LAB MANUAL

BALOCHISTAN UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
BS-MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
FALL 21
3rd Semester
SYED IBRAHIM HASSAN
55929
Course: Engineering Mechanics Dynamics
Submitted To: Engr. Zohaib Khan
DATE: 01/12/2022

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 LIST OF EXPERIMENT
1) To measure the diameter of a given wire by using Screw Gauge.
2) To Find the Friction coefficient between different surfaces and material
samples.
3) To Verify the Triangle Law of forces using Gravesend’s apparatus.
4) To determine the forces angles using Lami’s Theorem.
5) To Verify the Parallelogram Law of forces with the help of Gravesend’s
apparatus.
6) Verify the Polygon Law of Forces by using Gravesend’s Apparatus.
7) Ratio and Direction of Rotation of Gear Trains.
8) Determination of Center of Gravity of Irregular Lamina using plumb-line
method.
9) Law of Moment and Equilibrium Conditions

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 LAB NO. 01
Screw Gauge
Objective:
 To measure the diameter of a given wire and the thickness of a given sheet.

Apparatus:
 Screw gauge
 Wire
 A sheet of paper
 An irregular lamina
 A centimeter graph paper
 A pointed pencil
Theory:
The screw gauge is an instrument used for measuring accurately the diameter of a thin wire or
the thickness of a sheet of metal. It consists of a U-shaped frame fitted with a screwed spindle
which is attached to a thimble.

Fig: Screw Gauge

Parallel to the axis of the thimble, a scale graduated in mm is engraved. This is called pitch
scale. A sleeve is attached to the head of the screw.

The head of the screw has a ratchet which avoids undue tightening of the screw. On the thimble,
there is a circular scale known as the head scale which is divided into 50 or 100 equal parts.
When the screw is worked, the sleeve moves over the pitch scale.
A stud with a plane end surface called the anvil is fixed on the ‘U’ frame exactly opposite to
the tip of the screw. When the tip of the screw is in contact with the anvil, usually, the zero of
the head scale coincides with the zero of the pitch scale.

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Principle:
Pitch of the Screw Gauge
The pitch of the screw is the distance moved by the spindle per revolution. To find this, the
distance advanced by the head scale over the pitch scale for a definite number of complete
rotations of the screw is determined.
The pitch can be represented as;
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘
Pitch of the screw = …………(1)
𝑵𝒐.𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏

𝒅 𝟖
= = =1mm
𝟖 𝟖

The least Count of the Screw Gauge

The Least count (LC) is the distance moved by the tip of the screw when the screw is turned
through 1 division of the head scale.
The least count it can be calculated using the formula;
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
Least count = ……….(2)
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

𝟏
= =0.01mm
𝟏𝟎𝟎

To find the diameter and hence to calculate the volume of the wire
Place the wire between the anvil and the screw and note down the PSR and HSR as before.
The diameter of the wire is given by;
T.R = N + n x (L.C)………..(3)
Where,
N = Main/linear scale reading.
n = circular scale reading.
If r is radius of the wire, and l be the mean length of the wire.
Then, volume of the wire,
V = π r2 l………… (4)

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Determination Zero Error and Zero Correction:
To get the correct measurement, the zero error must be taken into account. For this purpose,
the screw is rotated forward till the screw just touches the anvil and the edge of cap is on the
zero mark of the pitch scale. The Screw gauge is held keeping the pitch scale vertical with its
zero downwards.
When this is done, anyone of the following three situations can arise:
 The zero mark of the circular scale comes on the reference line. In this case, the zero
error and the zero correction, both are nil.
 The zero mark of the circular scale remains above the reference line and does not cross
it. In this case, the zero error is positive and the zero correction is negative depending
on how many divisions it is above the reference line.
 The zero mark of the head scale is below the reference line. In this case, the zero error
is negative and the zero correction is positive depending on how many divisions it is
below the reference line.

Zero error. Owing to this error, the measured readings will be systematically smaller than the
actual value by the same amount. Hence the error is to be added to the observed readings.
To determine the error, bring the spindle in contact with the stud and note the reading on the
linear as well as circular scale. If the linear scale reading is x and the circular scale reading is
n’ then zero error is given by ± (x + n’ × LC). Zero correction (e) is always negative of zero
error. In our case, as shown in fig. The linear scale reading is zero and the circular scale zeros
2 divisions below the reference. Therefore, the zero error is: - [0 + 3 × 0.03] = - 0.06 mm.
So, the Zero correction (e) is = - [-0.06] = 0.06 mm.
Hence, the Actual reading = Measured reading – (±e)
= Measured reading – (-0.06) for positive error

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Procedure:
 Determine the pitch and least count of the screw gauge using the equations (1) and (2)
respectively.
 Bring the anvil and screw in contact with each other and find the zero error. Do it
three times and record them. If there is no zero error, then record ‘zero error nil’.
 Move the screw away from the anvil and place the lead shot and move the screw
towards the anvil using the ratchet head. Stop when the ratchet slips without moving
the screw.
 Note the number of divisions on the pitch scale that is visible and uncovered by the
edge of the cap. The reading N is called the pitch scale reading(PSR)
 Note the number (n) of the division of the circular scale lying over the reference line.
 Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating the lead shot by 900 for measuring the diameter in
a perpendicular direction. Record the observations in the tabular column.
 Find the total reading using equation 3 and apply zero correction in each case.
 Take the mean of different values.

Observation:
The zero Error:
Sign of zero error = Null
No. of mark coinciding with the base line of main scale (N) = 8

Zero error = e = -0

Circular Scale Reading

Main scale Total Reading (T.R)
S. No# Reading No. of circular scale Reading (n)
N (mm) mark coinciding with n = bx(L.C) T.R = N + (n x L.C)
the base line (b)

1 8 43 11 x 0.001 = 8 + 0.043 = 8.043

0.043

2 8 47 10 x 0.001 = 8 + 0.047 = 8.047

0.047

3 8 46 5 x 0.001 = 8 + 0.046 = 8.046

0.046

Length of Wire = 27mm

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Calculation:
 Mean Diameter of the wire:
𝟖.𝟎𝟒𝟑 𝟖.𝟎𝟒𝟕 𝟖.𝟎𝟒𝟔
D/ = 𝟑

D/ =8.0453 mm
 Corrected Diameter:
D = D/ - e
D = 8.0453 – (-0)
D = 8.0453 + 0
D = 8.0453 mm
 Length of the wire:
L = 27 mm

 The volume of the wire:

V = (πD2 l)/4
𝟖.𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟑
𝛑 (𝟎.𝟐𝟕)
V= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟒

V = 0.000013727m3

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 LAB NO. 02
Coefficient of Friction
Objective:
 To find the friction coefficient between different surfaces and material samples.

Apparatus:
 Material Sample
 Material Plates
 Protector
 Adjustable Surfaces (At different Angles)

Theory:
 Friction:
Friction is the force that resists motion when the surface of one object comes in contact
with the surface of another.
 Static Friction:
The friction at the moment when a body just starts its motion from the static condition,
denoted by 𝝁s. 𝝁s is a dimensionless constant that depends on the object and the surface
it is lying upon it.
Consider a body lying on a Horizontal and inclined surface,

N
W = mg

N, R mg

Applying Equation of Equilibrium:

∑ 𝑭x = 0
Wx – Fs = 0
mgsin𝜽 – Fs = 0
Fs = mgsin𝜽 1

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And,
∑ 𝑭y = 0
N – Wy = 0
N – mgcos𝜽 = 0
N = mgcos𝜽 2
Eq 1) ⟹ Fs = mgsin𝜽

𝝁sN = mgsin𝜽
By putting value of (N) in above equation, we get

𝝁s mgcos𝜽 = mgsin𝜽
𝝁scos𝜽 = sin𝜽
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜽
𝝁s =
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜽

𝝁s = tan𝜽

Procedure:
 Keep material samples on the different material surfaces.
 Raise from one side of the plane to make it inclined.
 When the material sample starts motion, note the angle of the inclined plane with help
of a protector.

Observation & Calculations:

Material Sample: Aluminum
Sr. Plate Angle at which 𝝁s = tan𝜽
No Material Motion starts (𝜽)
1 Plastic 25o 0.466
2 Aluminum 16o 0.286
3 Brass 16o 0.286

Material Sample: Brass

Sr. Plate Angle at which 𝝁s = tan𝜽
No Material Motion starts (𝜽)
1 Plastic 20o 0.363
2 Aluminum 12o 0.212
3 Brass 15o 0.267

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 LAB NO. 03
Triangle Law of Forces
Objective:
 To verify Triangle law of forces with the help of Gravesend’s Apparatus.

Apparatus:
 Gravesend’s Apparatus.
 Paper sheet.
 Weight.
 Thread.
 Pen.
 Set Square.
 Pencil.
 Drawing pen.

Theory:
The “Triangle law of force” states that if three coplanar forces acting on a particle can be
represented in magnitude and direction by the three sides of the triangle taken in order, the
force will be in equilibrium.
This law can also be stated as: If two forces acting on a particle are represented in magnitude
and direction by the two sides of the triangle taken in order then their results will be given by
the third side of the triangle taken in opposite direction.

Figure A

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Procedure:
 First set up the Gravesend’s apparatus.
 Fix the paper sheet with the drawing pen on the board.
 Now, set the thread over the pulleys each end carrying a pan.
 Take a second thread and fix its one end at the middle of the first thread and fix a pan
at its other end.
 Add weights in the pan in such a manner that the small knot comes approximately in
the center.
 Displace the pans slightly from their equilibrium position and note if they come to their
original position of rest. This will ensure the free movement of the pulleys.
 Mark lines of forces represented by a thread without disturbing and write the
magnitudes of forces.
 Then name the forces P, Q, and R.

Graphical Method:
Let scale 100gm = 1 inch.
P = 500gm = 5inches.
Q = 500gm = 5inches.
R = 700gm = 7inches.
∠ 𝑂𝐴𝐵 = 𝜃 = 78o

P = 500gm Q = 500gm

𝜽
o
39 39o
O

R = 700gm
Force Diagram

We know R = 700gm = 7inches.

Then graphically the resultant we have was R = 7in.

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Analytical Method: B

Now, 𝜷
Analytically we can find the resultant of the
given Triangle:

R1 = 6.3 in.
As
78o
The resultant of the Triangle can find out 𝜸 39o/
𝜶 A
by the following formula:

R = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑸𝟐 – 𝟐(𝑷)(𝑸)𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
From Figure:
R = (𝟓)𝟐 + (𝟓)𝟐 – 𝟐(𝟒)(𝟒)𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟕𝟖
39o + 𝛼 = 90o
R = √𝟑𝟗. 𝟔𝟎𝟒𝟒 𝜶
𝛼 = 90 – 39 39o
R = 6.3 in. = 630gm
𝜶 = 51o O From Figure:
Now,
78o + 39o + 𝛼 / = 180o
Find the angle β by using sin law:
𝜶/ = 90 – 39 – 78
𝑷 𝑸 𝑹
= = 𝜶/ = 63o
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏

Let, As
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝜸 = 39 + 𝛼 /
=
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟓𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷
𝜸 = 39 + 63
𝟓𝟎𝟎∗𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟓𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷 = 𝜸 = 102o
𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟓𝟎𝟎∗𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟓𝟏
𝜷 = sin-1( )
𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝜷 = 51o

As
Analytically we can determine that the resultant of the given Triangle is R1 655gm = 6.5in.
But,
R = 700gm = 7in. (Graphically)
R1 = 630gm = 6.3in. (Analytically)

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Now,
We can find out the percentage (%) Error:

(%) Error = * 100

.
(%) Error = * 100

(%) Error = 10%

Observation:

Law Weight Weight Weight Calculated %age Error

P Q R Resultant
R1

Triangle 500gm 500gm 700g 630gm = 10%

law 5inches 5inches 7inches 6.3inches

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 LAB NO. 04
LAMI’S THEOREM
Objective:
 Verification of Lami’s Theorem for Connected System of Forces.

Apparatus:
 Gravesend’s Apparatus.
 Paper sheet.
 Weight.
 Thread.
 Pen.
 Set Square.
 Pencil.
 Drawing pen.

Theory:
Lami's theorem is an equation relating the magnitudes of three coplanar, concurrent and non-
collinear vectors, which keeps an object in static equilibrium, with the angles directly opposite
to the corresponding vectors.
According to the theorem, when three forces acting on a body are in equilibrium, then each
force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces.
𝑷 𝑸 𝑹
= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝛂 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝛃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝛄

As the vectors must balance VA + VB + VC = 0, hence by making all the vectors to their tip and
tail we can get a triangle with sides A, B, and C and angles.

π – α, π – β, π – γ ⇒ π = 180o
By the law of sines then:
𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑪 𝑨𝑪
= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝛑 – 𝛂) 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝛑 – 𝛃) 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝛑 – 𝛄)

γ
P Q

α β

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Procedure:
 First fix the drawing sheet on the board.
 Take two wires and connect the hanger at the end of each string.
 Hang the given weight.
 Note down the magnitude of weight P, Q, and R.
 Measure the angles α, β, and γ for verification of Lami’s theorem.

Graphical Method:
Let scale 20gm = 1inch.
P = 260gm = 12.5inches.
Q = 250gm = 13 inches.
R = 310gm = 15.5inches

A
α
π–α
γ

γ
α β
R=? π–γ
B

R = 310gm π–β

C β
Force Diagram:

Vector Diagram
Graphically the resultant we have R = 310gm = 15.5in.

Analytical Method:
Now,
Analytically we can find the resultant of the given Triangle:
As
According to Lami’s Statement, we know that
𝑷 𝑸 𝑹𝟏
= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝛃) 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝛂) 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝛄)

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 ⇒ π = 180o
A
135o 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟏𝟖𝟎) = 0o
Let: π–α
𝑷 𝑹𝟏
=

R = 14.5 in.
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝛃) 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝛄)
105o
𝟐𝟔𝟎
=
𝑹𝟏 π–γ
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟏𝟐𝟎) 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟏𝟎𝟓) B
𝟐𝟔𝟎 𝑹𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟏𝟐𝟎)
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟏𝟎𝟓)
π–β
𝟐𝟔𝟎∗𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟏𝟎𝟓)
R1 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟏𝟐𝟎)
C 120o
R1 = 290gm = 14.5 inch

As
Analytically we can determine that the resultant of the given parallelogram is R1 655gm =
6.5in.
But,
R = 310gm = 15.5in. (Graphically)
R1 = 290gm = 14.5in. (Analytically)
Now,
We can find out the percentage (%) Error:

(%) Error = * 100

(%) Error = * 100

(%) Error = 6.45%

Observations:

Law Weight Weight Weight Angle Angle Angle Calculated %age

P R R 𝛂 𝛃 𝛄 Resultant
Error
R1

Lami’s 260gm 250gm 310gm 135 120 105 290gm = 6.45%

Theorem 13inches 12.5inches 15.5inches 14.5inches

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 LAB NO. 05
Parallelogram Law of Forces
Objective:
 The study of the law of Parallelogram.

Apparatus:
 Gravesend’s apparatus
 Paper sheet
 Slotted weight
 Thread
 Pans
 Set square
 Pencil
 Geometrical box

Theory:
Parallelogram law of forces states that “if two concurrent forces acting on a particle be
represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a parallelogram, then their results
may be represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn
from the same point”.

Figure A

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 Procedure:
 Ensure that the pulleys are moving smoothly.
 Fix a sheet of white paper on the wooden board with drawing pins.
 Take a long string of thread and fix the hangers at the two ends of the thread.
 Arrange them on the pulleys as shown in the diagram.
 Connect another piece of the thread at the center with the hanger.
 Find the balanced condition for the central knot.
 Note down the magnitude of weight P, Q, and R.
 Measure the angles α, β, and γ using sin law.

Graphical Method:
Let scale 100gm = 1 inch.
P = 400gm = 4inches.
Q = 400gm = 4inches.
R = 700gm = 7inches.
∠AOB = 𝜃 = 31 + 39 = 70o

P = 400gm Q = 400gm

A R1 = 6.5in. B
𝜃= 70o
OO O

R = 7in.

R = 700gm
Force Diagram Vector Diagram

Graphically the resultant we have was R = 700gm = 7in.

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Analytical Method:
Now,
Analytically we can find the resultant of the given parallelogram:
As
The resultant of the parallelogram can find out by the following formula:

R = 𝑃 + 𝑄 + 2(𝑃)(𝑄)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
By putting the values, we get

R = (400) + (400) + 2(400)(400)𝑐𝑜𝑠70

R = (400) + (400) + 2(400)(400)𝑐𝑜𝑠70

R = √429446.4
R1 = 655gm = 6.5in.

As
Analytically we can determine that the resultant of the given parallelogram is R1 655gm =
6.5in.
But,
R = 700gm = 7in. (Graphically)
R1 = 655gm = 6.5in. (Analytically)
Now,
We can find out the percentage (%) Error:

(%) Error = * 100

.
(% )Error = * 100
(%) Error = 7.14%

Observations:

Law Weight Weight Weight Calculated %age Error

P Q R Resultant
R1

Parallelogram 400gm 400gm 700g 655gm = 7.14%

law 4inches 4inches 7inches 6.5inches

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 LAB NO. 06
Polygon Law of Forces
Objective:

 To verify the law of polygon of forces with the help of the universal force table
apparatus.

Apparatus:

 Gravesend’s Apparatus.
 Paper sheet.
 Weight.
 Thread.
 Pen.
 Set Square.
 Pencil.
 Drawing pen.

Theory:

Polygon law of forces states that “if a number of concurrent forces are acting simultaneously
on a body, are represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon, taken in
order, then the resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the
polygon, taken in opposite order”.
D
F4
F3
E

R
F2

A F1 B
Figure A

R = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4

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Procedure:
 Fix the paper sheet on the board.
 Tie five segments of threads to form a knot and pass four of them over the guide pulleys.
 Put four weights one into the pans of the strings passing over the pulleys.
 Attach the pan to the free end of the middle string and put weight into it.
 Write down the magnitude of forces in each string which will be the same as the
corresponding weights.
 Find out the graphical resultant (R) and analytical resultant (R1) if they are different
from each other then find out the %age error.
 The magnitude of R is different from that of force R1, then the percentage of error =
* 100.

Graphical Method:
Let scale 100gm = 1 inch.
W1 = P = 700gm = 7 inches. ⇒ 𝜃 1 = 0o
W2 = Q = 500gm = 5 inches. ⇒ 𝜃 2 = 60o
W3 = S = 500gm = 5 inches. ⇒ 𝜃3 = 130o
W4 = T = 600gm = 6 inches. ⇒ 𝜃 4 = 200o
W5 = R = 700gm = 7 inches. ⇒ 𝜃 5 = 270o

W3 = 500gm W2 = 500gm

𝜽3 = 130o 𝜽2 = 60o

𝜽4 = 200o

W1 = 700gm

W4 = 600gm

W5 = 700gm

Force Diagram
We consider W5 = R = 700gm = 7inches.
Then graphically the resultant we have was R = 7in.
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Analytical Method:
Now,
Analytically we can find the resultant of the given polygon:

As D
Analytically the resultant we obtained was
R1 = 614gm = 6.14 inches. E
But
R = 700gm = 7inches. (Graphically)
C
R1 = 614gm = 6.14inches. (Analytically)
Now,
We can find out the percentage (%) Error:

(%) Error = * 100

A 7 in. B
(%) Error = * 100

(%) Error = 12.3%

Observation:

Law Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight Calculated %ag

W1 = P W2 = Q W3 = S W4 = T W5 = R Resultant Error
R1

Polygon 700gm 500gm 500gm 600gm 700gm 614gm = 12.3%

Law 7inches 5inches 5inches 6inches 7inches 6.14inches

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 LAB NO. 07
Ratio and Direction of Rotation of Gear Trains
Objective:
 To observe the input and output ratio of different types of gear trains, rotational
direction of gear trains.

Theory:
Gear are used to transmit rotatory motion from one shaft to another. The shafts may be parallel
or inclined to one another and their speed ratio is determined by the members of the teeth on
the gears.
There are 3 gears supplied. The following are their details:
20 tooth, pitch circle diameter (PCD) of 100mm.
16 tooth, pitch circle diameter (PCD) of 320mm.
15 tooth, pitch circle diameter (PCD) of 300mm.

Ω 𝐝 𝐭
Pitch circle diameter (PCD): = =
⍵ 𝐃 𝐓

Circular pitch (P):

Is the distance between a points on one tooth to the next tooth.
𝝅𝒅 𝝅𝑫
P= =
𝒕 𝑻

Pitch point (P)

Is the number if teeth per mm of PCD.
𝒕 𝑻 𝝅
P= = =
𝒅 𝑫 𝒑

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Module (m):
Is the number of mm of PCD per tooth.
𝒅 𝑫 𝟏
m= = =
𝒕 𝑻 𝒑

Center distance:
𝒅 𝑫
C.T. =
𝟐

Addendum and Dedendum:

𝟏 𝟏.𝟐𝟓
Addendum = =𝒎 dedendum = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒎
𝑷 𝑷

Procedure:
1. Firstly remove all the gears with help of hexagon wrench supplied.
2. Then mesh 20 and 16 tooth gear to their respective discs.
3. Procedure a light pencil mark on one off the tooth of the 20 tooth gear and bring this
tooth up to a vertical position. Mark the mating tooth of the 16 tooth gear with a pencil
also.
4. Rotate the 20 tooth gear 1 revolution and note how many time the other gear rotates.
5. Repeat the above by turning 16 tooth instead.
6. Now replace the
I. 16 tooth gear with 15 tooth gear repeat the procedure.
II. 20 tooth gear with 16 tooth gear repeat the procedure.

Readings:
i.

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 LAB NO. 08
Center of Gravity of Irregular Lamina
Objective:
 Determination of center of gravity of irregular lamina using plumb-line method.

Overview:
 Students are expected to determine the center of gravity of irregular objects. They are
also expected to observe critically the intersection of the plumb-lines which indicate
the center of gravity of the irregular object.

Aim:
 This experiment id to help leaners determine the center of gravity of irregular objects.

Practical Skills Developed:

1. Correct tracing of plumb-lines on the cardboard using a ruler and pencil.
2. Critical observation of plumb-lines.
3. Correct location of intersection of plumb-lines.
Equipment’s:
 Cardboards of different shapes.
 Thread.
 Nail.
 Pencil.
 Rule\straight edge.
 Load (e.g. stone, wood, etc.)

Background Information:
The force of gravity acts on all bodies on earth. Every bit of mass in a body has weight. The
whole weight seems to be concentrated at a point inside or outside the body. This point is the
center of gravity of the body. The weight of or object acts through its center of gravity.
The point where the total mass of the body seems to act is the center of gravity. The center of
gravity of all bodies can be determined by balancing the body on a knife edge or by suspension
with a plumb line from several points. In most cases, the center of gravity of body lies in the
body itself. But in few cases such as the horse-shoe magnet, the retort stands, Bunsen burner,
wine glass, and conical flask, the center of gravity lies outside.

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 (A) (B)

Diagram Showing:
a. Irregular lamina with center of gravity in the body
b. An irregular lamina with the center of gravity within the body
For the center of gravity to lie outside to body itself as shown in figure 1(b), the body will
balance at any point along a vertical line passing through the center of gravity of the body.

Importance of Center of Gravity:

1. Manufactures often try to make their goods with the center of gravity as long as possible
in order to make them very stable. This is more common when it is the narrow prat of
the body that is intended for use, for example the retort stand Bunsen burner, wine glass,
conical flask, etc.
They do this by making the goods heavy t the bottom and giving them a broad base.
2. A tight rope walker often carries a weighted pole or an umbrella to help keep his center
of gravity very low vertically above the rope.
3. It helps in the designing of vehicle such as cars and busses by keeping their center of
gravity very low this is done by placing the engine very low in the car.
4. Knowledge of the importance of keeping a low center of gravity helps passenger in
small boats realize that standing up in order to change seats can be dangerous as this
rises the center of gravity and can make the boat less stable.

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Experimental Procedure:
1. Cut an irregular shape from cardboard.
2. Make three holes close to the edges of the irregularly shaped cardboard.

An Irregular Shape
3. Suspend the object of swing freely on a needle or a nail through one of the holes created
4. Attach a plumb-line to the needle or nail and mark its position on the cardboard with
the help of a rule or a straight edge.

Plumb-line attached to object

5. Repeat stapes 3 and 4 for the remaining holes, marking the position the plumb-lines
carefully.
6. Locate the intersection of the three lines drawn this indicates the center of gravity of
the object.

Intersection of lines to indicate center of gravity

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Health and Safety/Precautions:
a. The load for the plumb-line should not be too heavy to pull down or remove the nail
or needle
b. The line should be drawn with a straight edge/rule
c. The nail or pin should be firmly fixed to the wall or board
d. The plumb-line shouldn’t be swinging at the time the lines are being drawn

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 LAB NO. 09
Law of Moment and Equilibrium Conditions
Objective:
 To study the law of moment the equilibrium conditions.

Apparatus:
1. Principle of moment apparatus
2. Weight and hanger

Theory:
Law of moment:

When an object is balanced (in equilibrium) the sum of the clockwise moments is equal to the
sum of the anticlockwise moments.

Force (F1) x its distance from pivot = Force (F2) x its distance from pivot

F1. d1 = F2.d2

Equilibrium:
The state of the body at rest or in uniform motion the resultant of all forces on which is zero.

∑𝑭 = 0
∑𝑴 = 0

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Equilibrium Condition:
There are two equilibrium conditions
1. Net Force Must be Zero:
The net force acting on the object must be zero. Therefore, all forces balance in each direction.
For example, a car moving along a high way at a constant speed is in equilibrium, as it is not
Accelerating in any forward or vertical direction. Mathematically, this is stated as
Fnet=0.
2. Net Torque Must be Zero:
The second condition of static equilibrium says that the net torque acting on the object must be
zero. In this example including vertical forces, torque is also producing. And for this system to
be in equilibrium the sum of torque i.e. clockwise moments and counterclockwise moments
should be equal.

Procedure:
1. Place unequal weight on each side of the pivot.
2. Move the weights until the meter rule balances.
3. When this occurs take note of the anti-clockwise and clockwise moments.
4. Repeat several times by changing the distances on each side.

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Observation:
Force Distance A.C.W. Force Distance C.W
(F1) (D1) Moment (F2) (D2) Moment
2(N) 200mm 400(N) 1(N) 110mm 110(N)
3(N) 200mm 600(N) 2(N) 210mm 420(N)
4(N) 300mm 1200(N) 2(N) 310mm 620(N)
3(N) 350mm 1050(N) 3(N) 495mm 1485(N)
5(N) 400mm 2000(N) 4(N) 205mm 820(N)

Results:
In this experiment we observed Anti-clockwise (A.C.W) and Clockwise (C.W) moment by
changing distance (d1) and (d2) from pivot at variable magnitude of forces.

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