
[P1] Your body, similar to all the plants and animals on earth, consists mostly of water, and you must have
water to live. Plentiful, or common, thing on earth is water. It covers three-quarters of the earth’s surface, but
most of it is in the oceans. Ocean water is too salty for people. We can’t drink it; use it for growing crops or

Test Yourself
to make the things we need. For these purposes, we must have fresh water, not salt water.
[P2] Unlike salt water, there is only a small amount of freshwater on the earth. Less than one percent of all
the water on earth is fresh water that we can use. This fresh water is either surface water or groundwater.
Surface water is found in bodies of water like lakes and rivers. Groundwater is water inside the earth.
[P3] Did you know that the earth receives no new water? The water that has always been on the earth is
recycled again and again. Precipitation, rain or snow, falls to the earth. Some of it stays on the earth’s surface,
running down the sides of mountains and hills into rivers and lakes of fresh water. When the sun shines,
some surface water dries up, in other words, it evaporates. It rises into the air to make clouds. Finally, after
the water in the clouds gets heavy, it falls back to earth as precipitation once more, and the cycle begins
again. Not all rain water stays on the earth’s surface, however. Some of it becomes groundwater by seeping
into the soil and collecting under the ground.
[P4] The small amount of freshwater on earth is in danger. You probably already know that oil accidents
and garbage and other waste can pollute surface water- the water in lakes and rivers. Pollution can harm
groundwater, too. Poisonous chemicals can seep underground, just like rainwater. They might come from
golf courses, factories, or even from polluted lakes and rivers. It takes a long time and a lot of hard work to
clean dirty water, especially groundwater.
[P5] It’s up to everyone to conserve and preserve fresh water. Conserve, or save, fresh water by using less
water both inside and outside your home. Preserve fresh water-keep it safe and clean-by throwing away
dangerous household chemicals carefully. Never put them into the drain, the toilet or the garbage. There is
not a lot of fresh water, really, so let’s all help keep it fresh.
(Adapted from Success Intermediate Students Book by the author)

I. MAIN IDEA: Read the text and choose the option that best gives the main idea of the text.
The main idea of the text is:
a. the process of recycling water is difficult work.
b. keeping water fresh is important in our life.
c. there are differences between saltwater and freshwater.
d. there are dangerous household chemicals.

II. Read the text and match the paragraphs with the sentence that best summarises the paragraph. Be
careful there are two extra sentences!
Paragraph points out that pollution affects freshwater badly.
Paragraph explains how the water is recycled.
Paragraph describes the two types of freshwater.
Paragraph explains how factories pollute fresh water.
Paragraph concludes by listing some ways to protect fresh water.
Paragraph introduces the topic of the importance of water for our life.
Paragraph points out the importance of salt water.

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2 Read the article and match the paragraphs (1 – 4) with the headings (A – E). There is ONE
EXTRA HEADING!
[P1] Curitiba, a city in southern Brazil, is one of the world’s greenest cities. Philip Patrick, the architect who
has transformed the city, says the secret is simplicity. “People try to sell you complexity, they see the destiny
Test Yourself

of the city as a tragedy, but if you’re pessimistic about cities, you’ll eventually lose your hope on people, too.”
Patrick has been twice re-elected as the mayor of the city and is now the state governor. He thinks Curitiba,
with a population of 1.5 million, is not a paradise. “We have the same problems as any other Brazilian city;
we have shanty towns, crime and poverty. The difference is in the respect for everyone, and the quality of
service provided.” Patrick’s creed is revolutionary: the poorer you are, the more it means for you to have
good services.
[P2] When he first became the mayor, Curitiba was mushrooming because the escape from the suburbs in
the 1970s sent people into the cities, and the transport system was heading for chaos: 50 bus companies
competed in the city centre, the jams worsening every day. Something had to be done. An underground
system would have cost too much, and taken too long to build. So, planners identified the factors that made
underground systems fast and applied them to the bus service. Huge red buses purr speedily along special
lanes, stopping at stations where passengers buy tickets before boarding. Bus jams never happen; vandalism
is unknown. “People don’t vandalise it because they like it. They feel respected, so they show respect.” says
the president of Urbs, the company which regulates ten private companies. Now, 80 percent of people go
to work by bus; 28 percent of car owners take the bus instead, which has led to a 20 per cent drop in fuel
consumption. Patrick says, “It is better for the citizens if you give less importance to the cars. When you
widen streets for cars, you destroy identity and memory.”
[P3] Curitiba has also revolutionised the concept of waste: it can mean food, books, or even Shakespeare.
Last month 700 schoolchildren each paid four kilos of recyclable rubbish to watch King Lear, performed by
one of Brazil’s best theatre companies. They came from the poorest area of the city and it was the first time
they had been to a theatre. In addition, 35.000 low-income families exchange recyclable waste for food once
a fortnight. At the Parque Mane Garrincha, I saw people pushing wheelbarrows and carrying bags with tins,
old toys, paper, plastic, and bottles. A young woman brought a broken window, another an old gas cooker.
Council workers weighed the waste and loaded it onto a lorry. The women then both received free food.
Each four kilos meant a kilo of fruit and vegetables from another lorry. That day it was potatoes, bananas
and cake. In one month, the 54 exchange points collected 282 tons of waste at a cost of $110.000 – lower
than before; the fruit and vegetables are bought at market prices from small farmers.
[P4] When the revolutionary actions in Curitiba first started, the leaders from all over the world claimed
that the system would eventually fail. However, the new system has resulted in major benefits, including
smoother transport, a better diet for citizens and less risk of flooding from rubbish in streams and canals. The
Curitibans disagree with the critics who say that these schemes will not work in bigger cities. They suggest
that Curitiba is only different because it has made itself different and that every city could do the same. It’s
amazing to see how the citizens of a city have gone against the flow and humanised their city.

1. Paragraph 1 A. The Future of Waste

2. Paragraph 2 B. Success against all Criticism
3. Paragraph 3 C. A Leader with an Idea
4. Paragraph 4 D. In Exchange for Rubbish
E. Revolutions in Transport

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3 SPACE TOURISM
The idea of Space Tourism, where ordinary members of the public queue up to buy tickets for travel into outer
space and back, seems to be beyond imagination. Believe it or not, this distant dream could soon be a reality…
[P1] On Earth, governments provide a number of services, such as defence, police and legal systems, but

Test Yourself
most activities are done by individuals and companies, and it is going to be the same in space. Over the
past few years, a growing volume of work has been done on the subject, and it is now clear that setting up
commercial space tourism services is a realistic target for businesses today.
[P2] Many people still think that to get the chance to go to space, you have to try to become an astronaut.
Unfortunately, the chances of succeeding it are tiny, simply because there are so few astronauts – and there
is no possibility of a lot more to be employed. However, you do not have to despair because you will be able
to go as a visitor. Therefore, for anyone, the first thing you should do if you want to go to space is to save up
as the demand is expected to be strong and, in the early stages, prices will be high.
[P3] In order to stay longer in space, you could work in one of the businesses that will be set up in orbit.
There will be opportunities in manufacturing, such as aerospace vehicle makers, orbital construction, electric
power, chemical engineering and other fields, so you can start university studies and try to get the sort of
work experience that will ensure you are well-placed to apply for a job in any of these areas.
[P4] The general public are very interested in travelling to space. Apart from the interest factor, such tourism
is the only way in which space activities can become profitable and the quickest way to start to use the
limitless resources of space to solve our problems on Earth. In addition, living in space spans every line of
business, from construction to marketing, fashion, interior design and law.
[P5] It is very likely for anyone to envisage a future when demand for space tourism travel will grow from
thousands of passengers to hundreds of thousands per year. Then, tickets to orbit will cost less and flights
will depart from many different airports. Orbital facilities will grow from prefabricated modules to large
structures that are constructed for hundreds of guests.
[P6] However, like most other new businesses growing continuously, space tourism will develop steadily.
Starting as a relatively small-scale and high-priced activity, customers will find that the service will be nearer to
‘adventure travel’ than to a luxury-style hotel. Orbital accommodation will be safe but rather simple. This will
be a time for the pioneers who will not mind the lack of comfort during this not-so-fast developmental stage.
[P7] Few projects are successfully completed without the help of people who believe in them. It is possible to
take an active role in making space tourism exist by asking airlines, hotels and travel companies if and when
they intend to offer space travel. Others may prefer to lend a hand by doing research into one or more of the
areas that need it, or by joining one of the many companies that are already working towards a future in space.

(Adapted from Cambridge FCE Practice Test 3 by the author)

Match the paragraphs 1-7 with the sentences A-G that summarise them.
Paragraph 1 A. Careers can be planned to be prepared for jobs in space.
Paragraph 2 B. In its initial phase, space tourism will offer only basic facilities.
Paragraph 3 C. Financial planning is required now to be a space tourist in the future.
Paragraph 4 D. There are good reasons for encouraging space tourism.
Paragraph 5 E. Individuals can contribute differently to making space tourism a reality.
Paragraph 6 F. Space tourism is becoming the concern of private companies.
Paragraph 7 G. We can look forward to a time of widespread space tourism.

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4 Match the TITLES (A-E) with the paragraphs (1-4). There is ONE EXTRA letter!

[P1]
Test Yourself

Everyone loves being economical and the streets these days are full of the latest fashions at the lowest prices.
Many times, I bought a dress in the morning, wore it at a party that night and then never wore it again. I
never thought about how they made it. But then I saw an advertisement in a newspaper for people to join
a TV documentary. It was a chance to work at a clothes factory in India, and see how people make cheap
clothes. I studied journalism at university at that time, so this seemed perfect. I thought everyone could
make T-shirts. After all, how hard can it be?
[P2]
My first day in the factory started at 7:30 am. I went into the place and I was shocked by the dirty room.
The manager showed me downstairs, my work place. It was a big, noisy, boiling hot room and at least a
hundred other people were working hard there. I sat down at one of the old machines. I worked on pockets
of shirts and my goal was fifty an hour, but after 30 minutes, I finished just four. I was about to be sick from
the smell. I felt like crying.
[P3]
For two weeks, I worked 12 hours a day and 6 days a week. I was tired all the time. My manager came to
me and told me ‘You’ll continue like that; you won’t get any money.’ My colleagues worked faster, so the
managers gave me less money and moved me from the shirt section to glueing shoes as a penalty. There,
the chemicals in the hot glue made me feel terrible. So, in the end, they gave me the lowest position in the
factory –working on buttons. I was happy only when I talked to my friend Aleya after work. She told me
managers liked lowering workers’ positions like that.
[P4]
After I returned to my country, I stopped going to cheap shops. How can people spend $15 on a T-shirt and
know that Aleya works for so little money? So I’ve started protesting for ethical fashion; I write letters to
important people and big stores to tell them about those workers. I still like fashion, so I’ve found designers
online. Now I just buy one piece of quality clothes once a month, but they are more expensive. I hope that
when people see the documentary, they’ll think twice before buying that cheap pair of jeans in the future.
We all need to understand the true cost of cheap clothes.

I. What is the BEST title for the text?

A. Time to Save Money C. Say No to Cheap Fashion
B. Let’s Design our own Clothes D. Buy Clothes Online

II. Match the headings with the paragraphs.

Paragraph 1 A. A Decision to Change Shopping Habits
Paragraph 2 B. Having A Chance to Make Clothes
Paragraph 3 C. Physical Conditions of the Workplace
Paragraph 4 D. Workers’ Payment System
E. Bosses’ Actions in The Factory

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5 Match the subheadings (A-E) with the paragraphs.

The Science of Happiness
A new six-part BBC series, The Happiness Formula, is starting this week. The program looks at the newest
research from around the world. Here are some surprising results:

Test Yourself
Paragraph 1:
Happiness is a vague concept or mood, something that we can feel but cannot account for or measure.
However, nowadays social scientists say they measure people’s happiness by simply asking people how
happy they are. The leading American psychologist Professor Ed Diener from the University of Illinois,
told The Happiness Formula that they ask people to choose their happiness level from a 1-7 scale. One
type of measurement even tries to record people’s levels of happiness throughout the day wherever they are.
Participants answer a questionnaire about their happiness on a computer during the day. Professor Diener
says, “The results are not perfect but they are real and valid”.
Paragraph 2:
Happiness seems to have almost magical properties. A survey, involving huge groups of people, found that
there’s an important correlation between happiness and some other factors. At the moment scientists cannot
know whether people are healthy because they are happy, or whether people are happy because they are
healthy. However, psychologists have identified some very strong links. They suggest happiness leads to long
life, health and good performance. According to Professor Diener, the evidence also suggests that happy
people live longer than depressed people.
Paragraph 3:
Happiness researchers have followed people’s life satisfaction for years. They say our wealth has increased but
our level of happiness has decreased in the last 50 years. The research says money doesn’t make us happier at
all. According to the research, richer countries are happier than poor ones, but when you have home, food
and clothes, then extra money doesn’t seem to make people much happier. Scientists think they know the
reason. We want things that give us pleasure for a short time.
Paragraph 4:
According to psychologist Professor Ed Diener, there are some keys to happiness. First, close relationships
with family and friends are important. According to happiness research, friendship has a bigger effect than
money on a person. One economist says we’d need £50,000 to make up for not having any friends. Marriage
also seems to be very important. It adds around seven years to the life of a man and four years for a woman.
Another important key to happiness is having meaning in life, a belief in something bigger than yourself
such as religion, spirituality, or a philosophy of life. The last element is having goals in life.
Paragraph 5:
Psychologists mostly discuss what makes us happy. However, there are many things that cause sadness. Professor Ed
Diener identifies two key events that can make us depressed. One of them is the loss of a friend or a family member.
The loss of a job can also affect a person for years even when they are back to work. According to psychologists, its
possible to increase our level of happiness in these situations at least to some extent if we work at it.
Paragraph 1: A. What makes us happy?
Paragraph 2: B. Richer but no happier
Paragraph 3: C. Reasons of unhappiness
Paragraph 4: D. How happy are we?
Paragraph 5: E. Power of happiness

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Summarising

1. I. b
Paragraph 4 points out that pollution affects freshwater badly.
Paragraph 3 explains how the water is recycled.
Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

Paragraph 2 describes the two types of freshwater.

Paragraph (EXTRA) explains how factories pollute freshwater.
Paragraph 5 concludes by listing some ways to protect freshwater.
Paragraph 1 introduces the topic of the importance of water for our life.
Paragraph (EXTRA) points out the importance of salt water.

2. 1-c; 2-e; 3-d; 4-b

3. Paragraph 1 F
Paragraph 2 C
Paragraph 3 A
Paragraph 4 D
Paragraph 5 G
Paragraph 6 B
Paragraph 7 E

4. I. C
II. Paragraph 1 b
Paragraph 2 c
Paragraph 3 e
Paragraph 4 a

Paragraph 1 d
5. Paragraph 2 e
Paragraph 3 b
Paragraph 4 a
Paragraph 5 c

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What are the stages of summarising?

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

There are five stages of summarising: 1) pre-reading, 2) reading for main ideas,
3) making notes & highlighting important information, 4) deciding on your
your turn 1 audience & style, and 5) checking (whether you have added all the important
points).

What are the characteristics of a good summary?

The characteristics of a summary can be listed as: authentic, objective,

your turn 2 accurate, complete, and readable.

What are the basic structures needed for summary

writing?

Passive voice and present tenses (simple and continuous) are more common
your turn 3 in summary writing.

What are some significant vocabulary items needed for

summary writing?

Some verbs are: Some adjectives are:

1. reveal 1. accurate
2. handle 2. fluent
3. state 3. convincing
4. exemplify 4. solid
5. cover 5. further
your turn 4 6. extend 6. impressive
7. include 7. substantial
8. express 8. immersive
9. cite 9. significant
10. argue 10. argumentative
11. discuss 11. remarkable
12. touch on/upon

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Summarising

References
Capel, A. and Sharp, W. (2014). Cambridge English: Objective first: student’s book with answers:[with CD-ROM]:
[for revised exam from 2015]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Eastwood, J. (2019). Oxford practice grammar. Oxford: University Press.
Hastings, B. (2010). Longman exam activator: Classroom and self-study exam preparation. Harlow: Pearson
Longman.
McKinlay, S. and Hastings, B. (2012). Success. Harlow (Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
Moshtag, E.S. and Tarabanovska, O.M. (2018) Methodological recommendations before graduation from the
control work in the primary discipline “INTERNATIONAL MOVA” (ENGLISH MOVA) (for students in
the 1st year of the correspondence form of the specialty 275 - Transport Technologies) (English language).
[Teaching Resource] (In Press).
Uminska, M. (2012). Longman exam accelerator: Classroom and self-study preparation for all B2 level exams.
Pearson Central Europe.
University of Cambridge. (2009). Cambridge First Certificate in English 3: With answers : official examination
papers from University of Cambridge ESOL examinations: [self-study pack]. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

Internet Sources
https://thenextweb.com/news/the-psychology-of-emojis
https://linguapress.com/intermediate/silicon-valley.htm
https://pandia.ru/852564/
https://uchika.in.ua/naukovo-doslidnicekih-robit-departament-osviti-i-nauki-cherniv.html
https://www.economist.com/1843/2017/10/17/mans-best-friends
https://www.aboutanimals.com/mammal/pied-tamarin/

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 Chapter 7 Paragraph Writing
At the at end of this chapter, students will be able to:
Learning Outcomes

1 Define the basic structure of a paragraph.

2 Use cohesive devices and referring
expressions.

3 Organise paragraph writing in a coherent

manner.
4 Name significant linkers used in writing.

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction
Paragraph
Structure of a Paragraph
Cohesive devices
Cohesion in a Paragraph & Referring Expressions
Coherence
Coherence in a Paragraph and Paragraph Unity
Linkers
Linkers that are Used Paragraph Writing
Chapter Summary
General Practices
Answer Key

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

INTRODUCTION
Paragraph writing is a simple yet demanding process. It requires careful planning and organisation
skills. As a paragraph writer, one of the most important things to consider is to be clear and concise
in your writing and to give your message in an effective way. Paragraphs are usually smaller parts of an
essay, report, thesis, novel, story or any piece of writing. Therefore, you may write paragraphs for various
purposes depending on what the longer text is. In this chapter, we will outline paragraph writing in four
subheadings:
A. Structure of a paragraph
B. Cohesion and Referring Expressions
C. Coherence and Paragraph Unity
D. Academic Vocabulary Exercises

STRUCTURE OF A PARAGRAPH
A good paragraph usually consists of a topic sentence, some supporting sentences, and a concluding or
transition sentence. Before we go into detail about each one, take a look at the figure below demonstrating
the basic structure of a paragraph.
The Hamburger Paragraph

Topic sentence is the main idea of the

paragraph. It tells the reader what the
paragraph is about.

Supporting sentences are important details

related to the main idea.

that back the main argument.

Supporting sentences can vary in number and

length depending on the topic.

Concluding sentence sums up the main idea. It

can also act as a transition to the next
paragraph.

Topic Sentence
As its name suggests, a topic sentence introduces the ‘topic’ of the paragraph. To be able to write a
good paragraph, you should state your point of view in a clear manner. This is usually done at the very
beginning of the paragraph; therefore, it is not wrong to say that topic sentences are mostly written as the
first sentence of a paragraph. As the topic sentence is the base (see the above figure as an illustration) of a
paragraph, you should give utmost importance while writing it. Below are some things to consider while
writing a topic sentence.
• A good topic sentence should state the topic (main idea) and the focus (controlling idea). A
reader should get a clear image about what he is going to read in the rest of the paragraph
when he reads the topic sentence.
Example 1: “Travelling by plane has become much cheaper.”
Topic: Travelling by plane & Focus: Becoming cheaper

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Example 2: “Rooibos tea is consumed for its several benefits to health.”

Topic: Rooibos tea & Focus: Benefits to health.
• A good topic sentence should have only one focus. More than one focus will make you lose
control while writing, which will confuse the reader as well.
Keeping a healthy diet depends on your eating habits.
Keeping a healthy diet depends on your eating habits but there are some genetic factors as well.
MNRA vaccines have proved to be a great factor in preventing the dissemination of Covid-19
vaccine.
Although some people are worried and therefore against them, MNRA vaccines have proved to be
a great factor in preventing the dissemination of Covid-19 vaccine.
• A good topic sentence should be a full sentence; not a phrase.
Human-related reasons of global warming
There are many factors created by humans in general that lead to global warming.
Long term advantages of Android based smartphones over IOS ones.
Research suggests that smartphones with Android base have some advantages compared to the ones
with IOS in the long term.
• A good topic sentence is not in question form.
What are some possible harmful effects of self-driving cars to the environment?
Scientists reveal several harmful effects of self-driving cars to the environment.
Why is it important to make eye contact during an interview?
Making eye contact during an interview is believed to have a positive impact on both the interviewer
and the interviewee.
• A good topic sentence should not be well-known or a scientific fact. It should assert an idea,
suggestion, argument, thesis, etc.
There are fifty-two states in the United States of America.
The best state to live in the United States of America is California for several reasons.
Turkish cuisine is affected mostly by Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cuisine.
Turkish cuisine is a good combination of Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cuisine.
• A good topic sentence should neither be too narrow nor too broad.
Cars are great.
Cars are a good way of transportation between two cities.
People should drink 2-3 litres of water and have around 1500 calories a day in order to keep fit.
There are some basic things to do if you want to keep fit.
• You should not “announce” the topic while writing a topic sentence.
In this paragraph, I will talk about why women in under-developed countries face domestic violence
more.
Women in under-developed countries face domestic violence more for several reasons.
In this paragraph you will find some explanations on how to perform body-building.
There are some things to consider while performing body-building.

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Exercise 1. Read the pair of sentences and decide which one is a better topic sentence and state
the reason.
1. a) Netflix is very popular.
b) Netflix is very popular due to its attractive content.
Reason: ……..
2. a) Is getting into a good university enough for employment?
b) Getting into a good university itself is not enough for getting a good job.
Reason: ……..
3. a) There are some disadvantages of working in a part time job while studying at college.
b) In this paragraph, I will mention the disadvantages of working in a part time job while studying
at college.
Reason: ……..
4. a) Housing prices in Turkey has gone up dramatically due to recent developments in the economy.
b) Housing prices in Turkey has gone up dramatically but there are many empty houses in almost
every city.
Reason: ……..

Supporting Sentences
Supporting sentences are actually the body of a paragraph. They give further explanations, examples,
descriptions, clarifications, etc to the main idea. They try to convince the reader by answering such
questions of why, when, how, who, how much, to what extent and so on. A good paragraph must have
“enough” number of supporting sentences to make your point clear for the reader. As the author, it is your
duty to decide on the number, scope, and length of the supporting sentences. However, do not forget that
while a few supporting sentences may not be enough for your argument, too many of them might lead to
lose control and unity in your paragraph.
Types of Supporting Sentences
• Topic: Eskişehir is one of the most popular cities to study in.
Explain: Compared to bigger cities, Eskişehir offers a more student-friendly atmosphere for college
students.
• Topic: Eskişehir is one of the most popular cities to study in.
• Describe: There are three different universities in Eskişehir with many various faculties and
departments; that’s why, it attracts significant number of college students with different interests.
• Topic: Eskişehir is one of the most popular cities to study in.
• Give reason: Located in between Ankara and Istanbul, which are the two biggest cities in Turkey,
Eskişehir seems a good choice both for parents and students in terms of convenient transportation.
• Topic: Eskişehir is one of the most popular cities to study in.
• Give facts: The number of students who are enrolled in face-to-face programs is already close to
100.000. This figure goes up to more than a million if the students enrolled in open and distance
education programs are counted.
• Topic: Eskişehir is one of the most popular cities to study in.
• Give examples: A youth magazine has recently listed Eskişehir as one of the best cities in Turkey for
college students after they conducted a survey with more than 5000 students all around Turkey.

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Exercise 2. Read the pair of sentences which are from the same paragraph and decide which one
is the topic sentence and which is the supporting sentence. Write “T” for the topic sentence and “S”
for the supporting sentence.
1. a) _____ Marrying a person from a different country has some advantages and disadvantages.
b) _____ Cultural differences between the husband and the wife may cause problems in the long
term.
2. a) _____ Children are under a great risk in terms of getting affected by the radiation that is
spread by the computer.
b) _____ Playing computer games has undesired results for the physiological development of a
child.
3. a) _____ Getting used to living in a foreign country may take longer than you think.
b) _____ The term “culture shock” is used to explain a person’s encounters with acts of the people
from the foreign culture that he might find surprising or even irritating.
4. a) _____ Young couples live in rental homes and are not able to buy the houses that they want.
b) _____ Living on a budget is becoming a seriously bigger issue in our country.

Concluding Sentence
A concluding sentence basically concludes the paragraph by wrapping up what has been said earlier.
A concluding sentence is usually the last sentence of a paragraph and it actually tells the reader that
the paragraph has just ended.
Occasionally, a concluding
sentence is a restatement of
the topic sentence (with a
different wording) or it is
the summary of the whole
paragraph. Depending on
the genre and the topic, the
author may wish to state
his personal views in the
concluding sentence together
with some suggestions on
what to do about the subject.
An Example Outline of a
Paragraph
Topic Sentence: Eskişehir
is one of the most popular
cities to study in.
Support 1: Student-friendly atmosphere
• Various social and cultural activities
• Low-cost meal options
Support 2: Location
• Real close to Ankara and Istanbul by high-speed train
• In central Anatolia, close to Izmir and Antalya by bus
Support 3: high number of students
• 3 different universities with a big variety of departments
• Students enrolled in distance and open education programs

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Concluding Sentence: To sum up, Eskişehir stands out as one of the most attractive cities in Turkey
to study college.

Exercise 3. Read the example paragraph below and write the outline of it. Some of them are done
for you.
Waterford is a small but a really popular and comfortable city in Ireland. Many Irish people like living
here, and many more tourists enjoy coming here for their holidays. Waterford is very popular thanks to
its natural beauties: the city has a lot of forests and green places to visit not to mention the beautiful sea.
If you enjoy a cold place, or want to visit a glacier, you should see Grønland or somewhere else where you
can see the beautiful frozen pieces of the world. Moreover, the atmosphere in Waterford is great; it is safe as
the city has a lot of rules and punishments that prevent many problems for the citizens. The government is
really taking care of the city and its people to increase their happiness and well-being. Waterford is shown
as an example to the other European cities; they certainly have a lot to learn from this Irish city.
Topic Sentence : 1) Waterford is a small but a really popular and comfortable city in Ireland.
Supporting Idea 1: 2) _____________________
Examples for Supporting Idea 1: 3) forests; 4) ______________; 5) ______________;
Supporting Idea 2: 6) safe
Examples for Supporting Idea 2: 7) ______________; 8) ______________; 9) ______________
Concluding Sentence: 10) ______________

Exercise 4. Read the example paragraph below and write the outline of it.
With this speed of communication, there is a new responsibility for all the people of the world, which is
to try harder to understand each other. For a start, people with different religions must try to understand each
other’s beliefs and values, even if they do not accept them. For example, people celebrating their religious
days, e.g. Easter for Christians or Eid for Muslims or Rosh Hashanah for the Jewish, should be respected
and permitted to do perform their rituals openly in public places. Another step to understand each other
is the acceptance that each culture is quite different from one another. What one group considers a normal
part of life might be strange to another culture. In some cases, a normal part of one culture might be bad
or impolite to people of another culture. That kind of difference is a possible basis for misunderstanding.
People must learn not to judge others, but to accept them as they are. As the world grows smaller, people
must learn to talk to each other more effectively as well as communicate more rapidly.
(Adapted from scribd.com by the author)
Topic Sentence : _____________________
1)

Focus Point 1: 2) _____________________

Details for Focus Point 1: 3) ______________; 4) ______________; 5) ______________;
Focus Point 2: 6) ______________
Details for Focus Point 2: 7) ______________; 8) ______________; 9) ______________
Concluding Sentence: 10) ______________

Exercise 5. Look at the example outline below and write a paragraph based on it. Some of the
sentences are written for you.
Topic: effects of travelling on people’s personalities
Supporting Idea 1: learn about culture
Example for Supporting Idea 1: food culture
Supporting Idea 2: self-confidence
Examples for Supporting Idea 2: getting out of your comfort zone + bigger social environment
Supporting Idea 3: collect memories

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Examples for Supporting Idea 3: new memories & experiences + make friends everywhere
Concluding Sentence: more stable emotions and personality
There are three positive effects of travelling on people’s personalities. First of all, people who travel a
lot learn culture. ___________________________________________________________________
___________________. Secondly, ____________________________________________________
. Travelling helps you to get out of your comfort zone and you become more self-confident and social
person thanks to travelling. ___________________________________________________________
___. Finally, people who travel a lot collect memories. ______________________________________
_____________. If you travel a lot, it may be difficult to say goodbye to the friends you have made, but
you will make new friends wherever you go. You will have friends from all around the world. To sum up,
__________________________________________________________________________.

Exercise 6. Look at the example outline below and write a paragraph based on it.
Topic Sentence: Plans for a semester abroad in Spain
Focus Point 1: department + city
Details for Focus Point 1: walking + sightseeing
Focus Point 2: travel to other cities
Details for Focus Point 2: some city names + food
Focus Point 3: study of art
Details for Focus Point 3: art galleries + get to know people
Concluding Sentence: opportunity for career

A Semester in Spain
…

1
What are the elements of a basic paragraph?

COHESION AND REFERRING EXPRESSIONS

In academic writing, it is always important for the words to be connected to each other, which is
linguistically defined as “cohesion”. It is derived from another word called “cohere”, which can be explained
as “stick together”. Hence, cohesion in academic writing is to make sure that the words - in either sentence
or paragraph level or even at the whole text level – stick to each other. There are two main ways of
providing cohesion in your writing: lexical cohesion and grammatical cohesion.

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Lexical cohesion is mostly

achieved by using a wide range of
vocabulary items and to ensure that
your text is lexically cohesive, there
should be meaningful connection
in between your choice of words.
This might involve the repetition of
a word either in the same or the in
the following sentences. However,
repeating of the same words
frequently will make your writing
look like a text that came out of
an incompetent author or even out
of a child. Therefore, most authors
prefer such other techniques as using
a synonym, hyponym, meronym, or
antonym, which are exemplified in
the sentences below in italics.
• Synonym: The lieutenant
ordered his soldiers not to war
but the die. The privates went
to death without a slice of
fear in order to defend their
countries.
• Hyponymy: She came a
across a huge snake while
wandering in her garden.
She then ran back into her
home being afraid of that the
animal would bite her.
• Meronymy: Please excuse
my dirty hands since I was
busy trying to fix the chain.
I will carry a pair of gloves
before going on a ride on my
bike next time.
• Antonymy: The estate market is a real dilemma. While the old houses in or around the city centre
cost more than a billion, the new ones on the outskirts cost almost half of it.
As stated above, providing lexical cohesion is usually related to having a good command of vocabulary.
However, grammatical cohesion can be achieved by building some linguistic relationships among the
sentences. Since this is relatively more doable for authors for whom English is a foreign language, we will
go into more detail below.

Referring Expressions - Pronouns

This is one of the most commonly used ways of building linguistically meaningful relations among the
words. In any kind of text, for example, the author may wish to use pronouns in the place of nouns to avoid
repetition, whose risks for the writer are explained above. As an author, it will be a practical idea for you
to use as many pronouns as the text allows you. However, do not forget that repeating the same pronoun

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over and over might also lead to a meaning loss. Exercise 7. Read the paragraph below and
Therefore, it might be a good idea to refer back to write what the underlind pronouns refer to.
the original noun to make the reader remember Caroline Skywalker and her four room-mates
who or what you have been talking about. live in Studio Apartments, in the mostly commercial
There are a couple of ways to refer back or downtown area. Their loft-style apartment, which
forward to another piece of words or phrases in used to be a graphic design studio and a recording
the text. Let’s start with a simple example first: studio, has a few problems that other apartments
“Joe and Mary are getting married this don’t. There is no cooling system, no residential
weekend. The ceremony is on Saturday and they garbage service, no mail service and no parking.
are going on their honeymoon on Sunday”. However, the benefits of living in it are numerous.
The open architecture has allowed the room-mates
In the example sentence above, the author
to host parties with up to 200 guests, with space
prefers to use “they” and “their” in the second
left over to allow bands to perform.
sentence since he has introduced Joe and Marry in
the first sentence. Since the reader knows who the Her: ___________
author is talking about already, it is practical for Their: ___________
the author to use pronouns instead of repeating It: ___________
Joe and Mary in the second sentence. Imagine the
author did not use any referring expressions, the
sentence above would seem as the follows: Referring Expressions - This & that
“Joe and Mary are getting married this Another common way of referring to other
weekend. The ceremony is on Saturday and Joe elements in the text is the use of demonstrative
and Mary are going on Joe and Mary’s honeymoon adjectives: this, that. Unlike pronouns, the
on Sunday”. demonstrative adjectives have a wider usage. They
might refer to a single noun, phrase, idea, or the
As you might predict, this kind of repetition
whole sentence or even paragraph. Take a look at
would seem odd and confuse the reader more. This
the examples below.
level of explicitness would reduce the readability
of your text; therefore, it is a good idea to use Example 1: He kept coming to work late. This
referring expressions. However, as the author you led him to lose his job.
might need to say explicitly who or what you are This: His (habit of ) coming to work late.
talking about if there are more than one item that Example 2: We were running to the station
the referring expression might refer to. Look at in order not to miss our train. My friend, Şule,
the following example: jumped over a car when the traffic was stuck. I will
“Joe and Mary are getting married. Billy and never forget that.
Jane are joining the ceremony as besties. Then, That: Şule’s jumping over a car.
they will leave the ceremony early for the after
party”.
In this example, the pronoun “they” in the
Referring Expressions – It as a
third sentence is not explicit enough. The reader Dummy Subject
might think of “they” as either “Joe and Mary” The pronoun it is frequently used in English at
or “Billy and Jane” or “four of them together”. the beginning of the sentences as a dummy subject.
As the author, it is your decision to make this Dummy here means that it has no meaning itself,
explicit or not. If you think that this detail is not but is meaningful with the other part of the
important for the reader, you might still use “they” sentence as a kind of reference. In addition, it is
as a referring expression. However, if you do not also used at the beginning of the sentence when
wish the reader to get confused and indicate who the subject is totally obvious such as day, time or
is leaving the ceremony early, it would be a good weather. Consider the following examples.
idea to use repetition. 1. It is always sunny in Philadelphia (It refers
to the subject “weather”).

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2. It is a new day anyway. (It refers to the 4. It: ___________

subject “day”). 5. Its: ___________
3. It is nice to hear from you back. (It refers to 6. It: ___________
the subordinate clause in the sentence “to
7. It: ___________
hear from you back”).
8. This: ___________
4. It is important to submit the application
form before the deadline. (It refers to the 9. There: ___________
subordinate clause in the sentence “submit 10. This: ___________
the application form before the deadline”). 11. Them: ___________
5. It is estimated that the use of fossil fuels 12. Its: ___________
will come to an end by the new century. 13. It: ___________
(It refers to the subordinate clause in the
14. It: ___________
sentence “the use of fossil fuels will come to
an end by the new century”). 15. There: ___________

Exercise 8. Read the paragraph below and

write what the underlind words refer to.
Almost every fashion label outside the top super-
luxury brands is either already manufacturing in 2
far-east countries or thinking of 1it. Coach, the US What are the most common referring expressions?
leather goods maker, is a classic example. Over the
past five years, 2it has lifted all 3its gross margins
by manufacturing solely in low-cost markets. In
February 2021, Prada decided to do something COHERENCE AND PARAGRAPH
similar and 4it closed 5its factory in Lares, Puerto UNITY
Rico, with more than 150 employees in 6it. Coherence is defined as the organisation
Burberry has many Asian licensing arrangements. and connection of ideas in a paragraph. Just like
In 2022, 7it decided to renew Sanyo’s Japanese cohesion, coherence is also derived from the word
license for 20 ten years. 8This means that almost “cohere” and it is related to how the sentences
half of its sales at retail value will continue to—be stick to each other. Cohesion and coherence are
produced under license 9there. At the same time highly related to each other but there is one key
however, Japanese consumers prefer the group’s difference: cohesion is related to micro level of the
European-made products. Sanyo is now reacting text and provided by making connections through
to 10this demand of 11them for a snob alternative lexical and grammatical devices while coherence is
to the Burberry products made in 12its factories related to the macro level and achieved by making
across Asia by opening a flagship store in Tokyo’s meaningful connections between the sentences in
Ginza, where 13it sells Burberry products imported a paragraph.
from Europe. In interviews with the Financial In order to ensure that your paragraph is
Times, many executives say the top luxury brands coherent, it is important to organise the sentences
will continue to be seen, particularly in Asia, as and connect them in a reader-friendly way.
European. Domenico De Sole of Gucci says: ‘The- Following the order of topic sentences, supporting
Asian consumer really does believe - whether 14it is sentences and a concluding sentence at the end
true or not - that luxury comes from Europe and will help the readers follow your ideas more
must be made 15there to be the best.’ easily in your paragraph. Apart from this, it is
(Adapted from “Market Leader” Intermediate always important to use discourse markers such
Course Book and edited by the author) as coordinating conjunctions, transitions, linkers,
1. It: ___________ adverb clauses, and so on, which will all be given
later in this chapter. To study the order of the ideas
2. It: ___________
and the organisation of a paragraph, let us practice
3. Its: ___________ with some exercises.

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Exercise 9. Read the sentences of a paragraph given in a mixed order and put them in the correct
order to make a coherent paragraph.
Paragraph 1:
(….) They are required to follow
certain rules of behaviour and do
some community service such as
cleaning the parks or helping the
elderly people.
(….) So, for example, offenders
may be given a probationary
sentence on the condition that they
go nowhere near a certain part of the
city, or that they do not leave their
house except between certain hours.
(….) The security bracelets
enable the authorities to spot where
the offender is at all times.
(….) New technologies, including security bracelets, can now assist in this supervision.
(..1..) There are some alternatives to prison as a means of punishment.
(….) For example, instead of being sent to jail, some offenders are put on probation.
(….) The security bracelets allow the authorities to monitor the wearers’ movements.
(….) This means that they are allowed to remain in the community under some kind of supervision.

Paragraph 2:
(….) After the event, the police officers wanted to talk to the owner.
(….) Later, the officer said, “If I were him, I’d exactly feel the same. It must be a very difficult situation.”
(….) Last week, the city witnessed an extraordinary theft when a group of people broke into a retail
store and stole some food and drinks.
(….) He was so confused because he had no idea about what was happening to him.
(..8..) A local person said: “We thought Tampere was a secure city to live in, especially in the north east
of the region, but I guess where there is person, there is crime.”
(….) Thankfully, the police officers chased the criminals and finally arrested the people responsible for
the situation and took them to the station.
(….) An officer tried to talk to him, but could not get anything out of him.
(….) Tampere is the second largest city in Finland, and this makes the city a problem for some people.

Paragraph 3:
(..4..) However, tattooing may also have a negative image.
(....) That’s why, many businesses in Japan such as fitness centres ban customers with tattoos.
(....) For some people, a tattoo is simply a form of body decoration just like wearing make-up; for
others, it provides a symbol of cultural or group identity.
(....) Today tattooing is a common practice in many parts of the world.
(....) Surprisingly, the commonest images in modern Japanese tattoos are flowers such as Cherry
Blossoms and Lotuses.

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(....) In Japan, for example, a common perception of people with tattoos is that they are associated with
the Japanese mafia.
(....) Millions of people, including 30 million in the U.S. alone, have some forms of tattoos on their
bodies.

In order to make your paragraph coherent, organising your sentences in a logical order will be helpful.
However, the relevance of each sentence in a paragraph to the topic is also as important as the organisation
of them. Therefore, you need to make sure that the sentences in your paragraph should be talking about
the topic, and more importantly, they should be in relevance to the idea or argument you have asserted in
your topic sentence. The sentences that seem odd or irrelevant to the topic of the paragraph will put the
coherence of your writing at risk and spoil the paragraph unity. Do the following exercise to practise more
about the paragraph unity.

Exercise 10. Read the paragraphs below and choose the odd/irrelevant sentence in each of them.

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Paragraph 1: doctors were not able to find a way to heal a skin

(I) Money is a life changing and highly problem that developed in the area. (V) When they
important invention. (II) It has been a part of asked local Aboriginal women, they used their own
human history for at least the last 3,000 years. language to describe a plant which was a cure for
(III) Before it, there was only barter, exchanging the disease. (VI) There are many other examples of
one product for another between two people. (IV) why disappearing languages are important. (VII)
For instance, in the streets of Sardis, Lydia, -now Speakers of the Kallawaya language in Bolivia have
western Turkey- to buy a clay plate, you needed got words for medicinal plants in their part of the
to give a small bag of potatoes. (V) Lydians were rainforest which doctors in the modern world
famous for their rich history in pot-making. (VI) have never heard of, and speaker of the Yupik
However, it was not easy to find somebody that is language of Alaska have got ninety- nine words for
interested in what you wanted to exchange. (VII) ice, a fact that shows that they have got a unique
Slowly, a type of pre-historic currency developed. understanding of their world. (VIII) Our planet
(VIII) That is, people started to use goods like would lose that understanding if these languages
animal skins, salt and shells as the  medium of disappeared.
exchange as they were easy to trade and valuable (Adapted from “Insight” Intermediate Course
at that time. (IX) This system of barter and trade Book and edited by the author)
spread across the world, and it still survives today
in some parts of the world.
Paragraph 2:
(I) A lot of people assume that television will
continue to work in the future as it does now, with 3
programs appearing at a certain time each week. (II) What is coherence in a text?
Most of the TV channels are estimated to disappear
in the next ten to twenty years. (III) However,
most companies now offer a catch-up service. (IV)
You can watch programs from the previous week
DISCOURSE MARKERS IN
that you have missed thanks to it. (V) There are WRITING
also online television providers who allow you to Discourse markers, e.g. however, also, therefore,
watch what you like, when you like, so you can are commonly referred as “linking words” or
watch a whole series in just one night. (VI) This is “linking phrases”, or “connectors” since they
great for people like me who hate waiting to find function as linking or connecting at least two
out what is going to happen next. (VII) One big different but related sets of arguments, ideas, or
advantage of not having specific time for programs suggestions. They can connect the arguments
is that no one can complain that ‘there’s nothing in one sentence or they can link two sentences
worth watching this evening’. (VIII) It also means to each other. The table below demonstrates a
that television companies can show programs for non-exhaustive list of the most commonly used
everyone, from popular series to documentaries discourse markers in writing in English.
that only a handful of people will be interested in.
(IX) So, there will always be something to watch,
whoever you are.
Paragraph 3:
(I) Language change is a real phenomenon and
the disappearance of local languages is not always a
bad thing. (II) When a language dies out, we lose
the culture and history of a group of people which
may be thousands of years old. (III) We also lose the
knowledge of the people who speak the language.
(IV) ln a famous case in northern Australia,

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Table 7.1 Coordinating Conjunctions, Transitions and Adverb Clauses

COORDINATING
FUNCTION TRANSITIONS ADVERB CLAUSES
CONJUNCTIONS

furthermore
moreover
in addition
and -----
also
what is more
besides

She goes dancing every

ADDITION Wednesday. In addition,
she has a ballet class on
Fridays.
She likes apples and The low GDP of the country
-----
bananas. affects the wealth of
its people. Moreover,
millions of citizens are
at the risk of losing their
jobs.

because
since
for ---- as
because of
CAUSE due to
/
REASON They will not be able to buy a house
He goes running every since they cannot afford it.
day, for he wants to ---- Due to the recession, the company
lose weight. is planning to limit most of its
expenses.

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Therefore
Consequently
In consequence
As a result
so Accordingly -----
Hence
Thus
For this reason
Because of this
EFFECT
/
Starting up your own
RESULT
business has a lot of risks.
Therefore, it is good idea
She lost her purse to consult an agency
so she called her before you make a move.
----
boyfriend to come The local government
and pick her up. decided to open up more
green spaces in the city;
thus, they are planting
everywhere.

for example
for instance
----- ----
to illustrate
to demonstrate

There are many reasons

to go abroad to study.
For example, you will
EXAMPLE improve your foreign
language skills.
Housing is becoming
----- -----
extremely expensive
in Turkey; for instance,
the landlords are asking
twice the amount of
money compared to last
year.

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first(ly)
second(ly)
third(ly)
finally
---- lastly ----
next
then
afterward(s)
SEQUENCE later

Keeping fit involves

serious commitment
and requires some basic
---- steps. First, you need ----
to have a balanced diet.
Secondly, you should do
regular exercise.

However
On the other hand
But ----
In contrast
Yet
Fuel cars provide an
advantage on engine
COMPARE /
efficiency. In contrast,
CONTRAST
electric cars are good for
Her brother is really tall
the environment. ----
but she is quite short.
She could answer all the
questions in the exam.
Yet, she did not have
enough time.
Although
Even though
In spite of
---- Despite the fact that
Despite
In spite of the fact that
Regardless of the fact that.

UNEXPECTED She could finish the

CONTRAST race despite the rain. They decided to sit inside although
the weather was sunny and warm.
(CONCESSION)
In spite of the Despite the fact that everyone
----
increasing expenses, admires her, she still keeps her
the company will humble attitude towards her
be able to declare a employees.
profit this year.

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As a matter of fact
Indeed
---- ----
Actually
In fact
She never liked her;
EMPHASIS
actually, she hated her
right from the beginning.
---- ----
Talking out loud in public
places is rude. In fact, it is
disrespectful to others.
What this mean is
In other words
---- ----
To be clear
This is to say that
To improve your speaking
skills you should practice
as much as you can. This
is to say that you can
CLARIFICATION
even talk to yourself in
the target language.
---- ----
She was broken by what
her boyfriend told
him and could not do
anything about it; in
other words, she felt
miserable and desperate.
to summarise
to sum up
in summary
in conclusion
---- ----
to conclude
briefly
CONCLUSION / in short
SUMMARY in brief
To sum up, the world is in
the risk of a food crisis.
In brief, he managed to
---- ----
survive thanks to his
being calm during the
storm.

Exercise 11. Complete the texts below with the discourse markers given in the box. More than one
answer could be acceptable for some of the gaps.

Text 1:
although and however because(x2) what’s more in fact so

I was given a new bicycle for my birthday. I went to choose it with my mother in Jones’ Bikes, our local
bicycle shop. I chose a red Abacus cruiser 1)_______________ it cost my mother f200. All the other bicycles

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I’ve ever had were second-hand, 2)_______________ I’m still getting used to how shiny and amazing it
looks. Apart from looking cool, my new bike is great to ride. It’s a road bike and 3)_______________
it isn’t as high-tech as the ones in the Tour de France, it still goes pretty fast. I love the fact that it’s so
comfortable to ride and very light. It has three gears, which are all I need 4)_______________ I live in such
a flat part of the country that I wouldn’t use more if I had them. 5)_______________, don’t worry if you
live somewhere hilly, the nine-gear models are not very expensive either. The Abacus cruiser is light and
really comfortable. 6)_______________, the saddle is the most comfortable I’ve ever had as it is made of
leather. 7)_______________, you can ride it easily in the rain as the tyres are made of good thick rubber
that doesn’t slip on wet roads. Go to your local shop or have a look online and see if you can find it! It’s
one of the cheapest models out there and is available in a range of colours. I recommend it to anyone
8)
_______________ it’s cheap and great to ride. It’s probably the best bike you can buy at the moment.
(Adapted from slidetodoc.com and edited by the author)

Text 2:
although as a result for all the above reasons for example like such as

My favourite character in the book is Lucy, because 1)_______________ at first the reader is given the
impression that she is shy and a little dull, she actually turns out to be far from boring. 2)_______________
when we first see her, sitting quietly and staring out of the window at the river, Mark and Jane don’t even
notice that she is there. 3)_______________ she hears them talking about their plan to harm Kim, and
then the reader realises that little’ Lucy, as Gavin always calls her, is a brave and intelligent woman.
Throughout the book, the reader is surprised by Lucy, 4)_______________ when she confronts Gavin
about his behaviour towards his sister. Other characters in the book, 5)_______________ Kim and Mark,
soon learn to respect her for her honesty and courage. 6)_______________ Lucy is the most interesting
character in the book for me. I still think about her sometimes, even though she is just a fictional character
and I read the book a long time ago.

Text 3:
on the other to start
however (x2) finally to sum up because lastly firstly next also since
hand with

Many young people dream of achieving fame as film stars. 1)_______________, it is a life which has
both advantages and disadvantages.
There are three main advantages. 2)_______________, if actors are well-known, people will want to watch
their films and if their films are popular, they will be offered more jobs in the future. 3)_______________,
they live exciting and glamorous lives with plenty of foreign travel and luxury. There is no doubt that most
actors find this very enjoyable. 4)_______________, fame and success go together.
5)
_______________, fame brings disadvantages for actors too. 6)_______________, many film stars
have little privacy or time to themselves 7)_______________ they are always being followed by reporters
and photographers. 8)_______________, people with glamorous lifestyles meet other glamorous people
and this can sometimes cause problems with, for example, their family relationships. 9)_______________,
they have to work very hard to be successful and this
may lead to considerable stress.
10)
_______________ I think for film stars the
advantages of being famous outweigh the disadvantages
4
11)
_______________ being well-known is a result of
their professional success. 12)_______________, they What are the most common linkers that you can
need common sense to deal with the disadvantages. use to connect sentences?
(Adapted from Objective FCE and edited by the author)

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to define the basic structure of a

LO 1 paragraph.

There are 3 core elements of a basic paragraph. The first one is the topic sentence. It introduces the topic
to the reader and is usually at the beginning of the paragraph. The second element is the supporting
sentences. They help you to support your argument that you introduced in the topic sentences. These
supporting sentences can be accompanied by extra examples and details relevant to the topic. The last
element is the concluding sentence. It wraps the all paragraph by summarising it.
Summary

to use cohesive devices and

LO 2 referring expressions.

To make your paragraph cohesive, it is important to connect each sentence within a sentence, which
means they stick to each other. Although there are different techniques that you can use to refer to what
you say in a text, the most common ones are using pronouns, this/that, and “it” as a dummy subject.

to organise paragraph writing in a

LO 3 coherent manner.

Similar to cohesion, coherence is about the connectedness of the elements within a paragraph; however,
this is more related to the textual level rather than sentence level. A coherent paragraph means that the
sentences are organised in a logical and reader friendly manner and there is no sentence that is not relevant
to the paragraph.

to name significant linkers used in

LO 4 writing.

Linkers are discourse markers that help your sentences to connect each other. They can be used for various
purposes such as addition, sequence, compare, and contrast, cause/reason, effect/result, concession,
emphasis, example, clarification, conclusion/summary.

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[P5] The two biggest categories are Entertainer

1 Read the text below. There are two tasks Dad and Useful Dad. Entertainer Dad is at his best
based on it. keeping his children laughing while his partner
gets on with household chores and arranging the
Task 1: Sentences in Paragraph 2 and 7 are children’s school and extra activities. The latter
jumbled. Order the sentences in them to make is, however, willing to help out around the house,

Test Yourself
a coherent paragraph. even though he expects the mother to be the ‘team
Task 2: In the other paragraphs, write what the leader’ in all things domestic.
underlined words/phrases refer to. [P6] Finally, and probably every woman’s dream,
[P1] One of the most extensive surveys of fathers is Fully Involved Dad. He is equally engaged in
has now shown that, far from the stereotype, most running the home and the family, and sees the
men would like to share childcare duties with their role of the father and the mother as practically
partners or wives. identical. Fully Involved Dads adjust their work
arrangements to their partners’ professional duties.
[P2] “I do have definite childcare commitments,” said
I. The EOC interviewed sixty-four fathers and one father in this category. “There are certain times
their partners about their home and work life. or occasions where it is non-negotiable and I just
leave the office on time.”
II. He takes part in day-to-day childcare and does
not mind helping with the washing-up and [P7]
vacuuming – if only when his partner asks him to. I. “But until we have equal pay, decent childcare
III. Most fathers agreed that it was important to and more opportunities to work flexible hours,
‘be there’ for their children for key events, such many fathers will continue to find it hard to be
as school sports day, their first appearance in a there for their children, and many women will
play and for at least one meal a day. continue to be disadvantaged at work.
IV. Many agreed that parenting classes would be a II. This is not necessarily the best solution for
good way to give them more confidence around parents, children or employers.
the home. III. Julie Mellor, chairwoman of the EOC,
V. The survey made by the Equal Opportunities said that fathers were still not given enough
Commission shows a modern type of father: the flexibility at work and mothers would feel fully
New Dad. supported only if employers treated (and paid)
both sexes equally.
[P3] Based on the survey results, four types of
fathers were defined, from the traditional type of IV. Equality at work or home depends on both
dads to the perfect New Dads, who are as much mums’ and dads’ family responsibilities being
involved in taking care of the children as the acknowledged,” Mellor said.
mothers. The survey found that the majority of V. “Mums and dads should be able to choose
men were somewhere between these two. how they want to share the responsibilities of
[P4] In the first category comes Enforcer Dad, bringing up children and working outside the
the old-fashioned disciplinarian who does not home,” she said.
see himself as involved in the day-to-day care of (Adapted from studfile.net and edited by the author)
his children. He sees his responsibilities as setting
clear limits for them and being a role model. Most
fathers do not see this as their only role.

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the square nearby. I understand why Uncle runs

2 Read the text below. There are two tasks his business here. The prices are not too steep.
The location of the house is near the city centre
based on it. Read the text below. There are two
and easy for our clients to find. _____(connector
tasks based on it.
3)_______ , the printing trade has many roots
Task 1: Some sentences are removed from in this area of Venice, even if some of the old
Test Yourself

certain places and given below the text. Place publishers from the area no longer exist.
the sentences into appropriate gaps (specified
Oh sister! I long for the day when I can show you
as “sentence number”) to make the paragraphs
these things instead of struggling to describe them
coherent.
in a letter which may take a long time to reach
Task 2: Some connectors are removed from you in Spain! __________________(sentence
the text and given below the text. Place the 4)____________________. Last night, while
connectors into appropriate gaps (specified as searching in the jumbled corners of the warehouse
“connector number”) to make the paragraphs cellar, I found a single copy of Aristotle’s Poetics,
coherent. published in the city in 1502. I raced to Uncle Leo
Uncle Leo gives me a suspicious look when I call with my discovery and - now here’s a victory - a
this place the ‘Scacchi Palace’. It is really a house, smile almost appeared on his face. ‘A find, boy!
called Ca’Scacchi in Venetian. Anywhere else in the This’ll fetch good money when I sell it down in
world, this would surely be regarded as a palace, the market.’
_____(connector 1)_______ it is one in need of a “May I read a little first, sir?” I asked, and felt
little care and attention. some anxiety when I made the request. Leo has
Our house is by the side of the little San a frightening manner at times. “Books are for
Cassian canal and a small square of the same selling, not reading”, he replied immediately.
name. __________________(sentence _____(connector 4)_______, at least I had it for
1)____________________. One runs under the night since the dealers were by that time closed.
grand, rounded arch into the ground floor of the (Adapted from Complete First and edited by the
house, which, as is customary in the city, is used author)
instead of a cellar for storing things. The second is
Removed Sentences:
used for our commercial activities and it is situated
in another building, which is three storeys high, A. Venice is like a vast imitation of our old library
attached to the north side, towards the Grand at home, full of dark corners and unexpected
Canal. surprises, some very close to me.
Finally, there is yet another exit: a wooden bridge, B. We have a door which leads to the street and
with handrails, runs from the first floor of the two entrances from the water
house between the two river entrances straight
C. I live on the third floor in the third room on the
over the canal and into the square itself. _____
right with a view over the canal and the square.
(connector 2)_______, I can wander over it in the
morning and find fresh water from the well in the D. Or I may call a gondola from my bedroom
centre of the square while still tubbing the sleep window, find it waiting for me by the time I get
from my eyes. __________________(sentence downstairs and, just one minute later, be in the
2)____________________. middle of the greatest waterway on Earth: the
Grand Canal of Venice
The house is almost 200 years old, I am told, and built
of bricks of a rich dark brown colour. It has elegant Removed Connectors:
arched windows and green-painted shutters to keep A. However
out the cruel summer heat. __________________
(sentence 3)____________________. When I lie B. Furthermore
in bed at night, I can hear the chatter and songs C. Consequently
of the passing gondoliers and the conversations in
D. Although

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1. Task 1
Paragraph 2:
The order of the sentences: V – II – I – III – IV

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

Paragraph 7:
The order of the sentences: III – V – I – II – IV
Task 2:
Paragraph 3:
Two: traditional type of dads and the perfect New Dads
Paragraph 4:
Them: children
This: being a role model
Paragraph 5:
His: Entertainer Dad’s
The latter: Useful Dad
Paragraph 6:
This: Fully Involved Dad
It: childcare commitment

2. Sentence 1: B Connector 1: D
Sentence 2: D Connector 2: C
Sentence 3: C Connector 3: B
Sentence 4: A Connector 4: A

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What are the elements of a basic paragraph?

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

A basic paragraph consists of one topic sentence, at least two supporting

your turn 1 sentences with extra sentences about examples and details, and a concluding
sentence.

What are the most common referring

expressions?

your turn 2 The most common referring expressions are pronouns, this/that, and “it” as
a dummy subject.

What is coherence in a text?

Coherence is about the organisation of a paragraph. A coherent paragraph has

your turn 3
sentences given in a logical order.

What are the most common linkers that you can

use to connect sentences?

There are many linkers that you can use; however, for the most common
your turn 4 ones, you can consider looking at the academic word lists prepared based on
corpora.

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References
Brook-Hart, G., Broke-Hart, G., Thomas, B. and Thomas, A. (2014). Complete First. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Capel, A. and Sharp, W. (2016). Objective first. Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press.
Cotton, D., Falvey, D. and Kent, S. (2011).  Market leader: Business English course book. Harlow: Pearson
Longman.
Wildman, J., Myers, C. and Thacker, C. (2013).  Insight: Intermediate. Class Audio CDs. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

Internet References
https://www.scribd.com/doc/46957937/bo-de-hsg-qg-2011-tranphuht-com
https://slidetodoc.com/1-story-it-was-a-trip-ill-never/
https://studfile.net/preview/9720532/page:3/

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 Rewriting, Proofreading,
Chapter 8 Avoiding Plagiarism
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
Learning Outcomes

1 Define key concepts regarding rewriting.

2 Express what plagiarism is and distinguish
types of plagiarism.

3 Apply basic rules of a citation style (APA).

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction Rewriting
What is Rewriting? Paraphrasing
What is Proofreading? Proofreading
Plagiarism Check Websites Plagiarism
APA

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INTRODUCTION
This chapter is indeed an introduction to academic writing. As scientific knowledge has an accumulating
structure, scholars conduct new studies thanks to previous studies that have been done before. While
compiling these relevant studies, there are some rules to cite the previous sources. In this chapter the basics
of using previous sources and citation styles are covered in brief with the related exercises. There is also
information about the tools used in proofreading and editing an academic text.

WHAT IS REWRITING?
Rewriting is the act of changing the sentence’s style while maintaining the original sentence’s meaning.
In English, this procedure is known as paraphrasing or rewriting. During the rewriting process, additional
comments are added to the text to enhance it and develop the contents and ideas.

Rewriting is needed in case of indirect citations from articles, reports, theses, books, or similar academic
studies written by other authors. In this regard, academic ethical values should be preserved by citing the
source in the rewritten parts of an academic study.
When the following examples are examined, as stated above, it is understood that the main purpose in
rewriting is to represent the meaning by using different words and word phrases. In order to emphasise the
rewriting process, the parts of speech are coloured differently.

Example 1. Original Sentence: In 2005, the European Council adopted a directive aimed at facilitating
the obtaining of a scientific visa, which would encourage foreign researchers into Europe.
Rewritten Sentence: The European Council wanted to attract foreign researchers to Europe, and so in
2005, it made it easier for people to get a scientific visa.

As can be seen in the first example, the phrase “facilitating the obtaining of a scientific visa” is rewritten
as “made it easier for people to get a scientific visa”. In the same example, the verb phrase “encourage
foreign researchers into Europe” is represented by using the form of “to attract foreign researchers to
Europe”. Even though different words or word phrases are used in the original sentence and its rewritten
form, the meaning is preserved in both sentences.

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Example 2. Original Sentence: The major drawbacks for the Indian economy had mainly been due to
the lack of electricity, but these problems are now being solved.
Rewritten Sentence: In the past, it was mainly a shortage of electricity that hindered the Indian
economy, but this is now being addressed.

As in the Example 1, some words and phrases are changed in the second example. The phrase of “the
major drawbacks for the Indian economy” is rewritten as “that hindered the Indian economy”. Even if
the structures are different from one another, both present the same meaning when they are evaluated in
their own context. Similarly, “the lack of electricity” phrase is turned into “a shortage of electricity” in the
rewritten form of the sentence. When comparing the meanings of shortage and lack, it is understood that
these words are synonyms for each other. It is not always possible to use synonyms interchangeably as they
do not give the exact same meaning, but a similar meaning. The writer should also consider the register,
collocation, frequency etc. while rewriting a sentence by using a synonym. This situation is the same for
the phrase “are now being solved”. This usage is rewritten as “is now being addressed” in the rewritten form
of the original sentence.
In the process of rewriting, there are some principles that should be considered. No matter whether
you are expected to rewrite a sentence or a text, these principles should be applied in order to generate
a well-designed rewritten form for sentence or text in which the meaning is presented as in the original
sentence or text.
Some principles that are expected to be applied in the rewriting process are listed under a sub-title as
follows. In addition, these principles can also be used as a checklist in order to confirm the accuracy of the
rewriting process at the end of rewriting activity.

How to rewrite a sentence/text?

• The original sentence/text is read multiple times until fully comprehended.
• The main idea of the sentence or text is stated in the original words after the original sentence or
text has been discarded. The source’s concept and sequence of emphasis are then rebuilt after the
source’s highlighted expressions are preserved using several discourses. It is not necessary to include
every element of the original sentence or text in the updated version.
• Furthermore, rewriting calls for analysis. It is possible to split certain phrases or paragraphs into
two parts that each have a separate idea.
• The author’s usage of foreign terms is carefully analysed for meaning. Terms that are commonly
used in the relevant field, in particular, are retained unchanged. It is not necessary to modify every
word or phrase.
• It is determined whether the rewritten section is appropriate for the original text’s style and
meaning, as well as whether the words in this section have changed or are close to the sentences in
the original sentence/text. It is regarded as plagiarism if the word order in the rewritten section is
very close to the source sentence/text.
• It is mentioned where the data come from. If a writer is cited, the name of the writer is made
explicitly visible in the clause.

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Exercise 1. Please rewrite the following sentences given to by using the structures in the parenthesis.
1. You must never take your helmet off while you are riding a motorcycle. (all)
Helmets must be worn ....................................................... a motorcycle.
2. They wanted to apologise for their behaviour: that’s why they paid for dinner. (order)
They paid for dinner ............................................................. their behaviour.
3. It is not necessary to bring skis as they are included in the package. (have)
You ...................................................................... as they are included in the package.
4. I thought parking was allowed here. (under the impression)
I .......................................................................... that parking was allowed here.
5. Tom said, “I will be playing tennis when you arrive.” (he)
Tom said ........................................................................... when I arrived.
6. When I was a child, we would go to the local park every Saturday afternoon. (used)
When I was a child, .................................................................. every Saturday.
7. His daughter continued to cry until he could not be seen any longer. (sight)
She continued to cry until he ................................................................. .
8. I am afraid that car is just too expensive. (means)
That car is ..................................................................... .
9. They moved to this suburb in 1997. (lived)
They ...................................................................... since 1997.
10. One other thing before I forget - Jack is coming to visit next weekend. (by)
.............................................................................., Jack is coming to visit next weekend.

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1
• Please define rewriting briefly.
• What other concept(s) can be used instead of rewriting?

WHAT IS PROOFREADING?
Proofreading means re-reading spelling mistakes, punctuation errors, page structure, and grammatical
errors in an article. Briefly and commonly, it is called proofreading. The purpose of proofreading is to
enable the reader to understand the text (article, essay, story, contract, poem, deed, passport, etc.) from
beginning to end clearly and unambiguously without confusion.

When a text is first written, sentence, word, punctuation, and spelling errors may not be understood.
These errors must be corrected before these texts are forwarded to individuals or institutions. Proofreading
makes the texts clearer, fluent, and understandable. It removes repetitive expressions, punctuation, and
spelling errors and produces accurate texts in terms of language use. This improvement process can be
considered as the importance of the proofreading activity.
It is a type of editing that requires a lot of attention and, in some cases, needs to be done several times.
So, how is proofreading done? Here are a few tips that will make proofreading easier and help the proof-
reader come up with a flawless text.
Below is an example:

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Image 8.1 A sample proofread

Source: //www.fiverr.com/jeneillebrown/my-work-will-amaze-you

Before Proofreading
Proofreading is a process in which some principles should be taken into consideration. A well-established
preparation for proofreading is an indicator for the success of the proofreading activity. In this regard, the
steps below can be followed as a guideline.
• Initially, review your text as a whole. While there are points in your writing that you need to
improve as a whole, it will be inefficient to make corrections on a sentence or word basis.
• After the first proofreading of your text, take a break for a while (15 minutes, one day, one
week), and then do another proofreading of your text. Leaving the text for a while will help you
spot errors more easily in your next review.
• Scan your text to remove unnecessary words before you start looking for errors. It is important
to make clear and direct sentences.
• Know what you are looking for. Make a list for yourself by researching the most common errors
during proofreading. You can also benefit from the opinions of proofreading experts on this subject.

During Proofreading
As in the preparation for the proofreading activity, the one who is expected to perform the stated action
should pursue some phases in a careful manner. The phases that will enable the proofreading process to be
accomplished can be listed as follows:
• Study on output rather than computer screen. It should not be forgotten that some computer
programs have functions that will help you find errors.
• Re-check your text by reading it aloud. In this way, you can notice problems that you missed while
reading silently.
• To avoid distractions, use a white paper as a tracking tool while reading.

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The best place to park your car is Noosa national

park carpark. There is a reasonable amount of
parks, with plenty of spaces shaded by trees, and it’s
close to the start of the Noosa Coastal Walk track.
If you come during a busier time of year, like
Queensland school holidays, the NP car park
might be full. Although you can find plenty of
two-hour street parking nearby, your next best
bet is the free three-hour parking at the end of
Image 8.2 Tracking tool Hastings Street. If that’s full, you’ll almost certainly
Source: https://www.smekenseducation.com/tracking-
find free, unlimited-time parking along Claude
words-while-reading0/
Batten Drive.
Getting to the Fairy Pools
• Use the search function of your computer Once you’ve sorted parking, make your way to
to find possible errors you may have made. the start of the Noosa Coastal Walk that starts as a
Thanks to the output you get, after a detailed concrete footpath next to the Noosa National Park
proofreading process, you can search for the Carpark.
mistakes you make on the computer and Follow the path past Boiling Pot Lookout and
find the overlooked mistakes. Tea Tree Bay. Most of this section is shaded by
• If you are making too many mistakes, check partial tree cover, and there are a handful of unsealed
for each area where you are likely to make turnoffs leading to other walking tracks – ignore
mistakes. Number your possible errors in these and keep following the main path. You can
order of importance and proofread your also find a toilet about halfway along this section,
text from the most important to the least which is the last restroom before Fairy Pools.
important. With this technique, you can (Adapted from https://chevronediting.com.au/wp-
perform a higher quality error control, as content/uploads/2020/08/PA-Noosa-Fairy-Pools.pdf )
you will focus on a different probability of
error each time you scan your text. Correction Code
• Finally, finish your proofreading process Before talking about error correction and the
by checking the spelling. You can use a error correction codes that are used in writing
computer spelling checker for this, or you activity, it will be beneficial to present the place of
can check by reading word for word. error correction in foreign language writing process
All in all, one of the most important steps in in general. In recent years, there has been a lot of
ensuring that the created texts are error-free is discussion on how to correct errors in a target
indisputably proofreading. It is not the right step language. Language learners’ errors were regarded
to accept and present any prepared text as complete as sins by some, and they were not allowed to make
without proceeding to the proofreading stage. errors while learning. Language study has revealed
Proofreading is one of the most important steps that language learners’ errors are particularly
towards providing error-free texts and is considered effective as a strategy for learning a language in
an important control mechanism. the error approach. Errors made by learners are
accepted as a necessary element of the learning
Exercise 2. Please proofread the following process. In fact, this strategy completely disregards
text by adding your own comments. explicit error correction made by teachers. This
strategy does not imply that the errors should be
Where to Park ignored, but rather that they should be handled
Noosa Heads is one of the populist places with care. Allowing learners to correct their own
located on the Sunshine Coast so finding a park errors with the support of their teacher is the best
near the Fairy Pools isn’t always easy. technique for correcting language learners’ errors.

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Another option is to have one of the students It is seen to be an effective strategy for assisting
in the classroom correct his or her errors; otherwise, students in correcting their own errors. When
we ask the classroom teacher to correct students’ the related literature is examined, the importance
errors in the target language. What matters most of teachers not correcting learner errors or
is that errors should be rectified if the goal of error providing the proper answers to them right away
correction is to learn the target language, or if it is is emphasised. Learners should be given cues so
required in teaching a second or foreign language, or that they can remedy their own errors. This will
if it inhibits communication in the target language. increase their linguistic proficiency. As a result,
Error correction, according to most language this technique can help learners enhance their
scholars, can be utilised as a type of feedback. writing by rewarding good writing and allowing
Correction is seen as a form of error feedback. them to review and revise their work to make it
a stronger piece of work before submitting it to
Correction symbols relate to the usage of
the teacher.
correction codes to indicate the types and locations
of learners’ mistakes. The application of correction Furthermore, by using error correction
codes is usually done by underlining the errors and feedback, the teacher or students take on the
utilising symbols to draw the students’ attention to roles of both writer and reader. Students can get
the type of error they have committed. As a result, a feeling of the audience, allowing them to notice
the coding strategy entails utilising a variety of codes more clearly the mistakes made by their partner
(either in the body or in a corresponding margin) and to critically and objectively examine and
highlight the merits and shortcomings of their
to refer to various features of language such as word
partner’s work. Because peer feedback practice
order, spelling, verb, tense, and so on. Minimal
helps students build their capacity for self-
marking is another name for correction symbols.
assessment and critical thinking skills, students
Using correction codes is a straightforward technique
must learn how to evaluate and respond to each
to advise students about what went wrong.
other’s writing. When students are expected to
It is useful to have a set of signals for the learner read two or more of their peers’ drafts, they will
to help her/him figure out what s/he is searching gain more knowledge than if they merely read,
for before s/he has mastered proofreading. analyse, and check their own paper.
Furthermore, this technique makes correction In conclusion, error correction increases
neater and less scary than using large amounts learner awareness, and with well-written
of red ink, and it aids learners in locating and feedback, there is no evidence that it allows
identifying their errors, as well as making correction learners to see their mistakes and errors, resulting
appear less destructive. These also have the benefit in major changes in writing. Learners can gain a
of pushing students to consider what they did better understanding of writing and revision by
wrong so that they can correct it. Correction codes receiving critical error correction feedback, as well
enable learners to view writing as a talent that can as a better understanding of what makes writing
be developed and train them to look for places successful and effective. Finally, learners can
where they can improve. Learners can remedy their become independent writers.
errors because they happen in the midst of a flurry
of conversation where there are many things to get
A Sample Table of Error Correction
right at once. The learner understands the correct Codes
form but generates the incorrect one.
Each instructor can develop her / his own
error correction codes on the condition that s/he
Effects of Error Correction Codes on informs the learners about the meaning and the
Students reference point of each code generated by herself /
The use of error codes to assist students in himself. However, the table can be used as a guide
correcting their work has been widely advocated in writing courses in order to give feedback on the
as a useful way for facilitating error correction. writing drafts of the learners.

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Image 8.3 A sample correction code

In this regard, the way of implementing the error correction codes above on a writing draft will be
beneficial in terms of making them meaningful. For this purpose, examining the following samples of
error correction feedback applied in a real educational setting will make a big contribution to the concept
of usage of error correction code in ESL / EFL writing courses.

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Image 8.4 *An editing sample

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Rewriting, Proofreading, Avoiding Plagiarism

Image 8.5 *An editing sample

As can be seen on the samples, the errors are not corrected by the instructor. Instead of this, the error
correction codes are used to direct the learner to find the correct form of the structure that is used in the
text. This type of feedback enables the learners to develop themselves and to be autonomous learners which
is one of the main objectives of the educational process.

*These assignments were collected in writing classes of the authors. They are used in this chapter with the permissions of their
respected owners.

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Types of Plagiarism
Understanding common forms of plagiarism
2 can help us better answer the question “what is
What are the key concepts of rewriting? Could plagiarism?” Even though there are many types
you please list down some of the abbreviations of plagiarism, we will try to mention the most
that can be used in a correction code? common types in this section. The main types of
plagiarism can be summarised as follows:
• Self-plagiarism,
PLAGIARISM CHECK WEBSITES
• Auto-plagiarism
Before providing information about plagiarism
check websites, it is important to define what the • Global plagiarism
plagiarism is, types of plagiarism, ways of avoiding • Verbatim plagiarism, copy and paste
it, and the possible results in case of plagiarism. • Mosaic / patchwork plagiarism
• Incorrect citation
• Paraphrasing plagiarism
Self-plagiarism: Self-plagiarism is the
publication of your previously published article as
if it were a new work, and it means the unethical
reuse of this previously published work. Even if it is
your own work, republishing a piece that you have
already published is not regarded as an honest act
and is deemed plagiarism.
Auto-plagiarism: Automatic plagiarism occurs
when a writer reuses sections of their earlier
paragraphs in a new project without citing them.
What Is Plagiarism?
Global plagiarism: Global plagiarism occurs
The most widely accepted answer to the question
when you copy a whole chunk of somebody else’s
“What is plagiarism?” is the act of a researcher or
work and publish it as if it were your own. This
author to present someone else’s work as if it were
might happen, for example, when someone else
her / his own work. In other words, plagiarism is the
copying of texts or ideas without citing the source, produces an article, homework, or master’s or
without appropriate reference to these sources or doctorate thesis for you, or when you locate an
by misreferencing, and presenting them as if they internet content and copy it verbatim without
belonged to you. Although copyright infringement crediting the source.
is referred to with different terms such as theft of Global plagiarism, a common kind of
ideas, theft of works, academic theft or theft of plagiarism, is regarded as one of the most
labour, it is commonly referred to as plagiarism. serious sorts of plagiarism since it entails the act
Let us immediately point out that paraphrasing the of purposeful and direct deception about the
ideas and texts that you have copied without citing authorship of an academic work, and it can have
the source does not eliminate the act of plagiarism. severe consequences.
Verbatim plagiarism, copy and paste: This
Results of Plagiarism type of plagiarism, known as the copy-paste
If an article is discovered to be plagiarised, method, has become quite common, especially
there are severe consequences: for example, the with the spread of the internet and information
submitted homework or thesis may be invalidated, technologies. It is a type of plagiarism made by
the individual may be dismissed from school, or copying a text directly from a source and pasting
the person’s title may be removed. Plagiarism is it into your own work without referencing the
illegal, just like violating someone else’s copyright. author or the work.

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If the main sentence structure and the majority It is also important to note that if you are
of the words are identical to those in the original translating a piece of material from another
work, even deleting or changing a few words does not language and want to employ it in your work, you
change the fact that the activity constitutes plagiarism. must correctly cite the original source and provide
If you use words or phrases from another proper acknowledgement. Uncited translations are
author in your own work, you must cite the considered plagiarism since they openly borrow
original source by quoting the copied material and someone else’s ideas.
using in-text citations. Otherwise, your act may
be regarded as plagiarism, which may result in What is APA? What are APA Spelling
negative repercussions.
Rules?
Mosaic / patchwork plagiarism: Mosaic
APA format is one of the frequently used
plagiarism is the act of copying phrases, sections,
citation formats in academic studies. Therefore, the
and ideas from several sources and combining them
APA format is widely used by many scientists. APA
to produce a new text. In essence, this entails minor
comes from the initials of the words “American
rewriting of parts while keeping the majority of the
Psychological Association”.
original work’s language and structure. Although
it appears to be more innocent at first look since As it is known, many scientific studies are
it needs more work, especially when compared carried out in academic life. Many innovations
to copy-paste plagiarism, it is really regarded as emerge with the joint contributions of scientists
more opportunistic and devious conduct. It should in academic studies. The fact that every academic
be noted, however, that it is easily identified by researcher conducts according to his or her own
institutions and systems that check for plagiarism thought will surely result in significant scientific
and similarity, such as Turnitin. complexity. Using a common language in the
academic field, on the other hand, will contribute
Incorrect citation: As previously said, the key
to both a speedier literature review and a more
to preventing plagiarism is to constantly refer to
thorough analysis of the resources accessed. This
and cite the sources in your work. Citations must
circumstance needs the employment of a common
be properly formatted according to the citation
language and scientific references. At this point,
formatting guidelines you use, such as APA or MLA.
the APA system is widely used in academic writing
You may be plagiarising if you do not include and reference notation around the world. Many
or misplace the necessary information. This is scientific journals and publishing houses around
why, in addition to in-text citations, most citation the world prefer that APA style be used in their
styles demand you to submit a reference list or writing guidelines. Similarly, when writing
bibliography at the conclusion of your work graduate theses, it is common practice to adhere to
with complete information of each source you APA formatting guidelines.
mention.
Paraphrasing plagiarism: Paraphrasing is the
process of restating someone else’s material such
that it has the same meaning as your own words.
One of the most prevalent kinds of plagiarism
is changing phrases or words by paraphrasing
without citing.
To be clear, it is not plagiarism to paraphrase the
cited passages as long as you accurately credit your
sources and provide reference to the appropriate
author or work. However, paraphrase is seen as
plagiarism when you examine a source and then
recreate its main ideas as if they were your own.

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For further information about in-text references, you can check the list below.
Studies with one author (Türk, 2010),
Studies with two authors (Türk & Öztürk, 2010),
Studies with three authors (Türk, Öztürk & Polat, 2010)
Studies with more than three authors (Türk et al, 2010) are shown as.
• References in periodicals
• Single author article
Author, A. (2002). The name of the article is written so that only the first word of the first sentence
of the study is written in capital letters. Every Word of the Journal Name Begins with a Capital Letter, 2,
245-275.
• Two-author article
Author, A., & Author, B. (2009). The name of the article is written so that only the first word of the
first sentence of the study is written in capital letters. Every Word of the Journal Name Begins with a
Capital Letter, 3(2), 11-22.
• Articles with three to six authors
Author, A., Author, B. A., Author, C., & Author, D. (2012). The name of the article is written so that
only the first word of the first sentence of the study is written in capital letters. Every Word of the Journal
Name Begins with a Capital Letter, 7(3), 13-29.
• Articles with a DOI number
Author, A., & Author, B. (2009). The name of the article is written so that only the first word of the
first sentence of the study is written in capital letters. Every Word of the Journal Name Begins with a
Capital Letter, 3(2), 11-22. doi:10.1017/0118-61443.27.2.7245
• Articles with more than six authors
Author, A., Author, B. A., Author, C., Author, D., Author, E., Author, F., et al. (2012). The name of
the article is written so that only the first word of the first sentence of the study is written in capital letters.
Every Word of the Journal Name Begins with a Capital Letter, 7(3), 13-29.
• Writing format of books
Author, A., Author, B., & Author, C. (2013). The title of the book is italicised so that only the first
word of the first sentence of the study is capitalised. 2nd Edition. Ankara: Name of Publishing House.

Exercise 3. Find and correct the errors in the following in-text citations according to APA
referencing conventions.
1. (Sheret, Sultana and Sotir 2016)
2. (Yeo, Oh, Pyke, McDonald 1998)
3. (Charman 2007)
4. (Smith 2009 p 7)
5. (Brown nd)
6. According to Sotir (2016)
7. (Seven news 1994)
8. (Turnbull in Shorten 2003)
9. (Minogue 1968, Lopez 1971)
10. (Dickinson 2009, a)
11. (Copyright Act 1968) academic literacy is ‘critical for survival’ at university.

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Find and correct the errors in this reference Paragraph indent: The first words of paragraphs
list according to APA referencing conventions. should be set with a 1.27 cm (1/2 inch) paragraph
1. Clegg, S., ‘Managing organisation futures indent.
in a changing world of power/knowledge’, Line spacing: All text should be set to double
in H. Tsoukas & C. Knud (Eds.), The line spacing.
Oxford handbook of organisation theory, Page title: Author’s name and page number
Oxford, Oxford University Press, pp. 536- should be added to the top right of each page.
567, 2003.
Citations: Citations should include the author’s
2. Irvine, J. 2005, Commodity boom is over: name, publication year and page number and
Access, ‘Sydney Morning Herald’, 27 July, should not be separated by commas.
p. 19.
3. A.J. Kim, 2002, Community building
MLA Citation Rules
on the web, Safari Tech Books, Boston,
Mass., http://proquest.safaribooksonline. The MLA citation format basically contains the
com/0201874849. following information:
4. Duffield, C., Macneil, H.F., Bullock, C., & Author’s name and surname
Franks, H. 2000, ‘The role of the advanced Resource name
casualty management team in St John Other contributors
Ambulance’, Australian Health Review, vol. Page number and publisher information
Release date
What is MLA? What are MLA Spelling Leave a 2.5 cm (1 inch) margin from the top of
Rules? the first page as noted above and set the left margin
The Modern Language Association (MLA) accordingly at first.
style is one of the most commonly used citation Then, you need to write your name and
styles in language studies, cultural studies, and surname, the name of your lecturer or advisor, the
other humanities. Adopting the MLA publication course name, number, and date double-spaced.
format aims to facilitate readers’ perception of key Make sure the title is not underlined and not
references in the text and access to sources, and to enclosed in quotes.
ensure consistency in the use of English language
Make sure you follow the capitalization rules
and formatting rules in academic studies. In this
and do not use italics unless necessary.
section, you will find the basic rules on how to
format your academic studies according to the For further information about MLA, you can
MLA publication style. visit this website: https://www.bibme.org/mla

MLA Basic Formatting Rules

Before we get into the details, let us take a quick Ways of Avoiding Plagiarism
look at the principles of the MLA post format: The act of plagiarism is undesirable and has the
Page margins: The margins of your document potential to result in serious litigation, including
should be set to 2.5 cm (1 inch) from the top, ending your academic life or losing your academic
bottom and sides. title, and is something that researchers should
Font: Use a legible font, such as Times New never neglect. In this section of the unit, 5 practical
Roman, and make sure that italics appear different ways to avoid plagiarism in academic studies will
from the regular font. be discussed.
Text formatting: Generally, 12 point font size Do not copy and paste! Instead, try to
is preferred. understand the topic and take notes. Many
students or researchers risk their academic lives
Upper/lower case: The first letter of each word by using the “copy-paste” method from time to
should be capitalised for headings. time by making only a few minor changes from

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the source works. By doing this, they still commit adding your own academic tone, without making
the crime of unintentional plagiarism, even if they too long quotations, by citing the source correctly
have the intention to avoid plagiarism. In such and by duly citing.
cases, the most practical way to prevent plagiarism Just turning an active sentence into a passive
is to first read and understand the work and take sentence or replacing the words in the original
notes about it. sentence with synonyms does not make the action
plagiarism. Rather, it exposes the researcher or
student to the risk of unintentional plagiarism.
Properly accredit authors! In certain areas,
some facts are considered anonymous and do not
require attribution. However, especially university
or graduate students can sometimes include certain
statements without the need to search for articles
that provide this kind of information, accepting
them as anonymous in advance, without citing
the source, or they can take it from the first place
they see and include the original author without
the need for research and therefore without
attribution. Even in such cases, from time to time,
a situation such as the accreditation of not the real
author, but of other authors, even though they
do not deserve it, may occur. In order to prevent
plagiarism, the author should definitely look for
the original sources and refer to the owner of the
original source of the idea, even if the subject is a
After reading from a source, a better generally accepted truth.
understanding of the subject can be achieved by Do not neglect simultaneously citing sources
taking notes before starting to write the article. with your writing process! While writing your
If you can keep short notes on the topic you are academic studies, it is very important to show
reading, it means you have got the author’s intended the sources you benefit from by making proper
message right. If you understand the information citations. However, in order to avoid plagiarism,
contained in the source, you will be less likely to you must do this citing work simultaneously with
commit plagiarism. the writing process. Otherwise, if you take a break
Interpret appropriately instead of quoting from your work for a while and then continue to
one-to-one! Although paraphrasing the sentence rewrite, you may forget to add the source and this
or words in the source work is considered as one may unintentionally lead to plagiarism.
of the ways to prevent inappropriate plagiarism, Good organisation of the writing process and
if this process is not done properly, the act of proper management of resources are also important
paraphrasing without appropriate citation from aspects that will help you avoid plagiarism. As we
the sentences obtained from the source articles and discussed above, an important element of plagiarism
websites is still considered as plagiarism. is the assignment of citation to an undeserved author
This is because plagiarism focuses primarily or attribution to a wrong author.
on the idea conveyed in the sentences, not just In addition, some authors may wait for the
sentence structure and style. The student or completion of the editing and proofreading process
researcher who wants to avoid plagiarism should to add the sources they will use, and they may prefer
cite in a way that clearly states that the idea used in to add them later. Never forget that this method
his work is not his own but that of another person. is very inconvenient and you are likely to confuse
However, while doing this, there is no harm in quotes, and it can even become unbearable, and do
reconstructing others’ ideas in your own words by not use this method unless it is absolutely necessary.

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As we explained in the first method, special efforts should be made to carry out the process of adding
the sources into the text simultaneously with note-taking. Thus, possible confusions that may arise later
will be easily eliminated.
Utilise plagiarism check tools to see your plagiarism rate! After following all these steps, it is a good
idea to check for similarity through reliable online programs to make sure your final work is plagiarism-free.
These tools provide very detailed information on the extent of similarity by comparing your work with
other information published in online databases and produce a very useful and easy-to-follow report.
In the generated report, you can see in detail which parts of your work were included in which works,
together with the similarity ratio in each work, highlighted in different colours.

Tools for Plagiarism Check

The plagiarism program is a program that detects whether the sentences in the work written by an
author belong to someone else. At the same time, the person can learn whether what he wrote has been
written by someone else before by using these programs.
There are many different plagiarism programs available today. Some of these programs, which can also
be downloaded from the Internet, are free. Versions with more advanced software can be purchased for a
certain amount.
Scanners are available in plagiarism programs. These scanners scan words and sentences one by one
and quickly detect whether they belong to someone else. At the same time, these programs can be used
to determine the rate of plagiarism. Similarity to a certain extent is not considered plagiarism because it is
not possible to write 0 original text. However, similarity of 20% or more is considered duplicate text and
must be corrected or rewritten.
While plagiarism programs can be paid, there are also free programs available online. Some of these free
programs are DupliChecker, CopyLeaks, PaperRater, Plagiarisma, PlagiarismChecker, Plagium, PlagScan,
PlagTracker, Quetext, and Viper. In addition to these programs, you can pay for such plagiarism programs
as Turnitin and iThenticate. As can be seen in images 1.6 and 1.7, Turnitin is widely used by the faculty
members to check plagiarism in students’ assignments. It gives a similarity report and percentage as can
be seen in the images below. The similarity of this particular assignment is 25%. The problem here is that
16% of the assignment is taken from a website without appropriate citing. The professor can also check
the original source by clicking on the percentage as in image 1.7. The borrowed parts are highlighted with
red within the original source. When you look at the assignment, you can see that the student tried to
apply citation rules. However, because s/he has not paraphrased the sentences, they are highlighted and the
percentage is calculated according to the text length.

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Image 8.6 *Sample Turnitin Report

Image 8.7 *Sample Turnitin Report

*These assignments were collected in writing classes of the authors. They are used in this chapter with the permissions of their
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3
What is plagiarism and what are the types of
plagiarism? Is it possible to avoid plagiarism?

Academic Vocabulary Exercises

Please match the words with their definitions.
A. Rewriting
B. Proofreading
C. Paraphrasing
D. Error correction
E. Autonomous learner
F. Feedback
G. Plagiarism
H. Citation
I. Copyright

a. the process in which the mistakes in data are fixed

b. information or statements of opinion about something, such as a new product, that can tell you if
it is successful or liked
c. to write something such as a book or speech again, in order to improve it or change it
d. a word or piece of writing taken from a written work
e. the process of finding and correcting mistakes in text before it is printed or put online
f. to repeat something written or spoken using different words, often in a humorous form or in a
simpler and shorter form that makes the original meaning clearer
g. the legal right to control the production and selling of a book, play, film, photograph, or piece of
music
h. the process or practice of using another person’s ideas or work and pretending that it is your own
i. an individual who is responsible for his/her education
j. a judgement, sometimes for official purposes, that you make about your abilities, qualities, or
actions

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to define key concepts regarding

LO 1 rewriting.

Rewriting is the process of modifying a sentence’s structure while leaving the original meaning intact.
This process is referred to as paraphrasing or rewriting in English. Some principles that are expected to be
applied in the rewriting process are listed in the chapter.

Summary
to express what plagiarism is and
LO 2 distinguish types of plagiarism

Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else’s words or ideas and passing them off as your own without
giving due credit to the original author, referencing them incorrectly, or any combination of these.
There are some citation techniques and methods to avoid plagiarism and there are some tools that check
plagiarism in a written text. As mentioned in the chapter, it is easier to detect it thanks to technological
advances. Although there are several forms of plagiarism, we will attempt to include the most prevalent
forms in this area. The primary forms of plagiarism may be summed up as follows: self-plagiarism, auto-
plagiarism, global plagiarism, verbatim plagiarism, copying text verbatim, patchwork plagiarism, incorrect
citation, and paraphrasing plagiarism. These are exemplified in the chapter.

to apply basic rules of a citation

LO 3 style (APA).

APA is the most commonly used citation style especially in social sciences. American Psychological
Association (APA) publishes versions of its citation manual and announces changes in the new manual
when necessary. The 7th edition is available on its website and in the chapter some rules are given
accordingly. The manual is used while giving citations in an academic text. There are also some websites
that show how to apply citation styles.

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1 However hard he tries, he’ll never again enjoy 4 Which of the following examples includes a
the confidence of the country as a whole. properly formatted in-text citation?
Choose the best paraphrase for the sentence above. A. Jones (2020) mentioned that the effects of this
research were very interesting.
A. Apparently he is quite confident that he does
Test Yourself

enjoy the respect of most people in the country. B. Jones mentioned that the effects of this research
were very interesting (Jones, 2020).
B. So long as he tries, there’s every chance that he
will gain the support of the whole country. C. Jones (Jones, 2020) mentioned that the effects
of this research were very interesting.
C. It will be hard to recover the respect of the
country at large. D. Jones (Jones; 2020) mentioned that the effects
of this research were very interesting.
D. No matter what he does, he’ll never recover the
trust of the country as a whole. E. Jones (2020) mentioned that the effects of this
research were very interesting (Jones, 2020).
E. If only he’d try a little harder he would gain the
respect of the whole country.
5 Select the reference example that has the
2 If only he had kept to the original statement he correct format for APA style.
made to the police! A. Jackson, P. A. (2006). Plagiarism instruction
online: Assessing undergraduate students’
Choose the best paraphrase for the sentence above.
ability to avoid plagiarism. College & Research
A. How lucky that the police realised that his first Libraries, 67(5), 418-428.
statement was false! B. Jackson, Pamela A. (2006). Plagiarism
B. It was a good thing he did deny the statement instruction online: Assessing undergraduate
he gave to the police. students’ ability to avoid plagiarism. College &
C. I wish he hadn’t gone back on that first Research Libraries, 67(5), 418-428.
statement he made to the police. C. J., Pamela. Anderson. (2006). Plagiarism
D. I wish he hadn’t gone back on that first instruction online: Assessing undergraduate
statement he made to the police. students’ ability to avoid plagiarism. College &
E. I wish he hadn’t gone back on that first Research Libraries, 67(5), 418-428.
statement he made to the police. D. Jackson, P. A. (2006). Plagiarism instruction
online: Assessing undergraduate students’
3 He entered furtively, in the vain hope that the ability to avoid plagiarism. College & Research
others would not realise he was late. Libraries, 67(5), 418-428.
E. Jackson, Pamela Anderson (2006). Plagiarism
Choose the best paraphrase for the sentence above. instruction online: Assessing undergraduate
A. However stealthily he may enter, they are students’ ability to avoid plagiarism. College &
bound to know he was late. Research Libraries, 67(5), 418-428.
B. Though he crept in quietly, he couldn’t hide
from them the fact that he was late. 6 When you consider the error correction
C. By creeping in so quietly he only drew attention codes in writing, which one is the appropriate
to the fact that he was late. explanation for the code “WF”?
D. He must have expected that some of the others A. Wider Fail
would arrive late. B. Wrong Font
E. Once they realised he was late it was too late to C. Word Form
try and hide the fact.
D. Whole Fix
E. With Format

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7 Which error correction code can be used for 9 On 16 April 2020 we will pay the 2019 final
the error in the sentence below? dividend to holders of ordinary shares and holders of
ADRS on the register at the close of business on 6
You are badder than me in this field.*
March 2020 (record date).
A. Sp

Test Yourself
Choose the correct proofread form for the sentence
B. ( ) above.
C. LW
D. Gr A. On 16, April 2020, we will pay the 2019 Final
dividend to holders of ordinary shares and
E. Agr
holders of ADRs on the register at the close of
business on 6 March 2020 (record date).
8 NSW transport minister Andrew Constance has B. On April, 16, 2020, we will pay the 2019 final
defended the decision to buy ten new ferries despite the dividend to holders of ordinary shares and
fact people will need to move seats when they go under holders of adrs on the register at the close of
some Sydney bridges. business on March 6, 2020 (record date).
Choose the correct proofread form for the sentence C. On 16 April 2020, we will pay the 2019 final
above. dividend to holders of ordinary shares and
holders of ADRs on the register at the close of
A. NSW Transport Minister Andrew Constance
business on 6 March 2020 (record date).
has defended the decision to buy 10 new ferries,
despite the fact people will need to move seats D. On 16 April 2020 we will pay the 2019 final
when they go under some Sydney bridges. dividend to holders of ordinary shares and
holders of ADRs on the register at the close of
B. NSW Transport Minister AAndrew Constance
business on 6, March, 2020 (record date).
defended the decision to buy ten new ferries,
despite the fact people will need to move seats E. On 2020, 16 April, we will pay the 2019 final
when they go under some Sydney Bridges. dividend to holders of ordinary shares and
holders of ADRs on the register at the close of
C. NSW Transport Minister Andrew Constance
business on 2020, 6 March (record date).
has defended the decision to buy 10 new ferries,
despite the fact people will need to move seats
when they go under some Sydney bridges. 10 The immune system is in a nutshell what keeps
D. NSW transport minister Andrew Constance us free from sickness.
has been defending the decision to buy ten Choose the correct proofread form for the sentence
new ferries, despite the fact people will need to above.
move seats when they go under some Sydney
bridges. A. The immune system is; in a nutshell, what
keeps us free from sickness.
E. Nsw Transport Minister Andrew Constance has
defended the decision to buy 10 new ferries, B. The immune system is, in a nutshell; what
despite the fact people will need to move seats keeps us free from sickness.
when they go under some sydney bridges. C. The immune system, is in a nutshell, what
keeps us free from sickness.
D. The immune system is in a nutshell; what keeps
us free from sickness.
E. The immune system is, in a nutshell, what
keeps us free from sickness.

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If your answer is wrong, please review the

1. D If your answer is wrong, please review the 6. C
“A Sample Table of Error Correction Codes”
“What is Rewriting” section.
section.
Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

2. C If your answer is wrong, please review the 7. D If your answer is wrong, please review the
“What is Rewriting” section. “Correction Codes” section.

3. B If your answer is wrong, please review the 8. A If your answer is wrong, please review the
“What is Rewriting” section. “What is Proofreading?” section.

4. A If your answer is wrong, please review the 9. C If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Plagiarism Check Websites” section. “What is Proofreading?” section.

5. D If your answer is wrong, please review the 10. E If your answer is wrong, please review the
“Plagiarism Check Websites” section. “What is Proofreading?” section.
Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

• Please define rewriting briefly.

• What other concept(s) can be used instead of
rewriting?

Rewriting is the act of changing the sentence’s style while maintaining the
original sentence’s meaning. “Paraphrasing” is another widely used concept
instead of “rewriting”. Unlike paraphrasing, in rewriting the original
your turn 1 information is retained. In rewriting merely different words are used to make
the content sound different. In paraphrasing the most important aspects of
the text are rearranged.

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What are the key concepts of rewriting? Could

you please list down some of the abbreviations
that can be used in a correction code?

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

a. The original text or sentence is read several times to ensure comprehension.
After the original sentence or paragraph has been eliminated, the text’s core
point is expressed in its original language. After the source’s highlighted
expressions have been retained utilizing different discourses, the concept
and order of emphasis are recreated. Not every component of the initial
text or sentence needs to be present in the revised version. The meaning
of the author’s use of foreign words is thoroughly examined. Particularly,
terms that are frequently used in the pertinent subject are left alone.

b. Below is a correction code. You can see some of the abbreviations that are
used in correction codes.

your turn 2

Correction Code

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What is plagiarism and what are the types of

plagiarism? Is it possible to avoid plagiarism?
Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

The act of using someone else’s words or ideas and presenting them as one’s
own is known as plagiarism. Paraphrasing without Citation, Direct Quotes
without Citation, Exact Copy of Somebody Else’s Work, and Turning in Old
Work for a New Project are some types of plagiarism. However, it is possible
your turn 3 to avoid plagiarism if you do not copy and paste, interpret appropriately
instead of quoting one-to-one, properly accredit authors, do not neglect
simultaneously citing sources with your writing process, and utilise plagiarism
check tools to see your plagiarism rate.

References
Editing, C. (2022, 07 22). Chevron Editing: https://chevronediting.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/PA-
Noosa-Fairy-Pools.pdf adresinden alındı
Fıverr. (2022, 06 18). Proofreading & Editing. Fıverr: https://www.fiverr.com/jeneillebrown/my-work-will-
amaze-you adresinden alındı
Kaş, B. (2021). The Use of Portfolios in an English Language Writing Class: Student Reactions and Benefits. Ankara:
Vizetek Yayıncılık.

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 Answer Key

CHAPTER 1
Reading for a Purpose

Exercise 1
1. To inform
2. To persuade
3. To entertain
4. To persuade
5. To inform

Exercise 2
1. The correct answer is: C. The purpose of informative text is to provide facts about somewhere,
something or someone.
2. The correct answer is: A. This passage is an example of informative text which gives you information
about what is available to borrow from the library
3. The correct answer is: C. The text is trying to persuade you to take out a loan with the advertising
loan company.
4. The correct answer is: A. This passage is descriptive text.
5. The correct answer is: B. This text is trying to persuade you to take out car insurance.

Exercise 3
1. To analyse
2. To synthesise
3. To evaluate
4. To summarise

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

Exercise 4
1. Audience: An instructor
1. Purpose: To analyse the reasons behind the 2007 financial crisis
2. Content: 1
2. Audience: Classmates
1. Purpose: To summarise the effects of the $700 billion government bailout
2. Content: 2
3. Audience: An employer
1. Purpose: To synthesise two articles on preparing businesses for economic recovery
2. Content: 3

Academic Vocabulary
1. Availability of water is vital to all plant and animal life. 
2. We need to find a more economical way to manufacture our products because our profit margin is
too low. 
3. Warmer than average weather was the deciding factor in our decision to postpone our ski trip. 
4. Interest in the planet Mars has greatly increased since indications of water raised the possibility that
life in some form may have evolved there. 
5. Music downloaders are questioning the illegality of file sharing, claiming the law is unclear on the
matter. 
6. Meetings will be held periodically for the members of the project to discuss their progress. 
7. Jane Goodall’s research into chimpanzees has greatly increased our knowledge of these animals. 
8. We are contractually obliged to deal with this firm. 
9. The DNA of chimpanzees shows a remarkable similarity to that of humans 
10. At the end of a research project, the researcher is normally faced with lots of observations which
need to be analysed.

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 Answer Key

CHAPTER 2
Basic Reading Strategies I

Exercise 1
Suggested Answers
1. It is a travel guide text.
2. Cappadocia is in the centre of Turkey.
3. There are flights to Cappadocia Airport from Istanbul and Antalya.
4. Cappadocia is situated about 3 hours drive from capital Ankara.
5. You can do lots of different activities in Cappadocia such as hiking, horse riding, watching the
sunset, sunrise etc.
6. We can visit Göreme Open-Air Museum, Zelve Valley Open Air Museum, Güray Museum of
Ceramics and Pottery, etc.

Exercise 2
1 2 3 4
B C A E

Exercise 3
Suggested Answers
1. I read as fast as possible without focusing too much on the details
2. I read as fast as possible to understand the main idea/topic of the texts.
3. I read newspapers to learn about the content of the news. 
4. I read a scientific article carefully to understand the details about it.

Exercise 4
a. Listening to music between tasks could boost productivity. paragraph 8
b. What type of music should you listen to? paragraph 9
c. Lyrics reduce mental performance. paragraph 3
d. Music familiarity is best for focus. paragraph 6
e. Music improves your mood. paragraph 2
f. Music improves physical performance. paragraph 4
g. Music affects introverts and extroverts differently. paragraph 7
h. Music makes repetitive tasks more pleasurable. paragraph 5
i. The science of how music affects your productivity. paragraph 1

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Exercise 5
1. cause-effect
2. compare-contrast
3. listing
4. cause-effect
5. compare-contrast
6. argumentation
7. compare-contrast
8. argumentation and cause-effect
9. listing
10. compare-contrast
11. argumentation
12. cause-effect

Exercise 6
1. Opinion/Disagree
2. Fact
3. Fact
4. Opinion/Agree
5. Opinion/Agree
6. Fact
7. Opinion/Disagree
8. Fact
9. Opinion/Disagree
10. Fact

Exercise 7
This is a cause and effect essay. The signal words are underlined.
In the past, most women stayed at home to take care of domestic chores such as cooking or
cleaning. Women’s liberation and feminism have meant that this situation has been transformed and
in contemporary society women are playing an almost equal role to men in terms of work. This has
had significant consequences, both in terms of the family, for example by improving quality of life and
increasing children’s sense of independence, and also for society itself with greater gender equality.
The main reasons behind the increase of women in the workplace are women’s liberation and
feminism. The women’s liberation movement originated in the 1960s and was popularised by authors
such as Simone de Beauvoir. As a consequence of this, new legislation emerged, granting women
equal rights to men in many fields, in particular employment. Because of feminist ideas, men have
taken up roles which were previously seen as being for women only, most importantly those related
to child rearing. As a result of this, women have more time to pursue their own careers and interests.

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 Answer Key

Exercise 8
Suggested Answers
1. What type of text is it?
It may be a scientific article or an opinion essay.
2. What is the text mainly about?
The text is about how humans have made the world a worse place and how they have polluted the
world. 
3. What do the pictures imply about the topic of the text?
There are factory chimneys in the first picture. The chimneys contaminate the air with smoke. There
are lots of plastic bottles in the sea in the second picture. It shows how humans damage the seas.
People are hunting animals in the third picture. It shows how humans have caused the extinction
of animals.
4. Is there a connection between the title and the pictures?
The title makes us think about human activities and how human activities affect the world. Yes,
there is a connection between the title and the pictures.
5. Are you familiar with this topic?
Yes, now I think about my activities and how they affect the environment. Plastic bags, mobile
phones, plastic bottles, automobiles, electricity, etc. damage the environment.
6. Is there a connection between the bold words and the topic?
The bold words are the summary of human activities: nuclear weapons, destruction, air and noise
pollution, extinction etc. 

Exercise 9
Suggested Answers
1. What is the main idea of the text? 
Human activities like nuclear weapons, pollution and harm to nature are hazardous for the earth.
2. Identify signal words and define the pattern of organisation.
This is an opinion essay and the signal words are however, proven to be, due to, the biggest threat,
cannot be denied, another harm, some may argue that, no doubt that, it is important for us, etc.
3. What is the main idea of the second paragraph? 
One of the biggest threats to the earth is nuclear weapons created by humans.
4. What is the main idea of the third paragraph? 
Pollution is an important type of danger to earth in different forms such as air pollution and
environmental pollution
5. What is the main idea of the fourth paragraph?
Wild life is a part of nature and affected adversely from human activities by facing extinction. 

Exercise 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A B E C D B E A

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

Exercise 11
Suggested Answers
1. What form of writing is this?
It might be an opinion essay.
2. What is the text mainly about?
The advantages of technology are the topic of the text.
3. What do the pictures imply about the topic of the text?
The first photo indicates smart watches which make humans easier with their various functions. The
second picture is about artificial and robotic hands which might be used for people who lost their
body parts. The third photo includes nuclear factory chimneys which might be a source of clean
energy if used properly. The fourth photo includes solar panels which are currently accepted as the
clearest source of energy and they might reduce our dependence on fossil fuels.
4. Is there a connection between the title and the pictures?
Certainly yes, because the title implies the advantages of the technology and the pictures indicate
useful technology available currently.
5. Can you find another title before reading the text?
How technology contributes to improvement of human being
6. Are you familiar with this topic?
To some extent
7. What are the advantages of technology?
Technology improves human life in many ways such as health, daily life, finance and environment.
For instance, people can benefit a lot from the development of biomedical technology for their
health. Technology also makes our life comfortable by providing fast transportation, household
errands etc. By using the technology in a proper way, we can also help to keep our environment
clean.
8. What are the disadvantages of technology?
People might use technology by disregarding their dangers on human and animal lives. Moreover,
technology might cause isolation from the social environment. 

Exercise 12
Suggested Answers
Upon reading the text, I realised that previewing and predicting strategies helped me connect my
previous knowledge with the topic of the text, which made the text for me easier to comprehend. I tested
my predictions while reading the text.

Exercise 13
a. The advent of technology has changed the way we live. ____5____
b. Technology is a tool that makes our life easier ____3____
c. Production with technology is time efficient and economical. ____8____
d. As it has advantages, technology also has some disadvantages. ____4____
e. Misuse of technology delays the inventions of new technologies. ____1____
f. Excessive use of natural resources may create pollution. ____7____
g. The problems of technology can be solved by the help of technology. ____6____
h. We should not allow people to misuse technology and destroy the world. ____2_____

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 Answer Key

Exercise 14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
D C E B D C A C E

Exercise 15
1. What form of writing is this?
This might be an opinion essay or compare and contrast.
2. What is the text mainly about?
The text is probably about wind turbines and a discussion about wind turbines.
3. What do the pictures imply about the topic of the text?
The wind turbines are a good source of clean energy and the text probably will be about how to use
wind turbines to produce energy.
4. Is there a connection between the title and the pictures?
I guess there is a conflict between some people about where to settle a wind-farm.
5. Are you familiar with this topic?
I am partially familiar with the topic of the text. 

Exercise 16
Suggested Answers
Almost everyone agrees that we must produce clean renewable energy; but wind-farms have always
been controversial. Some people support them because
1. Britain is a windy country, and it ought to make use of its wind.
2. The people who say wind farms are ugly have NIMBY syndrome; Not In My Back Yard. You can
build your wind farms and high-speed lines and prisons and factories and rubbish dumps wherever
you like, as long as it is not near me 
3. Questions of aesthetics are not really important; what is important is that we move over to clean
energy sources as fast as possible, and get rid of pollution and the nuclear risk. 

Others are against them because

1. We have already lost most of our natural environment in England, and thousands of kinds of plants
and insects and animals have disappeared. It is absolutely essential not to build more power stations.
2. Some places have got to be protected from development, and National Parks more than any other
areas.
3. There are plenty of other places where wind farms can be built. Besides, wind power is not the only
form of renewable energy.
4. Nuclear power is the answer; it is clean and safe, as long as it is properly looked after.
5. Kirkby Moor is a beautiful part of Britain, and it should not be disfigured.

Exercise 17
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C A D B E A D B

Exercise 18
Academic Vocabulary
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B A E B D A C C A E

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

CHAPTER 3
Basic Reading Strategies II

Exercise 1
Word to Locate Preceding Word Subsequent word
economy document emphasis
assist assess assume
affect adequate analyse
structure strategy sufficient
remove relevant research
purchase publish range
credit correspond criteria
final evaluate finance
period perceive previous
involve interpret issue
occur normal outcome
major maintain method
research remove resource
publish process purchase
communicate comment community

Exercise 2
Information to locate Page numbers Information to locate Page numbers
news reports 119 planning time 125
opposition 45, 73, 87 mood 83, 84, 126
pronouns  82, 83 overt instruction 33–4
ownership of texts 10 postmodernism 49
politics of alliance 72 power 2, 15, 26, 27–30, 60, 63–4, 93
mode of discourse 83, 129 multiculturalism 36
modality 83, 84, 87, 88, 126, 127 normativity 76, 99
periphery scholars 71 problem posing 63
progressivism 63, 66 newspapers 1, 8, 118–19, 170
phonocentrism 67 print literacy 8

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 Answer Key

Exercise 3
1. YHT that departs at 11.20 goes Ankara in 4 hours and 41 minutes
2. First take YHT from Istanbul to Ankara then, Güney Express
3. More than one and half day
4. YHT and Güney Express or YHT and Van Gölü Express
5. 6 hours and 3 minutes
6. Tuesdays and Sundays

Exercise 4
1. 2020
2. 84.7
3. 18.71
4. Tunceli and Bayburt
5. Tunceli
6. 0.10
7. 5.747.325
8. 6.79
9. there is a decrease in 2021
10. The graphs show that the population of 0-4 male age group is decreasing in 2021.
11. It shows that the population of Turkey is ageing.
12. Muş, Ağrı, Siirt, Şırnak, Şanlıurfa
13. 1.4
14. 0-14 age group
15. The pyramid shows that the birthrate in Turkey is decreasing and the population is ageing.

Exercise 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C E B B C E A C

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

Exercise 6
1 2 3 4 5
D E B B C

Exercise 7
1 2 3
E A C

Exercise 8
1. This is a comparison and contrast essay.
2. The text is about the advantages and disadvantages of EVs over gasoline cars.
3. There are two graphics about the cost and range of electric cars compared to gasoline cars and a
picture showing how they harm the environment. Yes, the pictures are related to the article.
4. The title and the pictures used in the text are related to each other.
5. There are lots of comparative adjective structures in the text and some transition words such as
‘compared to’, ‘while’, ‘however’ also inform the readers about the organisation of the text. 
6. Electric cars, gasoline cars, power, recycle, cost-efficient, fuel, emission, range, affordability etc.
7. Yes/no, I know about it such as…
8. The bold words are generally about the features of electric cars.

Exercise 9
1. Even though the cost of an electric car is higher than a gasoline car, in the long run electric cars are
more economical than gasoline cars.
2. Range of cars graphic indicate that EV models already match the range of an average gas car as
performance keeps improving
3. EVs are now much cheaper to buy and usually more affordable in the long-run.
4. The top speed of an EV is more than sufficient but not as fast as a fuel car.
5. EV models already match the range of an average gas car as performance keeps improving
6. Thanks to developments in technology, charging times have also improved significantly in recent
years. The charging time for some cars is about 90 minutes.
7. All things considered, it remains clear that EVs are the greener, cleaner transport choice.

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 Answer Key

Exercise 10
Main Idea of the There are misconceptions about cost, performance, practicality, and the true
text environmental benefits of EVs compared to gasoline cars.
EVs are currently significantly less expensive to purchase and typically more cost-
Main idea of part 1
effective over time.
EV owners typically spend $632 less per year operating their vehicles than drivers
Advantage
of fuel-powered vehicles.
The reduced number of fluids (oil and transmission fluid) and far fewer moving parts
Advantage
that require upkeep or replacement accounts for the cheaper maintenance costs for EVs.
Regenerative braking makes use of the kinetic energy that is typically lost in
Advantage
gasoline cars and feeds it back into the battery in EVs. 
Tire rotation and replacement may be necessary more frequently with electric cars
Disadvantage
than with traditional vehicles due to their larger bodies and instantaneous torque.
Disadvantage The battery of an EV must eventually be replaced, which can be expensive.
Main idea of EVs accelerate faster than gas-powered cars and have more than enough speed
part 2 for every-day usage.
Advantage EVs can provide full torque resulting in instant acceleration. 
Because the majority of EVs only have one gear, car producers must choose
Disadvantage
between acceleration and top speed.
Main idea of Range anxiety, or the fear of how far electric vehicles can travel, is the most
part 3 frequent issue among prospective purchasers.
Most electric vehicles have a range of 200-490 km (124-304 miles) on a single
Advantage
charge, compared to an average gas-powered car’s 482 km (300 miles) on a full tank.
Main idea of Many people are also concerned about whether the current charging network is
part 4 strong enough to support EV driving. 
EVs can be simply charged at home overnight. Most gas-powered car owners do
Advantage
not fill their tank at home.
The number of gasoline stations is higher than the number of public charging
Disadvantage
stations.
Main idea of Another common misconception amongst potential buyers centres around the
part 5 time it takes to recharge an EV.
EVs allow you to charge at home, you can just plug in your car when you get home
Advantage
and let it run all night.
Charging times have substantially decreased recently, thanks to technological
Advantage
advancements.
Main idea of Some people have questioned whether electric cars are actually better for the
part 6 environment.
It has been demonstrated that the average midsize car’s electric model surpasses
Advantage
its fuel-powered version in terms of air pollution.
Driving an EV is more environmentally friendly than using a gas vehicle because
Advantage
they are powered by energy.
Over the course of their lifetime, EVs emit far fewer pollution than do gas-powered
Advantage
vehicles
Batteries that have reached the end of their useful lives can still provide up to 70%
Advantage
of their power when used as energy storage systems.
Waste and hazardous pollutants are produced during the production of raw
Disadvantage
materials and lithium-ion batteries.

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

Exercise 11
1. People are concerned about cost, performance, practicality, and the true environmental benefits of
EVs.
2. In the short term, gasoline cars are cheaper than EVs but calculating maintenance cost and fuel cost,
gasoline cars are as expensive as EVs.
3. The electric car’s heavier body means that tire rotations and replacements may be required more
frequently than with traditional cars.EV owners will eventually also need to replace their car’s
battery, which can be costly.
4. Electric motors are much simpler than internal combustion engines. Therefore, EVs can provide full
torque from 0 kilometres, resulting in instant acceleration. In comparison, traditional combustion
engines take longer to get engine-generated power to the wheels. With traditional fuel cars, the
power also has to go through more moving parts, like the gearbox, making them less efficient.
5. Engineers preferred to provide a balance between acceleration and top speed.
6. Range anxiety means the concern about how far EVs can travel.
7. Charging times have also improved significantly in recent years. An electric car can be charged in
about 90 minutes.
8. EVs produce far fewer emissions over their lifetime than gas-powered vehicles. Lithium-ion battery
production today created less than half the amount of emissions it produced in 2017. Batteries at
the end of their life can be repurposed as energy storage solutions.
9. Gasoline cars will not be used in the future by people because of their disadvantages.
10. The author is supporting the shift from gasoline cars to electric cars.

Exercise 12
Academic Vocabulary
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D B A E C D A C B E

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 Answer Key

CHAPTER 4
Reading Critically

Exercise 1
Pain (the child may have felt pain), COVID-19 (difficulties you have gone through; your vaccination,
if you had one; news you watched or read about COVID vaccines. You can then read the paragraph and
see whether your guesses are correct.

Exercise 2
46 days, John Landy, 3 minutes 57.9 seconds, three runners, 1978, over 200 runners

Exercise 3
Bannister, 23 March 1929, Harrow-London, Ralph and Alice, Lancashire, the age of 15, 195, Joyce

Exercise 4
Answers may vary
In the UK, the highest risk of COVID mortality was observed in ethnic minorities such as those with
a black African background and those with Bangladeshi origins.

Exercise 5
Answers may vary
Although kids are less likely to have severe COVID-19 compared to adults, this may not be the case
with the delta variant.

Exercise 6
Answers may vary
Sim Yi Hui was part of the team who started the expedition. Not all team members reached the summit
at the same time. Esther Tan reached the summit on 20 May 2009.

Exercise 7
Answers may vary

Exercise 8
Answers may vary
The same situation but different levels of stress for different people. 
Even thinking about stress causing stress for some people. 
No particular reason for individual levels of stress in the same situation.

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

KEY FOR GENERAL PRACTICE 1

A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E A H F B G D J C I

B
Answers may vary.

C
Answers may vary.

D
1 2 3 4 5 6
B C C A C A

E
1 2 3 4 5
F F T T T

F
Answers may vary.

G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A D B D A B C A A C

KEY FOR GENERAL PRACTICE 2

A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A D B D A B C A

B
Answers may vary.

C
Answers may vary.

D
1 2 3 4 5 6
B C A B D A

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 Answer Key

E
1 2 3 4 5
T F T F T

F
Answers may vary.

G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
D B B A D B A D

KEY FOR GENERAL PRACTICE 3

A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C J A G E H B C F I

B
Answers may vary.

C
Answers may vary.

D
1 2 3 4 5 6
B D A A D B

E
1 2 3 4 5 6
F T F T T F

F
Answers may vary.

G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C A A D C B D A B C

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

CHAPTER 5
Paraphrasing

Exercise 1
1. Proposed, suggested; around, about; given, provided.
2. People, students (or individuals); hard, intensely (or a lot).
3. Bought, purchased; cheap, inexpensive; properly, adequately.
4. Tired, exhausted; in addition, moreover; a lot of, many.
5. Enter, come in; started, began.

Exercise 2
1. problematic
2. description
3. knowledgeable 
4. merciful
5. impressed
6. afford
7. terrified
8. useful
9. preparation
10. interested

Exercise 3
Three suspects were seen breaking into a house on Main Street last night. The police were called and they
were told to come very quickly. One of the suspects was caught immediately after the police arrived at the
crime scene. The other suspects were gone but they were found very soon. All of the suspects were taken to the
police station and they were questioned separately. The suspects were charged with burglary.

Exercise 4
1. They got married because they were acquainted with each other for a long time.
2. Studying really hard was necessary for me to be the youngest graduate of this department.
3. I couldn’t afford a new laptop, even though I wanted it.
4. You need to take clothes that would keep you warm if you plan to go to Eastern Turkey in winter.
5. Millions of people are killed by some viruses every year.

Exercise 5
Synonyms: rarely, hardly ever; important, vital; start, launch; promptly, right away; evidence, proof;
have to, obligatory; advise, recommend; there is no, does not exist; in fact, as a matter of fact;
Use a different word form: necessary, necessity; criminology experts, criminologists.
Change from active to passive: it is advised.
Change the word order: waiting 24 hours; to file a report for a missing person; it is vital to; in Canada
or the USA; the most crucial time; an investigation of a missing person.

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 Answer Key

Exercise 6
Synonyms: not necessarily, not always; competency, mastery; indicate, show; such as, including; among
different, across; awarded, presented; such as, like; indicate, represent.
Use a different word form: hold, getting promoted
Change from active to passive:  is represented by, are worn by, are used.
Change the word order: in martial arts; expert level or mastery; people who hold higher master ranks.

Exercise 7
In the first example, the source is cited within the sentence and the original sentence is paraphrased. In
the second sentence, the original sentence is paraphrased again, but this time the source is cited at the end
of the sentence. However, the source is not given in the last sentence. It seems as if we wrote that sentence
originally based on our knowledge and research, but it is not the case. So, there is plagiarism in the third
sentence although some of the words are replaced with their synonyms.

Exercise 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
F C A G E I D B

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
synonyms style guide cohesion cite a source paraphrase plagiarism source passive voice

GENERAL PRACTICE (POSSIBLE ANSWERS)

A
Answers may vary.
Leadership skills have been found to be quite valuable for project teams to be successful. In the context
of project management, the wide presence of technology, integrating global cultures and the complex
nature of the competitive business environment are powerful forces, but games have proved to be excellent
platforms for developing skills (Sausa and Rocha, 2019).

GENERAL PRACTICE
B
Answers may vary.
A pandemic and economic difficulty all around the world, like nothing before in about a century, have
been caused by COVID-19. Although it is less fatal compared to some other diseases appeared recently
including Ebola, Avian Influenza, and Tuberculosis, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
(SARS-CoV-2), which is the virus that leads to COVID-19, seems to be responsible for the great damage
to the world economy today. By means of the global and interconnected nature of the word, the virus
moves around rapidly. People infected with COVID became unwitting super-spreaders of the virus, unlike
the 2003 SARS pandemic, because their symptoms grew slowly and were often mild (Lipscy, 2020).

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

CHAPTER 6
Summarising

Exercise 1
1 2
1 2 3 4 B
B
B D A E Extra

Exercise 2
Paragraph 1 Paragraph 2 Paragraph 3 Paragraph 4 Paragraph 5
C E B D A

Exercise 3
1. Perfumed their hair
2. Fake beards
3. Fashion statement
4. Wigs
5. Culture
6. Decorative reasons
7. Assyrian
8. Society

Exercise 4
1. Modern computer industry
2. Beach boys
3. Stanford
4. Intel
5. Xerox
6. Arpanet
7. High-tech

Exercise 5
Suggested Answers
Oktoberfest: many regional and seasonal differences in taste; Bavaria and Munich; largest beer festival;
in September; special beers. 
The Fellas Festival: two-day; to celebrate winter’s end; 19th March; fireworks; best paella contest;
special costumes, sculptures, caricatures; burning the fellas at midnight.
The Tibetan Butter Lamp Festival: Buddhists; March 10; monks prepare iced butter; carving the
frozen butter into statues; carrying sculptures to rivers to symbolise non-permanency.   
The Dragon Boat Festival: China; end of June; memory of Qu Xuan; throwing dumplings to water to
save Xuan’s soul; dragon-shaped boats race to remind people; several old traditions.

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 Answer Key

Exercise 6
Suggested Answers
Sea Angel: Impossible to see; in danger because of acids in the ocean; its extinction is a threat for other
animals
Pied Tamarin: resemble people; miniature monkey; social & have families; no space to live and breed
Yunnan Monkey: Look like they had a plastic surgery; Co-existing with other monkeys; Locals think
they are sacred; Smugglers haunt them for trade
Firefly: Seeing them is magic; Their light show is a precise language; The pollution is harming their
habitat

Exercise 7

Summary 2 (Suggested Answer): 

Cask of Amontillado is a story of revenge written by Edgar Allan Poe in 1846. The antagonist,
Montresor, wants to take revenge from his friend Fortunato, the protagonist, thinking that he has insulted
him by his expertise in knowledge of wine. Montresor lures Fortunato into the catacombs to have wine.
Fortunato accepts his friends over thinking that they would have a nice chat over wine. However, he drinks
too much and gets drunk. Montresor starts to build a wall and seal bricks. After plastering the final piece
of brick, Montresor leaves Fortunato there viciously. Fortunato’s body stayed there over a half century.   

Summary 3 (Suggested Answer): 

‘Monkey’s Paw’ is a story or horror written by W.W. Jacobs in 1902. The main characters in the story
are Mr. and Mrs. White, their son Herbert, and Sergeant Morris. On a cold and dark night, Mr. White and
Herbert are playing chess while Mr. While is knitting by the fire. They are expecting a visit from Sergeant
Morris. Morris arrives at their home and starts to talk about his unique experiences of being a soldier in
exotic places for 21 years. Mr. White reminds Morris of a ubiquitous item, a monkey’s paw, which was
believed to be granted three wishes by an old fakir. The wishes are expected to come true if granted; however,
there might also appear unwanted consequences. Being aware of this, Morris throws the paw into the fire
but Mr. White gets it back to make the first wish. He demands two hundred pounds (£200) to make the
final payment of his mortgage. At that time, Herbert made a noise on the piano and the paw moved like
a snake. The following day, Herbert dies at the factory after being caught by one of the machines. The
company compensates the family with £200. Feeling upbeat and extremely sad, Mr. and Mrs. White do
not know what to do. Mrs. White asks her husband to make the second wish – asking to bring their son
back. They find the paw in the house and wish that Herbert would come back. Suddenly, there is a loud
knocking at the door, which makes them scared. They think their son Herbert is at the door; however, the
cemetery where their son’s grave is, is quite far away from their house. The persistent knocking gets louder
and louder. Mr. White does not want to open the door thinking of the terrible state his son would be in if
it was him. However, Mrs. White wants to open the door and goes downstairs in a hurry. At the same time,
Mr. White finds the paw and makes the third and final wish – to stop the knocking. Then the knocking
stops all of a sudden; however, the road is completely empty with no one visible. 

Exercise 8
The correct order: II – V – IV – III – I 

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Exercise 9
The correct order: V, I, III, VI, II, IV

Exercise 10
The best summary is B since it has all the characteristics of a good summary.  

Exercise 11
The best summary is D since it has all the characteristics of a good summary.  

Exercise 12
This study analysed the correlation between the socio-economic backgrounds of foreign language
students and their proficiency in speaking.
The study analyses the correlation between the socio-economic backgrounds of foreign language
students and their proficiency in speaking.  
The researcher worked with a good number of students (over 100), with a little bit more female students.
The study group consisted of 127 students; 60 male and 67 female. 
They interviewed the students asking them some questions.
The students were given a semi-structured interview. 
The students aren’t that young, they can be accepted as young adults.
The ages of the students varied between 16-18, who can be accepted as young adults. 
They found out that students coming from rich families are more proficient in their speaking skills.
The results indicated that students coming from higher level socio-economic families are more proficient
in their speaking skills. 
Of course, this result can be different in somewhere else.
The study might lead to different results if conducted in different contexts. 
But, they can conclude that richer students are better at speaking.
However, the research concludes that students with upper level socio-economic backgrounds are better
in their speaking skills. 

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Exercise 13
News Report 1: News Report 2:
1. is 1. disappeared
2. am speaking 2. failed
3. knows 3. left
4. knew 4. were walking
5. was taking 5. noticed
6. arrived 6. knows  
7. were waiting 7. is/are taking
8. does he have 8. believe
9. loves 9. want
10. googling

Exercise 14

Rewriting 
1. Three ways of losing weight without feeling hungry are suggested in this article. 
2. The students were told to submit their assignment before midnight.
3. A new approach is presented (by the author) to criticise a literary work of late 19th century British
literature. 
4. A new approach to criticise a literary work of late 19th century British literature is presented (by the
author).
5. A group project to find solutions for environmental pollution is being prepared (by the students).  
6. A group project is being prepared (by the students) to find solutions for environmental pollution 
7. All the candidates today are going to be interviewed today (by the jury). 
8. The next years’ conference was decided to be held in Italy (by the Board of Directors). 
9. The manuscript was asked to be sent to a proof-reader.
10. The author was asked to send the manuscript to a proof-reader.
11. Traditional recipes from all around the world will be cooked (by robots) in the future. 
12. A report was going to be drafted (by the executive committee); however it was cancelled by the
CEO. 
13. The application fee should be paid to complete the application. 

Completing the texts 

Local News of London  The Statue of Liberty
1. were blown 7. walked 1. was given 
2. fell 8. was stolen 2. was designed 
3. was taken 9. called  3. was completed 
4. caused 10. was seen  4. was shipped 
5. are covered 11. drove 5. were put 
6. left 6. visit 

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Exercise 15
1. reveal: to make known or show something surprising or that was previously secret
2. handle: to deal with a topic or issue, especially with challenging ones
3. state: to say or write something clearly and carefully 
4. exemplify: to give specific examples of an issue, point, or topic, etc. 
5. cover: to deal with something or direct your attention to it
6. extend: to add something further on a issue 
7. include: to give a place to something 
8. express: to say or tell something in a direct manner
9. cite: to say or write words and phrases from a particular source
10. argue: to give reasons for your opinion or belief 
11. discuss: to talk or write about a subject in detail with different ideas around it
12. touch on/upon: to mention a subject in your word in a quick manner 

Exercise 16
1. accurate a. exact, correct, and without any mistake
2. fluent b. spoken easily, without many pauses
3. convincing c. able to make somebody believe that something is true or correct
4. solid d. entirely firm and keeping in a clear manner 
5. further e. next, upcoming, extra
6. impressive f. able to make you admire or respect 
7. substantial g. large in size, value, and importance
8. immersive h. able to make you feel that you are completely involved
9. significant i. important, noticeable 
10. argumentative j. able to present a systematic reasoning
11. remarkable k. unusual and special and therefore worthy of attention

Exercise 17 
I. b 
Paragraph 4 points out that pollution affects freshwater badly. 
Paragraph 3 explains how the water is recycled.
Paragraph 2 describes the two types of freshwater.
Paragraph (EXTRA) explains how factories pollute freshwater.
Paragraph 5 concludes by listing some ways to protect freshwater. 
Paragraph 1 introduces the topic of the importance of water for our life. 
Paragraph (EXTRA) points out the importance of salt water. 

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Exercise 18
1 2 3 4
C E D B

Exercise 19
Paragraph 1 Paragraph 2 Paragraph 3 Paragraph 4 Paragraph 5 Paragraph 6 Paragraph 7
F C A D G B E

Exercise 20
I. II.
Paragraph 1 Paragraph 2 Paragraph 3 Paragraph 4
C
B C E A

Exercise 21
Paragraph 1 Paragraph 2 Paragraph 3 Paragraph 4 Paragraph 5
D E B A C

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CHAPTER 7
Paragraph Writing

Exercise 1
1: b / Reason: Option a is too narrow and option b has main idea and focus (controlling idea)
2: b / Reason: Option a is a question and option b is a full sentence.
3: a / Reason: Option a gives the main idea and focuses directly while option b announces the topic.
4: a / Reason: Option a has one main idea and one focus while option b has two focus points (“empty
houses” as an additional focus)

Exercise 2
1: a is Topic; b is Supporting
2: a is Supporting; b is Topic
3: a is Topic; b is Supporting
4: a is Supporting; b is Topic

Exercise 3
1. popular and comfortable
2. people like living & visiting here
3. forests
4. sea
5. glacier
6. safe
7. rules & punishments
8. government’s taking care of its people
9. increasing happiness and well-being
10. example city & a lot to learn from

Exercise 4
1. To understand each other 
2. Religion
3. religious days
4. respect
5. permit
6. culture
7. normal vs. strange
8. normal vs. impolite
9. misjudgment & misunderstanding & acceptance
10. talk effectively & communicate rapidly

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 Answer Key

Exercise 5
Suggested Answer
There are three positive effects of travelling on people’s personalities. First of all, people who travel a lot
learn about culture. They learn about the food culture, and get to taste local dishes everywhere. Secondly,
people who travel a lot gain self-confidence. Travelling helps you to get out of your comfort zone and you
become a more self-confident and social person thanks to travelling. You meet new people, new friends,
new environment and you make your social environment bigger which helps you become a more social
person. Finally, people who travel a lot collect memories. New friends and a new lifestyle bring you new
memories and experiences. If you travel a lot, it may be difficult to say goodbye to the friends you have
made, but you will make new friends wherever you go. You will have friends from all around the world.
To sum up, people who travel a lot have more stable emotions and personality such as self-confidence and
stronger mental health. 

Exercise 6
Suggested Answer
I love Spain and I can’t believe that I will study there for one semester through the Erasmus program.
I’m going to continue studying art and I will be staying in Madrid. I think the best way to get to know
the city is to walk, so I’m glad that my school is close to everywhere. I have so many plans: I want to go to
museums and art galleries. I’m so excited to see Madrid, Barcelona, and Valencia. I want to try a lot of food
like Paella Valenciana, Patatas bravas and Gazpacho. I hope I will like them. Spain has wonderful artists,
of course, I can’t meet them all but I hope I can see some of their artwork. I am planning to visit as many
art galleries as I can. I think it will be a good opportunity for me to get to know new people. All in all, this
program will be a great way to add to my early career as an art student. 

Exercise 7
Her: Caroline Skywalker’s
Their: Caroline and her four roommates’
It: Studio Apartments

Exercise 8
1. It: manufacturing 
2. It: Coach 
3. Its: Coach’s 
4. It: Prada 
5. Its: Prada’s
6. It: Prada Factory in Lares, Puerto Rico 
7. It: Burberry
8. This: Renewing Sanyo’s Japanese licence for 20 ten years
9. There: Japan
10. This: Japanese consumers’ preference of the group’s European-made products
11. Them: Japanese consumers
12. Its: Sanyo’s
13. It: Sanyo
14. It: luxury comes from Europe and must be made there to be the best
15. There: Europe

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Exercise 9
Paragraph 1
(..4..) They are required to follow certain rules of behaviour and do some community service such
as cleaning the parks or helping the elderly people.
(..6..) The security bracelets allow the authorities to monitor the wearers’ movements.
(..7..) So, for example, offenders may be given a probationary sentence on the condition that they
go nowhere near a certain part of the city, or that they do not leave their house except between
certain hours. 
(..5..) New technologies, including security bracelets, can now assist in this supervision.
(..1..) There are some alternatives to prison as a means of punishment.
(..2..) For example, instead of being sent to jail, some offenders are put on probation.
(..8..) The security bracelets enable the authorities to spot where the offender is at all times.
(..3..) This means that they are allowed to remain in the community under some kind of supervision.

Paragraph 2:
(..3..) After the event, the police officers wanted to talk to the owner.
(..6..) Later, the officer said, “If I were him, I’d exactly feel the same. It must be a very difficult
situation.”
(..2..) Last week, the city witnessed an extraordinary theft when a group of people broke into a retail
store and stole some food and drinks.
(..4..) He was so confused because he had no idea about what was happening to him. 
(..8..) A local person said: “We thought Tampere was a secure city to live in, especially in the north
east of the region, but I guess where there are people, there is crime.”
(..7..) Thankfully, the police officers chased the criminals and finally arrested the people responsible
for the situation and took them to the station.
(..5..) An officer tried to talk to him, but could not get anything out of him.
(..1..) Tampere is the second largest city in Finland, and this makes the city a problem for some
people.

Paragraph 3:
(..4..) However, tattooing may also have a negative image.
(..6..) That’s why, many businesses in Japan such as fitness centres ban customers with tattoos.
(..2..) For some people, a tattoo is simply a form of body decoration just like wearing make-up; for
others, it provides a symbol of cultural or group identity.
(..1..) Today tattooing is a common practice in many parts of the world.
(..7..) Surprisingly, the commonest images in modern Japanese tattoos are flowers such as Cherry
Blossoms and Lotuses.
(..5..) In Japan, for example, a common perception of people with tattoos is that they are associated
with the Japanese mafia.
(..3..) Millions of people, including 30 million in the U.S. alone, have some forms of tattoos on
their bodies.

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 Answer Key

Exercise 10
Paragraph 1 Paragraph 2 Paragraph 3
V II I

Exercise 11
Text 1
1. and
2. so
3. although
4. because
5. However
6. In fact
7. What’s more
8. Because

Text 2
1. Although
2. For example
3. As a result
4. Such as
5. Like
6. for all the above reasons

Text 3:
1. However
2. To start with / firstly
3. Also / next
4. Finally / lastly
5. On the other hand
6. Firstly / To start with
7. Because / Since
8. Next / Also
9. Lastly / Finally
10. To sum up
11. Since / Because
12. However

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Communication Skills and Academic Reporting I

Exercise 12
Task 1
Paragraph 2:
The order of the sentences: V – II – I – III – IV
Paragraph 7:
The order of the sentences: III – V – I – II – IV

Task 2:
Paragraph 3:
Two: traditional type of dads and the perfect New Dads
Paragraph 4:
Them: children
This: being a role model
Paragraph 5:
His: Entertainer Dad’s
The latter: Useful Dad
Paragraph 6:
This: Fully Involved Dad
It: childcare commitment

Exercise 13
Sentence 1: B Connector 1: D
Sentence 2: D Connector 2: C
Sentence 3: C Connector 3: B
Sentence 4: A Connector 4: A

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 Answer Key

CHAPTER 8
Rewriting, Proofreading, Avoiding Plagiarism

Exercise 1
1. at all times when riding
2. in order to apologise for
3. do not have to bring skis
4. was under the impression
5. he would be playing tennis
6. we used to go the park
7. was out of sight
8. beyond my means
9. have lived in this suburb
10. By the way

Exercise 2
Where to park
Noosa Heads is one of the most popular [1] places located on the Sunshine Coast, so finding a park
near the Fairy Pools isn’t always easy.
The best place to park your car is Noosa National Park Carpark [2]. There are [3] a reasonable amount
of parks, with plenty of spaces shaded by trees, and it’s close to the start of the Noosa Coastal Walk track.
If you come during a busier time of year, like Queensland school holidays, the NP car park might be
full. Although you can find plenty of two-hour street parking nearby, your [4] next best bet is the free
three-hour parking at the end of Hastings Street. If that’s full, you’ll almost certainly find free, unlimited-
time parking along Claude Batten Drive.
[1]: ‘Most popular’ is the correct superlative form of ‘popular’; ‘populist’ refers to a political ideology.
[2]: As a proper noun, each part of the name should be capitalised.
[3]: ‘Are’ is the correct usage for plural nouns, whereas ‘is’ should be used for singular nouns.
[4]: ‘You’re’ is a contraction of ‘you are’, and is therefore incorrect in this context.

Getting to the Fairy Pools

Once you’ve sorted parking, make your way to the start of the Noosa Coastal Walk, which [1] starts as
a concrete footpath next to the Noosa National Park Carpark.
Follow the path past Boiling Pot Lookout and Tea Tree Bay. Most of this section is shaded by partial
tree cover, and there are a handful of unsealed turnoffs leading to other walking tracks – ignore these, and
keep following the main path. You can also find a toilet about halfway along this section, which is the last
restroom before the [2] Fairy Pools.
[1]: ‘That’ should only be used for defining clauses. Information about the nature of the footpath is
non-defining, and therefore ‘which’, preceded by a comma, is correct.
[2]: As ‘the’ is part of the Fairy Pools’ official name, it should always be included.

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Exercise 3
1. (Sheret, Sultana & Sotir, 2016) 7. (Seven News, 1994) 
2. (Yeo et al., 1998) 
3. (Charman, 2007)
4. (Smith, 2009, p. 7) 
5. (Brown, n.d.) 
6. According to Sotir (2016), academic literacy is “critical for survival” at university (p. #).
7. (Seven News, 1994)
8. (Turnbull, as cited in Shorten, 2003, p. #) 
9. (Minogue, 1968; Lopez, 1971) 
10. (Dickinson, 2009a) 
11. (Copyright Act, 1968) 

Clegg, S. (2003). Managing organisation futures in a changing world of power/knowledge. In H. Tsoukas &
C. Knud (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of organisation theory (pp. 536-567). Oxford, Oxford University
Press.
Commodity boom is over: Access. (2005, July 27). Sydney Morning Herald. p. 19.
Kim, A.J. (2002). Community building on the web. Retrieved from http://proquest.safaribooksonline.
com/0201874849
Duffield, C., Macneil, H.F., Bullock, C., & Franks, H. (2000). The role of the advanced casualty
management team in St John Ambulance. Australian Health Review, 28(1), 191-199.

Academic Vocabulary
D F A H B C I G E
A B C D E F G H I

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