149

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM

REPORT
1 49
BRIDGE RAIL DESIGN
FACTORS, TRENDS, AND GUIDELINES

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 1974

Officers

JAY W. BROWN, Chairman

MILTON PrKARSKY, First Vice Chairman
W. N. CAREY, JR., Executive Director

Executive Committee
HENRIK B. STAFSETH, Executive Director, American Assn. of State Highway and Transportation Officials (ex officio)
NORBERT T. TIEMANN, Federal Highway Administrator, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio)
FRANK C. HERRINGER, Urban Mass Transportation Administrator, U.S. Department of Transportation (ex officio)
ERNST WEBER, Chairman, Division of Engineering, National Research Council (ex officio)
ALAN M. VOORHEES, President, Alan M. Voorhees and Associates (ex officio, Past Chairman 1972)
WILLIAM L. GARRISON, Director, Inst. of Transp. and Traffic Eng., University of California (ex officio, Past Chairman 1973)
JAY W. BROWN, Director of Road Operations, Florida Department of Transportation
DOUGLAS B. FUGATE, Commissioner, Virginia Department of Highways
ROGER H. GILMAN, Director of Planning and Development, The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
NEIL V. HAKALA, President, Exxon Research and Engineering Company
ALFRED HEDEFINE, Senior Vice President, Parsons, Brinckerhoff, Quade and Douglas
ROBERT N. HUNTER, Chief Engineer, Missouri State Highway Commission
GEORGE KRAMBLES, General Operations Manager, Chicago Transit Authority
SCHEFFER LANG, Assistant to the President, Association of American Railroads
BENJAMIN LAX, Director, Francis Bitter National Magnet Laboratory, Massachusetts institute of Technology
HAROLD L. MICHAEL, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University
D. GRANT MICKLE, President, Highway Users Federation for Safety and Mobility
JAMES A. MOE, Executive Engineer, Hydro and Community Facilities Division; Bechtel, inc.
ELLIOTT W. MONTROLL, Professor of Physics, University of Rochester
MILTON PIKARSKY, Chairman, Chicago Transit Authority
J. PHILLIP RICHLEY, Director of Transportation, Ohio Department of Transportation
RAYMOND T. SCHULER, Commissioner, New York State Department of Transportation
R. STOKES, Executive Director, American Public Transit Association
ROBERT N. YOUNG, Executive Director, Regional Planning Council, Baltimore, Maryland

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM

Advisory Committee
JAY W. BROWN, Florida Department of Transportation (Chairman)
MILTON PIKARSKY, Chicago Transit Authority
HENRIK E. STAFSETH, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
NORBERT T. TIEMANN, U.S. Department of Transportation
ERNST WEBER, National Research Council
ALAN M. VOORHEES, Alan M. Voorhees and Associates
WILLIAM L. GARRISON, University of California
W. N. CAREY, JR., Transportation Research Board

General Field of Design

Area of Traffic Barrier Systems
Advisory Panel C22-1 (Superseding Panels C15- 1(2) and C 12-8 combined)

W. A. GOODWIN, University of Tennessee (Chairman) C. L. HULSBOS, University of New Mexico

J. L. BEATON, California Division of Highways E. M. LAURSEN, University of Arizona
J. N. CLARY, Virginia Department of Highways D. W. LOUTZENHEISER, Federal Highway Administration
H. T. DAVIDSON, Connecticut Department of Transportation P. C. SKEELS, General Motors Proving Ground
W. B. DRAKE, Kentucky Department of Highways F. W. THORSTENSON, Minnesota Department of Highways
A. L. ELLIOTT, California Division of Highways M. WEST, Bethlehem Steel Corporation
M. D. GRAHAM, New York State Department of Transportation G. VINER, Federal Highway Administration
D. L. HAWKINS, Texas Highway Department W. J. WILKES, Federal Highway Administration
T. R. HIGGINS, American Institute of Steel Construction L. F. SPAINE, Transportation Research Board

Program Staff
K. W. HENDERSON, JR., Program Director
LOUIS M. MACGREGOR, Administrative Engineer HARRY A. SMITH, Projects Engineer
JOHN E. BURKE, Projects Engineer DAVID K. WITHEFORD, Projects Engineer
R. IAN KINGHAM, Projects Engineer HERBERT P. ORLAND, Editor
ROBERT J. REILLY, Projects Engineer PATRICIA A. PETERS, Associate Editor
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM
REPORT 149
BRIDGE RAIL DESIGN
FACTORS, TRENDS, AND GUIDELINES

ROBERT M. OLSON, DON L. IVEY, EDWARD R. POST

RICHARD H. GUNDERSON, AND AYHAN CETINER
TEXAS TRANSPORTATION INSTITUTE
TEXAS A&M RESEARCH FOUNDATION
COLLEGE STATION, TEXAS

RESEARCH SPONSORED BY THE AMERICAN

ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND
TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS IN COOPERATION
WITH THE FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION

AREAS OF INTEREST:

HIGHWAY DESIGN
BRIDGE DESIGN
HIGHWAY SAFETY

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
WASHINGTON, D.C. 1974
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM NCHRP Report 149

Systematic, well-designed research provides the most ef- Project 12-8, FY '66
fective approach to the solution of many problems facing ISBN 0-309-02209-6
highway administrators and engineers. Often, highway L. C. Catalog Card No. 74-6937
problems are of local interest and can best be studied by
highway departments individually or in cooperation with Price $4.00
their state universities and others. However, the accelerat-
ing growth of highway transportation develops increasingly
complex problems of wide interest to highway authorities.
These problems are best studied through a coordinated
program of cooperative research.
In recognition of these needs, the highway administrators Notice
of the American Association of State Highway and Trans- The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the
portation Officials initiated in 1962 an objective national National Cooperative Highway Research Program conducted by the
highway research program employing modern scientific Transportation Research Board with the approval of the Governing
Board of the National Research Council, acting in behalf of the
techniques. This program is supported on a continuing National Academy of Sciences. Such approval reflects the Governing
basis by funds from participating member states of the Board's judgment that the program concerned is of national impor-
Association and it receives the full cooperation and support tance and appropriate with respect to both the purposes and re-
sources of the National Research Council.
of the Federal Highway Administration, United States The members of the advisory committee selected to monitor this
Department of Transportation. project and to review this report were chosen for recognized
scholarly competence and with due consideration for the balance
The Transportation Research Board of the National Re- of disciplines appropriate to the project. The opinions and con-
search Council was requested by the Association to admin- clusions expressed or implied are those of the research agency that
performed the research, and, while they have been accepted as
ister the research program because of the Board's recog- appropriate by the advisory committee, they are not necessarily those
nized objectivity and understanding of modern research of the Transportation Research Board, the National Research Coun-
practices. The Board is uniquely suited for this purpose cil, the National Academy of Sciences, or the program sponsors.
Each report is reviewed and processed according to procedures
as: it maintains an extensive committee structure from established and monitored by the Report Review Committee of the
which authorities on any highway transportation subject National Academy of Sciences. Distribution of the report is ap-
may be drawn; it possesses avenues of communications and proved by the President of the Academy upon satisfactory comple-
tion of the review process.
cooperation with federal, state, and local governmental The National Research Council is the principal operating agency of
agencies, universities, and industry; its relationship to its the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of
Engineering, serving government and other organizations. The
parent organization, the National Academy of Sciences, a Transportation Research Board evolved from the 54-year-old High-
private, nonprofit institution, is an insurance of objectivity; way Research Board. The TRE incorporates all former HRB
it maintains a full-time research correlation staff of special- activities but also performs additional functions under a broader
scope involving all modes of transportation and the interactions of
ists in highway transportation matters to bring the findings transportation with society.
of research directly to those who are in a position to use
them
The program is developed on the basis of research needs
identified by chief administrators of the highway and trans-
portation departments and by committees of AASHTO.
Each year, specific areas of research needs to be included
in the program are proposed to the Academy and the Board
by the American Association of State Highway and Trans-
portation Officials. Research projects to fulfill these needs
are defined by the Board, and qualified research agencies Published reports of the
are selected from those that have submitted proposals. Ad- NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM
ministration and surveillance of research contracts are
responsibilities of the Academy and its Transportation Re- are available from:
search Board.
Transportation Research Board
The needs for highway research are many, and the National Academy of Sciences
National Cooperative Highway Research Program can 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
make significant contributions to the solution of highway Washington, D.C. 20418
transportation problems of mutual concern to many re-
sponsible groups. The program, however, is intended to (See last pages for list of published titles and prices)
complement rather than to substitute for or duplicate other
highway research programs. Printed in the United States of America.
 This report is recommended to bridge engineers, safety engineers, and others con-
FOREWORD cerned with effective traffic barriers for use on and near bridges. It contains a
By Stafi discussion of current bridge rail design procedures and nomographs that will aid
Transportation designers. In addition, information presented on vehicle characteristics and human
Research Board tolerance in coffisions should be of interest to researchers.

Highway bridge railing system designs have evolved through need and experi-
ence, but often have been based on questionable design information. In recent
years, additional information has been provided by the many full-scale crash tests
on bridge railings. Consequently, there has existed a need for assembly and cor-
relation of the information generally accepted as valid for the purpose of outlining
bridge railing service requirements. It is of prime importance to delineate the
functions that railings are expected to satisfy for various site conditions, with due
consideration being given to safety, economy, and appearance. Following the
ahievement of a valid definition of service requirements, existing and new research
data can be used to formulate comprehensive design criteria that will include
various configurations and materials.
This report presents the results of the second phase of NCHRP Project 12-8,
conducted at the Texas Transportation Institute. Phase I was a 12-month pilot
study intended to ascertain the state of the art and to identify gaps in the knowledge
concerning bridge rails. NCHRP Report 86 presented the results of Phase I, which
included: a definition of service requirements for bridge rail systems; the develop-
ment of a simple mathematical model to predict the behavior of a vehicle-guardrail
collision; a relationship between vehicle deceleration rate and occupant safety; the
formulation of structural design criteria; and a technique for determining design
loadings for bridge rails.
Phase II, which lasted 18 months, was intended to build on the findings of the
pilot study by seeking quantitative values for the bridge rail service requirements
presented in NCHRP Report 86.
The researchers collected and analyzed information concerning accidents,
vehicle characteristics, barrier configurations and heights, and the effects of curbs
and Sidewalks in an attempt to develop design criteria. However, owing to the
many varied bridge rail system geometries and the many possible vehicle configura-
tions, they were unable to generalize design conditiOns. The report presents the
information collected as a basis for others to use in future development of design
criteria. A discussion of the tolerable rates of deceleration is also included. The
investigators make recommendations for modifications in the test conditions used
for evaluating the safety performance characteristics of bridge rails. They also pre-
sent a technique for interpreting deceleration levels to arrive at an estimate of the
adequacy of barriers from the safety standpoint.
The report outlines, the current barrier design process and examines strength
and height requirements. It also updates two of the bridge rail service requirements
presented in NCHRP Report 86. The investigators found that the relevant pro-
visions of the AASHO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges are generally
adequate with respect to retaining a vehicle and preventing vaulting, but the speci-
fications offer the designer no guidance concerning the deceleration or redirection
suffered by an errant vehicle. At present, neither analytical methods nor laboratory
tests can adequately predict bridge rail performance under selected impact condi-
tions. Therefore, full-scale crash tests and accident statistics are needed to assess
the safety performance of a bridge rail design.
 CONTENTS
1 SUMMARY

PART I

2 CHAPTER ONE Introduction and Research Approach

2 CHAPTER TVO Findings
Accident Information
Vehicle Characteristics
Height of Barriers
Curbs and Sidewalks
17 CHAPTER THREE Probability of Injury
Tolerable Accelerations
A Method for Relating Deceleration to Probability of Injury
Appropriate Test Conditions
26 CHAPTER FOUR Interpretation and Appraisal
Bridge Rail Service Requirements
Discussion of Current Design Procedures
Full-Scale Prototype Testing
30 REFERENCES

PART II

32 APPENDIX A Chronological Bibliography

38 APPENDIX B Design Nomographs
43 APPENDIX C Method for Reducing, Analyzing, and Evaluating
Data from High-Speed Film
48 APPENDIX D Comparison of Predicted and Observed Average
Unit Decelerative Forces Perpendicular to Barriers
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The research reported herein was conducted at the Texas Trans-

portation Institute by the Structural Research Division. Robert
M. Olson, Research Engineer, served as principal investigator;
Don L. Ivey, Research Engineer, and Edward R. Post, Assist-
ant Research Engineer, served as co-principal investigators.
Richard H. Gunderson, Assistant Research Engineer (now a
consultant with Engineering Analysts, Inc., of Houston, Tex.),
and Ayhan Cetiner, Assistant Research Engineer, contributed
to the research effort. C. J. Keese, Director, and T. J. Hirsch,
Head of the Structural Research Division, served as technical
and administrative advisors.
Many engineers in state highway departments and in the
Federal Highway Administration gave assistance and coopera-
tion to the researchers, and their efforts are greatly appreciated.
Particular recognition is due Messrs. A. C. Estep, California
Division of Highways; W. A. Frick, Illinois Division of High-
ways; and E. M. Smith, Texas Highway Department.
 BRIDGE RAIL DESIGN
FACTORS, TRENDS, AND GUIDELINES

SUMMARY Reports of accidents in which vehicles collided with barriers on and near bridges
were examined, and factors causing the accidents were studied. From 1967 to 1969,
California and Texas experienced a notable decrease—from 52 to 13 percent and
57 to 25 percent, respectively—in the proportion of single-vehicle accidents occur-
ring at the ends of bridge rails or parapets. This probably reflects the emphasis
placed on smooth transitions and safer rail terminations. The typical bridge rail
accident involved an intermediate or standard sedan (84.3 percent of fatal acci-
dents involve passenger vehicles) traveling 63 mph on a tangent section after dark.
Of the fatal accidents with bridge rails, 4.3 percent involved truck-trailer combina-
tion vehicles. In Texas, 22 percent occurred when some form of water was on the
pavement. This percentage is rather high considering that pavements are in a wet
condition only approximately 6 percent of the time.
Automobile and truck weight and dimension records were gathered and trends
were noted concerning the current vehicle population. The median weight of a
loaded automobile has increased from 3,450 lb in the late 1930's to 3,950 lb in the
late 1960's; the range of weight for the middle 95 percent of the population has
expanded from 1,100 lb (from 3,200 to 4,300 lb) to 3,000 lb (from 2,000 to
5,000 lb). This poses a severe problem to the designer in that he must design a
barrier strong enough to withstand impacts by heavier vehicles and, at the same
time, not too formidable for impacts by smaller vehicles. Relationships between
vehicle length, width, center of gravity position, and weight are given for use by the
designer.
Contemporary practice and recent revisions in barrier height requirements are
discussed, as is the use of curbs and sidewalks on bridges. Barrier heights have
gradually increased, and the current trend is toward a height in excess of 27 in. In
general, curbs are not considered to be of value in redirecting vehicles and may
aggravate the severity of a collision by having disabled the steering mechanism or
produced a ramping condition on impact.
Probability of injury and tolerability to decelerative forces are examined in
light of current technology. A basis for comparing. the safety aspects of barriers,
which includes the effect of both longitudinal and transverse vehicle accelerations,
is developed. Current bridge rail designs are compared on this basis. Studies indi-
cate that the commonly used crash test parameters-25°, 60 mph, and 4,000 lb—
may be too severe for an appropriate safety evaluation. Test conditions of 15°,
70 mph, and 4,000 lb are recommended.
Current requirements for conducting full-scale crash tests and methods for
acquiring, analyzing, and evaluating data were studied. Recommendations for.
revising these procedures are contained in this report.
Full-scale crash testing of barriers designed in accordance with methods sug-
gested in this report is a necessary requirement for evaluating the safety aspects of
barriers proposed in the future. Such testing will be required until comprehensive
criteria have been formulated.
2

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH APPROACH

The study reported herein is a continuation of the research mation concerning collisions with bridge barrier systems;
project reported in NCHRP Report 86, "Tentative Service (2) examining the vehicle population (automobiles, trucks,
Requirements for Bridge Rail Systems" (1). The objectives and buses); (3) reviewing current technology concerning
of this continuation study were (1) to extend, and if pos- barrier design and human tolerance in collisions; and (4)
sible to quantify, the tentative requirements in order to attempting to coalesce these elements into meaningful cri-
produce design criteria; (2) to seek estimates of human teria that couldproduce safer traffic barriers.
tolerance to forces induced in collisions with barrier sys- The chapters that follow contain findings of the study,
tems on and abutting bridges; and (3) to re-examine the a discussion of probability of injury in collisions, and an
validity of the impact forces predicted by the mathemati-
interpretation and appraisal of the work. In addition to
cal model presented in NCHRP Report 86 in light of data
obtained from full-scale crash tests conducted after 1970. cited references, Appendix A lists a chronological bibli-
Information concerning development of barrier systems ography of literature pertaining to the subject of this re-
was obtained from technical publications, reports of full- port. Appendices B, C, and D, respectively, further discuss
scale crash tests, and highway departments. This informa- design nomographs; the method for reducing, analyzing,
tion was examined and appraised from the viewpoints of and evaluating data from high-speed film; and the com-
the project objectives. parison of predicted and observed average unit decelera-
The research approach consisted of (1) obtaining infor- tive forces perpendicular to barriers.

CHAPTER TWO

FINDINGS

ACCIDENT INFORMATION cidents on elevated sections and bridges was furnished by

the California Division of Highways (3), the Illinois Di-
Police investigation reports of 5,881 fatal accidents that oc-
vision of Highways (4), and the Texas Highway Depart-
curred in 1968 and 1969 on sections of the Interstate High-
ment (5). The data furnished by these agencies were care-
way System have been analyzed by Hosea (2). Nearly two-
fully examined and the results are presented in Tables 2
thirds (3,898) of the total involved only one vehicle, and
through 6. It must be emphasized that statistical signifi-
about one-half (3,078) the total were the result of the
cance has not been placed on these findings.
vehicles leaving the road. Approximately four-fifths of the
A comparison of single-vehicle fatal accidents reported
vehicles that ran off the road subsequently struck a fixed
in NCHRP Report 86 (1, p. 8) and more recent informa-
object. Thus, 2,518 (43 percent) of the total number of
tion is given in Table 2. Each of the collisions resulted
fatal accidents occurred when vehicles left the road and
struck fixed objects. The objects struck are listed in Table 1. in one or more fatalities. It is noted that 165 fatal acci-
Hosea noted: "When first impacts were guardrails, bridge dents occurred in Texas during 1967-68, resulting in 204
or overpass elements were the second objects most fre- fatalities (NCHRP Report 86 erroneously reported 204
quently struck." This tabulation does not include bridge fatal accidents). This is an average of 1.24 fatalities per
rails as a line item; however, guardrails, curbs, and di- fatal accident. A trend that may be significant is indicated
viders are structures that are often present on and near by the data from California and Texas. The percentage of
bridges and that account for half (1,062) of the 2,518 fatal accidents occurring at the end of a bridge rail or a
fatal accidents with fixed objects. In addition to these parapet decreased from 52 to 13. percent for California and
accidents, bridge and overpass elements were involved in from 57 to 25 percent for Texas from the first reporting
460 of the other collisions that resulted in fatal accidents. period to the most recent reporting period. This possibly
Figure 1 groups fatal accidents according to objects struck. reflects the emphasis that has been placed on the smooth,
Detailed information concerning single-vehicle fatal ac- structurally sound transition between guardrails on bridge
approaches and the bridge rail. This trend is not shown in TA BLE
the Illinois data where the percentage increased from 59 to FIXED OBJECTS STRUCK FIRST IN SINGLE-VEHICLE,
63 percent. OFF-TUE-ROAD FATAL ACCIDENTS ON
A comparison of estimated speeds of vehicles in colli- COMPLETED SECTIONS OF THE INTERSTATE
sions with traffic barriers is given in Table 3. The data HIGHWAY SYSTEM, 1968-69
from California and Texas indicate that nearly 80 percent
FIRST OBJECT STRUCK NUMBER PER-
of the fatal accidents occurred at speeds in excess of 50
CENT
mph. These data are presented in graphical form in Fig-
ure 2, which was produced by summing the percentages of Guardrail a 778 30.9
Bridge or overpass 460 18.3
accidents in each speed range for all four tabulated col- Sign 202 8.0
umns. This includes two periods for Texas and two pe- Embankment 201 8.0
riods for California. The frequency distribution in the Curb 146 5.8
lower portion shows a preponderance of speeds estimated Divider" 138 5.5
in the range of speeds dictated by speed limits (i.e., 50 to Pole C 130 5.2
Ditch or drain 137 5.4
70 mph). It would be interesting to compare this frequency Culvert 88 3.5
distribution with the actual distribution of speed of the Fence 51 2.0
population of vehicles on these roads. The distribution of Tree 48 1.9
fatal accident speeds may not differ significantly from the Other 139 5.5
population speed distribution. However, it should also be Total 2,518 100.0
observed that these are "estimated" speeds, which may be
subject to considerable error. The median estimated speed 'Includes cable type.
"Includes rail, concrete, and chainlink
shown by the cumulative percentage in the upper half of C Principally light poles.

Figure 2 is 63 mph. Principally right-of-way fences.

Source: Public Roads (2).
Table 4 gives some rather incomplete information con-
cerning the distribution of the types of vehicles involved in
single-vehicle fatal accidents. In order to better describe
the data, Figures 3 and 4 present cumulative frequency dis-
tribution graphs. Figure 3 presents the cumulative data
from California in 1965-67 and from Illinois in 1968 to
give an estimate of the distribution of types of passenger
vehicles, excluding buses. In Figure 4, the different types
of passenger vehicles are lumped together to provide an-
other cumulative estimate of the distribution between pas-
senger vehicles and various types of trucks. As estimated
Number of Fatal Accidents
in Figure 4, 84 precent of the vehicles involved in fatal 0 250 500 750 1000
accidents are passenger vehicles; and, from Figure 3,
75 percent of these are intermediate or standard-size pas- Guardrail
Curb or Divider
senger vehicles. Thus, approximately 60 percent of the
fatal accidents have involved intermediate or standard size
vehicles. As used here, the term passenger vehicles does Bridge or
Overpass F.lemantc
not include buses. Further, in the three stales reporting, no
fatal collisions with buses were reported.
Signs and Poles
Examination of Table 5 reveals that the majority of fatal
accidents in the three reporting states occurred after dark
when the weather was clear or cloudy on dry pavements
Ditches Drains
that contained no defects. Hosea (2) reported that more and Culverts
than half of the accidents on the Interstate system during
1968 and 1969 occurred at night. The number of vehicle-
Embankments
miles traveled during daylight is estimated at two to three
times the number of vehicle-miles traveled at night; this
suggests that the chances of a fatal accident are at least
Fences
two to three times greater at night, which may be a mani-
festation of the predominant hours for consumption of
alcohol as well as decreased visibility. 'Frees

Furthermore, the Texas data indicate that only 9 percent

of the accidents occurred on horizontally curved sections
Ocher Obstacles
of highway. Information obtained from Texas and Illinois
concerning the geometric conditions at accident sites is
given in Table 6. More than half of the accidents in Figure 1. Fatal accidents categorized by objects struck. Source:
Illinois and more than three-fourths of the accidents in Alter Hosea (2).
4

TABLE 2
COLLISIONS WITH TRAFFIC BARRIERS ON OR ADJOINING BRIDGES
IN WHICH ONE OR MORE FATALITIES OCCURRED

STATE REPORTING: CALIFORNIA ILLINOIS TEXAS

YEARS OF RECORD: 1966, 1967 1967, 1968, 1967 1968, 1969 1967, 1968' 1968, 1969
1969
COLLISIONS REPORTED: 77 184 63 73 165 146
BARRIER STRUCK NO. % NO. % NO. % NO. % NO. % NO. %
Guardrail adjoining -.
bridge rail 13b 17 44 24 13 21 25' 19 25 15 7 5
Parapet or end of
bridge rail 40 52 24 13 37 59 94 63 94 57 37 25
Bridge rail 24 31 99 54 13 20 25 18 35 21 22 15
Bridge curb NR - 17 9 NR - NR - NR - 80 55
Unknown - - - - - - - - 11 7 - -
Total 77 100 184 100 63 100 144 100 165 100 146 100
NR: No records available.
'January 1, 1967, through September 30, 1968.
Includes five collisions in which vehicle struck guardrail then later struck bridge rail.
Includes seven collisions in which vehicle struck guardrail then later struck bridge rail.

TABLE 3
ESTIMATED SPEED OF VEHICLES IN TRAFFIC BARRIER COLLISIONS
THAT PRODUCED ONE OR MORE FATALITIES

CALIFORNIA (%) TEXAS (%)

ESTIMATED SPEED
OF VEHICLE 1965-67 1967-68 ILLINOIS
(MPH) (NCHRP 86) 1967-69 (NCHRP 86) 1968-69 (%)
Standing still' - 0 - I
1-10 - 1 - 1
11-20
21-30
-1 0 - 2
0 1 2
31-40 2 2 2 3
41-50 9 8 14 13
51-60 24 23 23 23
61-70
71-75
35
10
33
23b
27
- -
30
U

75+ 17 - - -
71-80 - - 12 14 Z
80+
Unknown
-3 -4 17 6
5 5

'Vehicle standing still includes properly parked vehicles.

b Vehicle speed 71 mph and over.

Texas occurred on level stretches of roadway. Approxi- programs on barriers, the researchers addressed them-
mately 20 percent of the fatal accidents in each of these selves to the task of examining automobile characteristics
states occurred on grades; the percent of grade is not and their effects on factors, trends, and guidelines con-
indicated in these data. cerning bridge rail design. Because an additional concern
exists about truck and bus collisions with barriers, the study
VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS was extended to include these types of vehicles as well.
Because automobiles were involved in four-fifths of the Although the information presented herein is limited in
fatal accidents listed in Table 4, and because they have many respects, it provides the reader with information on
been used as the crash vehicles in most full-scale testing a cross-section of vehicles and indicates trends in vehicle
 100
5

80

30

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 6fl 70 80+ Unknown

Speed, mph
Figure 2. Distribution of speed in fatal accidents. (Adapted from Table 3 data.)

100 100
84.2
4,
a. V
1.
V
50.
a'a
V
5
a,
0
t
18.A
3,
V 6.3
0 1.7
Compacts Intermediate Station
And And Standard Wagons Semi's Single Panels Passenger Motor-
Foreign Sedans (Truck and Unit And Vehicles cycles
a. Trailer) Trucks Pickups And
Figure 3. Distribution of types of passenger vehicles for Misc.
California (1965-67) and Illinois (1968). Figure 4. Distribution of types of motor vehicles.
ri

TABLE 4
TYPES OF VEHICLES INVOLVED IN SINGLE-VEHICLE,
FATAL ACCIDENTS (PERCENT)

CALIFORNIA TEXAS ILLINOIS

1965-67 1967, 1967-68°

(NCHRP 1968, (NCHRP 1968,
VEHICLE TYPE 86) 1969 86) 1969 1967 1968
Passenger:
Standard 60 b - - - - 73 b
Compacts and
foreign 23 - - - - 8
Stationwagons 7 -
- - - -
-
4
Not stated - 83 78 1
Total 90 - 83 78 - 86
Commercial:
Panels and
pickups 4 - - - - 5
Single-unit
trucks - - 100 14° - 4
Combination (truck
and trailer) 4d - 6 7 - 2
Total 8 - 16 21 - 11
Other: -
Motorcycle and
miscellaneous 2 - 1 1 - 3

° January 1, 1967, through September 30, 1968. - - - - -

°
b Includes intermediate size automobiles.
Includes pickup trucks.
Includes single-unit trucks.

dimensions and weights as well as parameters that have not Rasmussen, et al., provide some rather informative data
appeared in other studies. concerning "conventional domestic passenger cars." The
following excerpts give the data that are of most interest
Automobiles to the designer of bridge rails. The values presented are for
vehicles in curb condition with full gas tank and no pas-
A great deal of information is available on automobile
sengers, which are the conditions found in most crash tests
dimensions and weights—items that are easily measured. In
on barriers.
contrast, there seems to be a dearth of information on auto-
mobile dynamic properties. A gentle remonstration is given The vehicles measured were domestic production ve-
to the would-be dynamicist by Rasmussen, et al. (6) hicles. The vehicle sample was bracketed by the fol-
lowing general characteristics:
Modern research directed at obtaining a quantitative Style Curb Weight Wheelbase
technical understanding of the dynamic motions of road 2-Door hardtop 2,600 lb 108 in.
vehicles dates from the early 1950's. At first, only a few to to to
rather separated groups were working actively in this Station wagon 4,800 lb 129 in.
field, but more recently, a number of industry, univer-
sity, government, and independent research organiza- The drive train in these vehicles varied from "front
tions have become involved with vehicle dynamics work. engine-front drive (1 vehicle) to front engine-rear drive to
There is a rather consistent pattern to the activities of rear engine-rear drive (1 vehicle)," according to Rasmus-
any organization starting to work in the field of vehicle sen, et al., who described the location of the center of
dynamics. gravity as follows: -
Large and complex mathematical models are
derived. Vehicle curb center of gravity location is a parameter
that is intrinsic to a given vehicle and can not be esti-
Extensive computer programs are written.
mated without a complete set of pertinent data on that
In some cases, sophisticated driving simulation vehicle. The fore-aft weight distribution of the front
devices are designed. engine-rear drive vehicles measured -varied from 44 to
A search for vehicle and tire parameters to in- 56% front. If front engine-front drive and rear engine-
sert in the equations begins. rear drive cars are included, the range was extended
The dynamicist is usually surprised to find that the last from 61% front to 3 7 % front.
step is the most expensive and time consuming task of The center of gravity height is again a property of a
the four. given car and cannot be readily estimated. The total
 7

TABLE 5 TABLE 6
ENVIRONMENTAL AND ROADWAY CONDITIONS GEOMETRIC CONDITIONS AT SITES OF
EXISTING WHEN A FATAL ACCIDENT OCCURRED FATAL ACCIDENTS IN VICINITY OF BRIDGE

FATAL ACCIDENTS (%) FATAL ACCIDENTS (%)

CONDITIONS ILLINOIS CALIFORNIA TEXAS ALIGNMENT TEXS ' ILLINOIS CALIFORNIA

Weather: Level: 78 51
Clear (including cloudy)
Raining
74
14
85
11
82
11
Straight
Curved
69
9
-
- -
-
Snowing 3 1 3
Grade: 19 21 -
Fog
Wind, blowing dust -1 2
1
2
0 Straight 14 -
- -
-
Smoke - 0 0 Curved 5
Not stated 8 0 0 Hillcrest:
Straight
3
3
4
- -
-
Light:
Daylight 35 32 45 Curved 0 - -
Dusk or dawn
Dark
6
58
3
65
3
52
Unknown - 24 -
Not stated I - - 'Includes accident data from rural areas and for cities having
Pavement: populations of, or fewer than, 5,000 citizens.
b California has no data.
Dry 70 84 80
Wet 18 15 14
Snow 6' 1 1
Frost or ice
Not stated
-6 -0
-5
Road: matical equations and that do not require computer solu-
_b
No defects 87 84 tions are later presented. In short, estimates are provided
Holes, ruts, etc.
Defective shoulders
-1 -
- -
- of average impact forces on barriers from the instant of
Foreign material
Flooded pavement
1
1
-
- -1 impact of a vehicle until the time the vehicle becomes par-
allel to the barrier. These estimates are based on the theo-
Slick surface
Loose gravel
7
1
-
- -7 retical considerations presented in NCHRP Report 86 and
are extended to include several automobiles, trucks, and
Narrow bridge
Road under construction
I
1
-
- -8
school buses. During the course of the current study, the
reports of many earlier engineers concerned with highway
Includes icy condition. design and highway safety were examined. A report by
"California has no data Barnett, who sought a method to describe design loads for
guardrails, was informative.
In 1939, Joseph Barnett (7) reported the results of a
study of the weight distribution of new automobiles regis-
tered during 1936, 1937, and 1938. Figure 5 shows the
vehicle center of gravity height at curb trim for the
above mentioned range of vehicles can vary from ap- resulting distribution of weights as a solid line, any point
proximately 19 to 24 inches above ground. Center of of which gives the percentage of all automobiles weighing
gravity height varies directly with the vehicle trim less than the loaded weight shown. Allowances of 150 lb
height. for water, gas, and oil and 400 lb for passengers and
The lateral center of gravity location can be considered baggage were made.
to be on the vehicle longitudinal center-line for most The dashed line of Figure 5 represents the distribution
ride or handling analyses.
of weights of automobiles taken from a 1937 report of the
Thus, ranges of properties are presented in the report, State-Wide Planning Survey of Iowa. All automobiles (re-
and the summary emphasizes: gardless of age, condition, or load) were weighed at three
A given vehicle might have parameters that fall at one pit-scale stations; 1920 to 1937 models were included in the
end of the range for one parameter and at the opposite survey.
end for another. The particular values of each parameter A review of information published in Automotive Indus-
will depend on the compromises and constraints under tries (8) for the years 1965 through 1968 is plotted as a
which that vehicle was designed.
broken line in Figure 5. The 550-lb allowance for gaso-
The report contains other vehicle parameter ranges for line and passengers assumed by Barnett was added to the
mass moments of inertia and ride characteristics, but no- shipping weight reported in the magazine.
where in the report are the various parameters determined It is interesting to note that the automobile weight dis-
referred to any specific vehicle. Thus it becomes necessary, tribution between 1920 and 1937 remained fairly con-
when trying to use the information in specific vehicle dy- sistent; however, the weight distribution of automobiles for
namics problems, to construct hypothetical vehicles rather the years 1965 through 1968 shows a marked variation
than real ones. This is a serious limitation of usefulness. from the earlier models. The later curve reveals that ap-
Some relationships that are not based on complex mathe- proximately 15 percent of the newer cars weigh less than
U.,
U)
Ui
/
-J

z 80

NEW CAR REGISTRATIONS

Ui3 1936, 1937, and 1938 (7) 7'
3o
W Cn 60
cn
0 1/
O
R //
4 z 40
U-
0
Ui
4
IOWA PLANNING
SURVEY DATA 1937 (1'
/ / "AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRIES" DATA
1965, 1966, 1967, and 1968 (8)
1/

20
0
cr -
QL
- I

0
2200 2600 3000 3400 3800 4200 4600 5000 5400
LOADED WEIGHT OF AUTOMOBILES (LBS)
Figure 5. Distribution of weights of automobiles.

3,000 lb and that the majority of the newer automobiles parameter were not available, the values for height of cen-
are heavier than those of the 1920's and 30's. ter of gravity (19 to 24 in.) and lateral location at mid-
Barnett also made estimates of the location of the center width of an automobile are those of Rasmussen, et al. (6).
of gravity of automobiles and discussed other parameters, Their values for weight distribution for front engine-rear
such as kinetic energy of an automobile in a collision with drive cars were employed in Table 7. (Being aware of their
a guardrail. Taking a case from his study, additional in- caveat that location of center of gravity ". . . is intrinsic
formation on the dimensions of contemporary automobiles to a given vehicle . . ." the researchers, who were seeking
was sought. trends, did not use this value in complex mathematical
Observation of automobiles in operation on highways models.) The location of the center of gravity was com-
leads one to conclude, in general, that as weight increases puted for the automobiles shown, and the arithmetic mean,
length increases. This observation was tested by tabulating or average values, is tabulated. Overhang values were not
the over-all lengths and shipping weights of new automo- published for later model cars, so the study was limited to
biles registered in the United States during the years 1965 1965 models. The distribution of the weight of the ve-
through 1969. These data were plotted on semilog paper, hicle (50 percent front, 50 percent rear) is mathematically
as shown in Figure 6. The plotted points represent a sam- equivalent to using the upper and lower values established
ple of 212 automobiles (54 models) produced by 6 manu- by Rasmussen, et al.
facturers (American, Chrysler, Ford, General Motors,
Trucks
Volkswagen, and Simca) (8). The solid straight line was
visually fitted to show the trend of the data and to aid in The information presented on weights and dimensions of
making the nomographs presented in Appendix B. automobiles indicates a wide, but reasonable, range of
A semilog plot of automobile weights as a function of values. Determination of similar information on trucks was
over-all width is shown in Figure 7. The two solid lines attempted; however, the range of dimensions and parame-
have no statistical significance, but indicate the trend of the ters was too broad. For example, the initial effort to ex-
data. The data points were obtained from the same source amine the available data for both single-unit (SU) trucks
referenced above. It is interesting to note that more than and truck combinations (tractor with semi-trailer, either
50 automobiles have a width of approximately 80 in. and with or without a full trailer) was finally narrowed to
range in weight from 3,800 to 5,500 lb and that none of the single-unit trucks excluding pickup trucks. Because their
cars exceeded 80 in. in width (9, 10). population is significant, pickup trucks should be consid-
Next was an attempt to locate the center of gravity of ered as a separate class.
contemporary automobiles. Because tabulated data on this Sales brochures for 1970-model International, Ford,
 600C

500C

.a
.

U)

3000
ex

500
60 70 180 190 200 210 220 230 Z40

L, VEHICLE OVERALL LENGTH (inches)

Figure 6. Relationship between manufacturer's shipping weight of vehicle and its over-all length.

Chevrolet, Mack, White, and GMC trucks gave their di- 6000

mensions, gross weights, and maximum axle loads. The

fore-and- aft location of the center of gravity was computed
by using these weights and dimensions, and assuming the 5000

moment about the front axle to be zero, from

_RRXWB
1
() 400
GVW
in which
i= distance from front axle to center of gravity;
RR - rear axle capacity, or rear axle supporting force;
WB = wheelbase; and
1 3000

GVW = gross vehicle weight.

The value for x was verified by summing moments about
the rear axle. The distance (AL) of the center of gravity
aft of the forward bumper point was computed by adding
the overhang (OH) dimension to the computed value of Z
In calculations made for tandem-axle vehicles, the rear
supporting force RR was assumed to act as shown in Fig-
ure 8. More than 300 computations were made, and sam-
ples are given in Table 8. The values are based on the I500
assumption that the gross vehicle weight is distributed 60 65 70 75 80 85

according to axle capacity and, hence, is not representative

28, VEHICLE WiDTH (inches)
of single-unit truck loads on the highways. Arithmetic
mean values were computed to serve as an estimate of Figure 7. Relationship between manufacturer's shipping weight
center of gravity locations, and the values for coefficient A of vehicle and its over-all width.
10

TABLE 7 482 (11) as given in Table 9. For the same speed and
POSITION OF CENTER OF GRAVITY angle of impact, the 18,000-lb truck has an average im-
OF AUTOMOBILES pact load on a rigid barrier of 97 kips while the 60,000-lb
truck has an average impact force on a rigid barrier of
From Statics: 226 kips. The values given are for a rigid barrier and
AL assume that the truck does not climb up and over the
=-
i- (c+bl) barrier and that adequate height of barrier is available to
redirect the truck. The latter requirement led the research-
ers to consider barrier height.

HEIGHT OF BARRIERS

AASHO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges

requires:
The height of traffic railing shall be no less than 2'-3",
measured from the top of the roadway, or curb, to the
top of the upper rail member. (12, p. 6)
A review of drawings of standard bridge traffic barriers
from several states reveals that most installations meet this
minimum requirement. Measurements of bridge barriers
installed in more than 20 states indicate that a height of
27 in. prevails in recent installations.
VEHICLE PROPERTIES The question is raised frequently as to whether this
c I L minimum height is adequate from the viewpoint of safety.
VEHICLE a b (IN.) (IN.) (IN.) A A progress report by Graham on New York's Highway
Ford (Falcon)- 0.50 0.50 29 110 182 0.46 Barrier Research Program states that it is not.
Ford (Mustang) 34 108 182 0.48 The height of all of our systems needed to be iñcrëased
Ford (Fairlane) 31 116 199 0.44 due to the tendency of late-model cars to get over them
Ford (54Ser.) 34 119 210 0.45 during certain types of collisions. (13, p. 3)
Ford (T-Bird) 38 113 205 0.46
Mercury (Comet) 31 114 195 0.45 The report continues:
Mercury (50 Ser.) 37 123 218 0.45
Lincoln (53ASer.) 37 126 216 0.46 Our analysis of barrier accidents disclosed that a surpris-
Rambler (Amer.) 29 106 177 0.46 ing percentage of vehicles were going over the installa-
Rambler (Classic) 31 112 195 0.45 tion during collision. This was true of all of our systems,
Rambler (Ambass.) 31 116 200 0.44 old and new, but was most prevalent with the W-beasn.
Plymouth (Valiant) 33 106 188 0.46 No difficulty was reported with vehicles getting under the
Plymouth (Belv.) 33 116 203 0.45 rail. Of course, none would be expected with our new
Plymouth (Fury) 35 119 209 0.45 configurations because the exclusive use of the light-
Chrysler (All) 35 124 218 0.45 weight post permits the vehicle to make post contact
Dodge (Dart) 34 111 196 0.46 without the risk of snagging or spin-out. In order to
Dodge (Coronet) 34 117 204 0.46 minimize this vaulting tendency we investigated the fea-
Dodge (AD 2 Ser.) 0.50 0.50 36 121 212 0.46 sibility of increasing the height of our systems.
Graham then describes the erection of a series of physi-
Arithmetic Mean =Average: 0.455
cal models of W-beam guiderails installed at heights of
* The position of the center of gravity was determined for various
27, 30, and 33 in. Automobiles and trucks were photo-
1965 four-door passenger vehicles using statistical data published by graphed adjacent to these models, and Graham states:
Automotive Industries (8). No data was available on the amount of
overhang for vehicles manufactured by General Motors Corp. These pictures demonstrate quite clearly that the 27-inch
height is certainly questionable for passenger cars and
much too low for trucks. Furthermore, the shape of the
automobile bumpers on recent vintage cars slopes up and
given in the table have been used in developing nomo- out in sort of a "ski" effect which tends to assist the ve-
hicle in moving up and over the rail. We also found
graphs presented in Appendix B. that the chassis of passenger automobiles can be raised
The transverse center of gravity is probably at mid- as much as 6 inches while the wheel is still in contact
width in trucks loaded to capacity. The height of the cen- with the ground which we believe may happen in some
ter of gravity varies from about 3 ft (unloaded small barrier accidents. As a result of this combination of ve-
hicle features the car in some collisions strikes the bar-
trucks) to over 8 ft in large trucks, which, as Barnett wrote rier near the top of the rail with its suspension extended
in 1939, ". . . is about all we can say about this value at and the shape of the bumper causes the vehicle to vault
present") (7, p. 142). over the barrier. On the basis of this preliminary inves-
Using Eq. 5 in NCHRP Report 86 (1, p. 12), the esti- tigation and the knowledge that wheel contact was not
mated impact load imparted by a single-unit truck can be a problem with our lightweight posts, we ran two addi-
tional tests on W-beam guiderail mounted at a height of
compared to the crash test conditions (4,000-lb passenger 33 inches. Our full-scale test results at 60 miles per hour
vehicle at 60 mph, and 25) suggested in HRB Circular and 25° with a standard passenger vehicle and a sports
 11

SINGLE REAR AXLE (CAB OVER)

w avw

TWO REAR AXLES (CAB OVER)

;Gvw
SCG

X I 2B
AL
WB
>1
L

THREE REAR AXLES (CONVENTIONAL CAB)

Figure . Typical single-unit trucks.
12

TABLE 8
WEIGHTS, DIMENSIONS, AND LOCATIONS OF CENTER OF GRAVITY FOR SEVERAL
SINGLE-UNIT TRUCKS (1970 MODELS)

AXLE CAPACITY
COMPUTED PARAMETERS
LISTED BY DIMENSIONS LISTED BY MANUFACTURER
GROSS MANUFACTURER _______________________________
LOCATION OF
VEHICLE ________________ OVER- WHEEL- OVERALL
CENTER OF GRAVITY
WEIGHT, FRONT, REAR, HANG, BASE, LENGTH, WIDTH,
GVW R. Rn Oil WB L 2B X AL
(LB) (LB) (LB) (IN.) (IN.) (IN.) (IN.) (IN.) (IN.) A
20,000 5,000 15,000 24.9 127 183.7 90.0 - 95.3 120.1 0.655
24,000 7,000 17,000 27.6 127 186.5 90.0 90.0 117.6 0.633
32,000 9,000 23,000 25.2 132 191.5 94.0 94.9 120.1 0.628
Zn
41,000 12,000 29,000 45.2 137 258.5 92.0 111.0 156.4 0.605
22,000 7,000 15,000 53.0 89 174.0 95.3 60.7 113.7 0.653
24,000 7,000 17,000 53.0 89 174.0 95.3 63.0 116.0 0.667 u
30,500 7,500 23,000 54.5 99 187.5 89.1 74.7 129.2 0.689
35,000 12,000 23,000 28.5 106 166.0 95.0 69.7 98.2 0.592
39,000 9,000 30,000 28.5 136 216.0 95.5 104.6 133.1 0.617
46,000 12,000 34,000 28.5 140 217.5 95.5 103.5 132.0 0.607
Z t H
50,000 12,000 38,000 45.4 157 268.2 92.0 119.3 164.7 0.613
- Z
66,000 16,000 50,000 56.1 157 279.0 92.0 118.91 174.0 0.624 8
39,000 9,000 30,000 54.5 129 261.5 89.1 99.2 153.7 0.588 g o
43,000 9,000 34,000 54.5 147 279.5 89.1 116.2 170.7 - 0.611 0
no
46,000 12,000 34,000 28.5 142 219.0 95.0 105.0 133.5 0.609
55,000 16,000 39,000 40.6 187 306.6 96.0 132.6 173.2 0.564
Zn
58,000 16,000 42,000 40.6 187 306.6 96.0 135.4 176.0 0.574 8

car showed the performance to be practically identical to This progress report was concerned with guiderails and
similar tests at 30, 27, and 24-inch heights. These data median barriers; however, as bridge rails abut such bar-
satisfied us that the ability of this barrier to properly
redirect vehicles under normal test conditions is rela- riers, the findings may be generally applicable to barriers.
tively insensitive to rail height between 24 and 33 inches. Nordlin, et al., reported the results of dynamic full-scale
Consequently, we have raised all our systems. The new impact tests of bridge barriers and found that an over-all
heights of our various guiderail and median barrier de-
signs are shown . . . [see Table 10].

TABLE 10
EXISTING AND PROPOSED MOUNTING HEIGHTS
TABLE 9
AVERAGE IMPACT FORCES OF TRUCKS MOUNTING HEIGHT (IN.)
COMPARED WITH AUTOMOBILES
BARRIER EXISTING PROPOSED

COLLISION Guiderail:
AVERAGE 300
VEHICLE CONDITIONS Cable 27
LATERAL
W-beam 27 33
IMPACT IMPACT 30b
6x6 Box beam 27
WEIGHT SPEED ANGLE FORCE
(0) (laPs)
TYPE (LB) (MPH) Median barrier:
W-beam 29 33
Automobile 4,000 60 25 28 6x8 Box beam 27 30
Truck 18,000 60 25 97
0To center of top cable.
Truck 60,000 60 25 226 b Box guiderail at 33 in. outside superelevated curves
Source: After Ref. 13, p. 6.
 13

barrier height of 36 to 43 in. is adequate (/4, p. 140). The CURBS AND SIDEWALKS
determination of minimum effective height was not made,
NCHRP Report 86 (1, p. 3 1 ) gives recommendations con-
thus there is no conflict between this finding and the find-
ings of Graham. cerning construction of curbs. The recommendations are
based on crash test information. A closer examination of
Lundstrom, et al., described the development at the
current specifications, policies, and published reports is
General Motors Proving Ground of a sloped-face parapet,
warranted in a study aimed at establishing design criteria.
shown in Figure 9.
Specifications
It was fully realized that the 32-in, height of the con-
crete wall was not sufficient to guarantee that larger Article 1.1.8 of AASHO Standard Specifications for High-
trucks would be safe. Accordingly, a pipe rail was in- way Bridges (12) states:
stalled on top to provide a higher barrier. . . . (15,
p. 179) The face of the curb is defined as the vertical or sloping
surface on the roadway side of the curb. Horizontal
The resulting height of the "GM barrier" is approxi- measurements of roadway and curb width are given
mately4½ ft. from the bottom [sic] of the face, or, in the case of
stepped back curbs, from the bottom of the lower face
Another example of a sloped-face concrete parapet, for roadway width. Maximum width of brush curbs, if
which has been subjected to full-scale dynamic tests, is the used, shall be 9 inches.
California Type 20 bridge barrier railing also shown in
Where curb and gutter sections are used on the roadway
Figure 9. It has an over-all height of 39 in. Nordlin, et al., approach, at either or both ends of the bridge, the curb
stated: height on the bridge may match the curb height on the
roadway approach, or if preferred, it may be made
The Type 20 design provides better "see-through" char- higher than the approach curb. Where no curbs are used
acteristics than the General Motors design because the on the roadway approaches, the height of the bridge
over-all height is about 16 in. less, the concrete parapet curb above the roadway shall be not less than 8 inches,
is about 5 in. lower, and the steel rail is narrower. (16, and preferably not more than 10 inches.
p. 58)
Where sidewalks are warranted for pedestrian traffic on
Examination of standard drawings of barriers being in- urban expressways, they shall be separated from the
bridge roadway by the use of a traffic or combination
stalled by state highway departments reveals that heights railing as shown in Figure 1.19.'
vary from a minimum of 27 in. to those in excess of 40 in.
A recent FHWA notice (EN-20) concerning concrete Policies
median barriers and bridge parapets suggests that total Designers of traffic barriers for use on and near bridges
bridge parapet height (for sloped-face concrete barriers) must meet the provisions of the Specifications and follow
should be 32 in. minimum. The notice contains a summary the requirements of the AASHO Policy on Geometric
of current designs from several states that indicates that Design of Rural Highways (Blue Book), which states:
several highway departments construct a metal railing on Where full shoulders are provided safety curbs may or
top of sloped-faced parapet on bridges. * Figure 1.1.9 of the Specifications is reproduced here as Figure 10.

-60 -
HEIGHT OF TRAFFIC 5' EXTRA HEAVY
BARRIER (INCHES) frSTEEL PIPE RAILING
50 -
AST STEEL POST
40
8t...j 11.5 6'x 2'x 1/4 61. x 2"x I/4',,_..._l
CLASS A_STRUcTURAL PIPE STRUCTURAL TUBE ,I
30—
EEP BE '. :.
WELDED STE
RAIL
RAIL POST
citTD
CIJ

35
W 4 BOLT
IANCHORAGI

...O .p.•4.'4•
I
TEXAS T—1 CALIF. TYPE 9 MODIFIED GENERAL MOTORS CALIF. TYPE 20
BRIDGE RAIL NEW JERSEY PROViNG GROUND
BRIDGE BARRIER BRIDGE BARRIER
MEDIAN BARRIER
(JUNE , 1970) RAILING (MAY, 1967) CONCRETE PARAPET RAILING (APRIL,1969)
(TESTED BY CItH.,
1967) (1965)

Figure 9. Comparative heights of rigid traffic barriers.

14

With simultaneous longitudinal load of /2 this amount, divided

among posts in a Continuous roil length.

* * P
PS
/ - ' F'12
T'
a
• I2 CI 0

cjI
(t LL Optional

Rail heights shown shall be measured from top of curb if the curb width exceeds
sin inches, but from the lop of roadway if the curb width is six inches or less.

TRAFFIC RAILING

i- !4 . 1W w
r
- -
ci J Tfl

In

CY

TLflL
COMBINATION RAILING
JLb95rali05

1w
w w wI

I
I w
''
r—i I 1w

'

,?l Iwl 1111

-"I 1+1
'j_....._.Walltway Surface

j O
L
PEDESTRIAN RAILING
P • 10,000 lbs. Note: The shapes of roil members
L • Post spacing for Traffic B Combination Roiling, are illustrative only. Any material
* 50 lbs. per un. ft. or combination of materials
Post spacing for Pedestrian Railing, listed in Article 1.1.9 may be
Rail load shown on left, used in any configuration.
Post load shown on right.

Figure 10. Railing configurations. Source: Ref. 12, p. 7.

may not be used as shown in alternate I and alternate This represents a movement away from the use of safety
II of Figure IX-7A. [See Fig. 11.] curbs on the part of bridge engineers. Therefore, an obvi-
Figure LX-7A shows the case where the shoulder on the ous inconsistency exists between the Blue Book and the
approach highway is flush with the traveled way, which Bridge Specifications, an inconsistency that should be
is the usual case. If curbs are used on the approaches rectified.
to a short overpass they preferably should be carried
across the structure without lateral deviation. Such Crash Tests
curbs should be mountable, and the clearance from the
through pavement to the face of parapet or rail, or face For more than 15 years, full-scale crash tests of bridge
of safety walk if one is used, should be the same as for traffic barriers having curbs or curbs and sidewalks have
the case with no curbs on the approaches. (17, p. 515)
been conducted, and some observations by the researchers
The term "safety curb" was defined in the ninth edition deserve consideration.
of the AASHO Bridge Specifications, as follows: Beaton and Peterson (19) reported on dynamic testing
of various curbing designs in 1953. These studies led
Curbs widened to provide for occasional pedestrian traf- Beaton (20) to conduct further full-scale dynamic tests of
fic shall be designated "safety curbs." Safety curbs shall
be not less than 1'6" wide. (18) bridge curbs and rails and concrete bridge rails having a
variety of curbing configurations. Later tests on barriers
It is significant to note that the term safety curb does not having a rubbing curb (see Fig. 12) led Nordlin, et al., to
appear in the tenth edition of the Bridge Specifications. conclude:
 111

LEFT CLEARANCE RIGHT CLEARANCE

ALTERNATE I ALTERNATE II ALTERNATE I ALTERNATE U

APPROACH SHOULDER APPROACH SHOULDER ,APPROACH SHOULDER WIDTH

WIDTH DES. AND MIN. WIDTH DES. AND MIN.
.5 SAFETY . . .5 SAFETY
CURB THROUGH CURB
THROUGH THROUGH THROUGH
(PAVEMENT PAVEMENT PAVEMENT PAVEMENT_______
//)///// /1/1/
ON LOW VOLUME.ROADS 3.5 DES., 2.5MIN.

A. ALL SHORT STRUCTURES, AND THOSE LONG STRUCTURES

(EXCEPT WITH LONG SPANS) WHICH HAVE A RATIO OF DHV TO CAPACITY GREATER THAN 0.75
4.5' DES. 4.5 DES. , 4.5 DES.
3.0 DES. E5. 3.0' MIN. DES. 1.5' SAFETY 3.5' MIN.
35 MIN.
I 5 SAFETY , CURB
CURB
THROUGH r THROUGH THROUGH fl THROUGH
VEMENT . 11 VEMENT PAVEMENT ,-J PAVEMENT

MINIMUM ON LOW VOLUME ROADS I LESS

LONG SPAN STRUCTURES, AND OTHER LONG STRUCTURES

WITH RATIO OF DHV TO CAPACITY OF LESS THAN 0.75
3.0 DES. . 1.5 SAFETY CURB
2.0 MIN. I .5.0 DES. 1.5 SAFETY
I ,AUXILIARY LANE
/ 3.0 DES. 5.0 DES.
/_-o.O MIN. 2.0' MIN'N 0.0 MIN\,— CURB
I I I I
Ii ['THROUGH
PAVEMENT
THROUGH
PAVEMENT7

i/i//i/i//I
THROUGH
PAVEMENT

///i//'ii.
THROUGH
AVEMENT

'/1//I//i//i

LONG AND SHORT STRUCTURES WITH AUXILIARY LANES

CLEARANCES AT OVERPASSES
Figure 11. Permissible configurations. Source: Ref. 17, p. 516.

_ H1
-------
0 to
T 1j
OD IxI
--
18
OD *4(6Req.)
*4(6Req.) atI8'
*4 at 18"-44
I". -i
:::t:1ii
IH' *4at
I'I
i "I[
0

6—*6 at 12"
F 1" 4at 18' 144 at I ---I

A. CALIFORNIA STANDARD B. CALIFORNIA STANDARD C. EXPERIMENTAL

BRIDGE BARRIER RAILING BRIDGE BARRIER RAILING BRIDGE BARRIER RAILING
TYPE I . TYPE 2 MODIFIED TYPE 1
Figure 12. 1963 bridge barrier rail tests. Source: Ref. 14, p. 145.
16

Based on the results of this test series on the Type 1 and Impacts against a 6-in, curb without any railing were per-
Modified 1 bridge barrier rails, the rubbing curb is con- formed in a car controlled by a driver. These tests
sidered an unnecessary feature that complicates the showed that a 6-in, high curb had almost no effect on
forming for construction and adds to the cost. This rub- the steering system. The 6-in, curb also had very little
bing curb does not function as a wheel deflector as origi- effect on the vehicle motion during several shallow-angle
nally intended. In all but the most narrow-angle, low- low-speed impacts. It was concluded that a 6-in, curb
speed contacts, the front and side overhang on the mod- should not affect the motion of a car striking a box beam
em domestic passenger vehicle prevents the tire from bridge rail if the rails were mounted close enough to the
contacting this curb before the body scrapes the parapet. face of the curb to prevent car "jump" due to recovery
Should the face be extended to more than the present of the suspension system. To verify this the bridge rail
4 in., in an attempt to redirect the vehicle wheel in cas- used in Tests 31 and 32 was erected on a curb 6 in. high
ual impacts, there is a strong possibility that a vehicle for full-scale tests. (21, p. 133)
contacting the Type 1 at a narrow angle would mount
the curb, climb the 21-in, high parapet, and vault the Four tests were performed on the 6-in, high curb, and it
barrier. Therefore, if a wider rubbing curb is desired, was noted that:
the parapet wall should be 28 in. high as provided in the
Type 2 design. (14, p. 140) As predicted, the 6-in, curb had no noticeable effect on
vehicle reactions. (21, p. 138)
SUMMARY STATEMENT: Rubbing curbs are unneces-
sary features and may contribute to ramping at low impact Tests 44 and 45 demonstrated that the box beam bridge
angles. rail can redirect a car as well as can a 10-in. high curb
during mild impacts. Test 47 and several low-speed,
Graham, et al., reported the results of tests on barriers low-angle tests showed that a car is not adversely af-
having curbs; these tests are summarized in Table 11. They fected by a curb 6 in. high. (21, p. 138-139)
observed:
SUMMARY STATEMENT: A 10-in, curb causes con-
The 10-in, high curb caused considerable steering damage siderable steering damage and contributes to car "jump"
and it was problematical where the car would stop after when the curb is offset from the face of the bridge rail. A
a severe collision with this height of curb. It was ob-
6-in, curb has no noticeable effect on vehicle reactions, pro-
served that car "jump" only occurred where the curb is
offset from face of rail enough to allow the suspension viding the curb is close enough to the rail to prevent car
system to recover before the car strikes the rail. "jump."

TABLE 11
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FROM CRASH TESTS WITH
BARRIERS MOUNTED ON CURBS

IMPACT CURB
CONDITIONS DIMENSIONS
(IN.)
TEST SPEED ANGLE
NO. (MPH) (DEG) a b REMARKS

10 61 27 10 60 When the test car traversed the S-ft wide sidewalk,

it did not jump. (21, p. 117) The 10-in, high
curb damaged the steering system. (21, p. 117)
11 51 28 10 20 The 10-in, high curb damaged the steering system.
(21, p. 117)
16 29 22 10 20 (14,000-lb school bus) The front wheel mounted
the curb, . . . (21, p. 117)
29 45 35 10 18 The steering system was badly damaged by the 10-
in, curb. . . . (21, p. 139)
30 55 25 10 18
31 60 25 10 20 The damage to the front wheel caused the car to
32 61 25 10 20 veer away from the rail in test 31 and toward
the rail in test 32 after the car left the rail....
(21, p. 127)
44 31 7 6 6 Vehicle damage was slight enough so that the
45 53 7 6 6 same car was used for both tests [44 and 45]
and was driveable after the second test. (21,
p. 133, 138)
47 40 25 6 6 . . . a previously damaged car was used. However,
the steering was not further damaged, and the
car was driven away after the test. (21, p. 138)
48 45 35 6 6 . . . the 6-in, high curb had no noticeable effect on
vehicle reactions. (21, p. 138)
 17

CHAPTER THREE

PROBABILITY OF INJURY

TOLERABLE ACCELERATIONS tenuous nature of injury predictions based on acceleration

levels. With data subject to this type of scatter, an alternate
Once it became popular to characterize accident severity
method of interpreting deceleration levels based on "prob-
in terms of the accelerations imparted to the automobile,
ability of injury" has been devised and is presented in the
there has existed an apparently irresistible urge for techni-
following paragraphs.
cal writers to set acceleration tolerance limits. Most of
these published tolerance limits were based on the work
A METHOD FOR RELATING DECELERATION TO
of Ruff (22), Stapp (23, 24), Headley (25), and Zabo-
PROBABILITY OF INJURY
rowski (26, 27). These publications cover the significant
empirical research programs that have been conducted on Michaiski (32) reported the results of a field study con-
live humans. The conclusions developed in these programs ducted in Oregon in 1967, in which injuries sustained in
applied to healthy, adult males. In all cases, the only 951 traffic accidents were related to vehicle damage. Later,
acceleration effects observed were those of the acceleration Olson (1) used the National Safety Council (NSC) photo-
environment on elements of the body and the interaction graphic damage rating scales (33) to connect probability
of the body with lap belt, shoulder harness, and seat. Inter- of injury, vehicle damage rating, and deceleration. The
actions with surrounding objects, such as those found in the connection was made by comparing photographs of auto-
interior of an automobile, were not a factor in these ex- mobiles damaged in crash tests, in which decelerations were
periments. It is therefore recognized that extrapolation of recorded, with photographs contained in the NSC bulletin.
these data to predict injury of passengers in a vehicle sub- Olson suggested the following equations:
jected to specified accelerations is an unpromising task. To
illustrate the tenuous nature of predictions of this sort, two G15 - 10.0 P15. (2)
accidents will be described. Both incidents involved ve- Gio,ig = 13.7 1'long.
hicles crashing head-on into barrel crash cushions (28),
which are used widely at elevated gores in Texas and are in which
installed at other sites throughout the United States (29). = average lateral deceleration;
7iat.
The purpose of these cushions is to decelerate an impacting Gioi,g = average longitudinal deceleration;
vehicle at a rate that is survivable for occupants.
'la, probability of injury due to lateral acceleration;
On October 12, 1969, a 1968 sedan crashed into a barrel and
crash cushion in Houston, Texas (30). The speed of the
'long. = probability of injury due to longitudinal accel-
vehicle was at least 70 m ph.* The measured stopping dis-
eration.
tance of 17 ft resulted in an average deceleration of ap-
proximately 9.5 g. Neither the 20-year-old male driver nor The confidence limits of these equations are large because
the 15-year-old female passenger wore seat belts or shoulder of the small number of tests in which decelerations were
harnesses. Injuries experienced by the male consisted of a recorded, the type of object struck in the tests, and varia-
broken nose and rib. The female suffered a broken collar tions in interpreting "front-end damage" and "front-quarter
bone. damage" as defined in the NSC bulletin. The arguable sig-
On January 21, 1971, a 1968 pickup truck driven by a nificance of these relationships is recognized, but the
49-year-old male collided with a barrel crash cushion in rounded-off relationships indicated in Figure 13 are used
Houston at a computed speed ' of 42 mph (31). The in developing a procedure for relating deceleration levels
stopping distance determined by investigators was 7.5 ft. to probability of injury.
The average deceleration computed from the initial speed Graham, et al. (21) set limits of tolerable deceleration
and stopping distance was 7.4 g. The unrestrained driver levels with respect to bridge rail or guardrail impacts based
was killed when his chest was crushed by the noncollapsible on the recommendations of Cornell Aeronautical Labora-
steering column. tory. Michie and Bronstad (34) repeated these limits in
In summary, the 9.5-g deceleration resulted in minor their latest publication. These limits are given in Table 12.
injuries, in contrast to the 7.4-g deceleration that resulted Tolerable acceleration limits assumed by Weaver (35)
in death. This comparison is possible because the known are given in Table 13. Weaver proposes that these ac-
crushing properties of these crash cushions allow the de- celeration levels be used in a severity index (SI) equation
termination of deceleration during vehicle impacts. The presented by Hyde (36), which is based on the "ellipsoidal
incident that produced a death is atypical of experience envelope for defining the multiaxial acceleration limits"
with barrel craTh cushions but is presented to illustrate the concept. As applied by Ross and Post (37) to the two axes
of primary interest during a guardrail collision, the severity
* Based on the number of barrels crushed, the vehicle impact speed can
be predicted with considerable accuracy (28). index equation is
18

1.0 In effect, the severity index is the ratio of the vector sum
of the critical accelerations encountered during a collision
to the vector sum of the "tolerable" accelerations in the
lateral and longitudinal directions. It it is less than 1, the
0.8
collision is considered tolerable for unrestrained passengers.
The rationale and assumptions behind this severity index,
based on vector summation of multiaxial accelerations, are
treated in detail by Hyde (36).
It was considered essential to compare the various ac-
., 0.6k— celeration limits that have been specified by means of a
o I
resultant probability of injury, P,. The equations shown in

1
Figure 13 are linear relationships between P15. and G151
and between loflg. and G iong. It is certainly acceptable to
0.4 take a vector sum of the acceleration levels along two axes
in order to determine resultant acceleration. Relating this
resulting acceleration to a limiting ellipsoidal envelope is
subject to a number of rationalizations as discussed by
Hyde; but, if this relationship is accepted, it is possible to
0.2
use the relationships between G and P to determine the
resultant probability of injury. This concept is illustrated
' by relating the SI value using Weaver's values for "toler-
able" accelerations with probability of injury. Consider
0C Eq. 5 and substitute Olsen's values, as shown in Figure 14,
0 4 8 12 16
= 10 P10. and Glong. = 14 Plong.. Substitution yields:
Accelerations (g's)
Figure 13. Suggested relationship between probability of in- si = Vbo22b0t+
s 142 2iong. (6)
jury and acceleration Source: After Olsen -(1).
or

SI V4 P215 . + 4 12ong. (7)

resulting in
SI = + Note: Gvcrt is neglected. (4)
G SI = 2'/P2101 + 2long. (8)
where GXL and GYL are the maximum tolerable accelera- Thus the quantity under the radical is the vector sum of
tions in the longitudinal and lateral directions and cor- the probabilities of injury in the lateral and longitudinal
respond to one-half of the major axes of the ellipse. Giojg. direction, or
and Giat are the actual accelerations produced during a
specific collision. Using the values GXL = 7 and GYL = 5, SI2Pr (9)
taken by Weaver for the unrestrained condition, Eq. 4
becomes

- G 2 long. TABLE 13
- 72 + 52 (5)
1
TENTATIVE TOLERABLE ACCELERATION LIMITS

MAXIMUM ACCELERATION (G)

LONGITU-
TABLE 12 LATERAL DINAL VERTICAL
RESTRAINT (Gy) (Gx) (Gz)
CORNELL LIMITS OF TOLERABLE DECELERATION
(TENTATIVE) Unrestrained occupant . 5 7
Lap belt 9 12d . 10
MAXIMUM DECELERATION (G)
LONGITU-
Lap belt and shoulder
LATERAL DINAL TOTAL
harness 0 15 20 17
RESTRAINT

Unrestrained occupant 3 5 6 Suggested as 60 percent of lab belt restraint limits (35).

b Limit suggested by Hyde (36) for safety and corroborated by IT!
Lap belt 5 10 12 research team field tests (35). (Represents 60 percent of established
isp belt restraint vertical acceleration limit).
Lap belt and shoulder Suggested as 60 percent of lap belt and shoulder hamess restraint
15 25 25 limits (35).
harness 1 Commonly accepted limit for isp belt restraint in crash cushion
and breakaway studies.
Source: Graham (13). Maximum limitssuggested by Hyde (36).

7
 19

10

0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 .11 12 13 14
Longitudinal Acceleration, (g's)
Figure 14. Comparison of Graham's and Weaver's allowable limits.

Further, it is of interest that the severity index based on of 1.0 at all points. This curve is labeled "Weaver's Allow-
Weaver's values of tolerable acceleration corresponds to a able Limit."
probability of injury of 0.5. In other words, in one-half of The relationship between the probability of injury and
the automobiles involved in collisions where the severity Graham's allowable acceleration levels can also be deter-
index was equal to unity, injuries to passengers would be mined from Figure 14. Graham's values of G1,. = 3 and
expected. This boundary of injury probability (50 percent) Giông = 5 are used as one-half the length of the principal
may roughly approximate a division between minor and axes in the equation of an ellipse to plot the curve labeled
severe injuries, although there would always be exceptions "Graham's Allowable Limit." This shows that Grahams'
as previously discussed. Therefore, the acceleration levels allowable acceleration levels correspond to probabilities of
chosen by Weaver, though rationalized in a somewhat arbi- injury varying from 0.3 to 0.36 as the resultant acceleration
trary manner, relate rather appropriately to the probability changes from the lateral to the longitudinal direction. Thus
of injury. It seems a rather remote coincidence that the they are relatively consistent and are considerably more
acceleration levels chosen by Weaver should correspond to conservative than Weaver's values.
the probability of injury 0.5. However, Weaver has con- Michie and Bronstad (34) have repeated Graham's al-
firmed that his acceleration levels were set independently as lowable accelerations with the endorsement of an advisory
described in his paper (35). group of national experts and NCHRP Advisory Panel
The curves shown in Figure 14 were drawn using the C22-1. These acceleration limits are given for the lap-belt-
principal of vector addition: restrained and the lap-belt, shoulder-harness-restrained con-
ditions as well as the unrestrained condition that has been
P = '/P218. + loI1g. (10) previously discussed. Inasmuch as Michaiski's data were
based on a population of vehicles in which lap and shoulder
Each elliptical curve corresponds to a specific probability belts were used by a minority of the occupants, he provides
of injury. Values range from P = 0.1 to P = 1.0. Note no means of evaluating any of the acceleration levels except
that the curve of P = 0.5 corresponds to a severity index those corresponding to the unrestrained condition. In the
20

unrestrained condition, as previously demonstrated, the on the basis of biaxial acceleration levels unless these levels
allowable accelerations correspond to a probability of in- are combined in some way to bring about a resultant ac-
jury varying from 0.3 (lateral) to 0.36 (longitudinal). This celeration. Even if this is done, one is confronted with the
can be justified to some extent when one considers the im- question of significant differences. Consider hypothetically,
provements in design that automobile manufacturers are for example, that Barrier A imposed a resultant accelera-
making to protect passengers subjected to longitudinal ac- tion of 10 g and Barrier B imposed 8 g. It would appear
celerations (crushable steering columns, padded dashes, re- that Barrier A is less desirable than Barrier B. But, is the
cessed knobs, and whiplash guards) compared with the difference really significant? A possible answer to this ques-
minor improvements available to protect passengers sub- tion is discussed on the basis of probability of injury. By
jected to lateral accelerations. Perhaps a more important plotting the average longitudinal and lateral accelerations
question is whether these low levels are practically achiev- that occur in a specific test on a probability of injury chart
able. The following section treats this question in some as shown in Figure 16, the probability of injury can be
detail. readily determined. Figure 16 is a plot of the adjusted data
from the 10 tests described in Table 14. As shown, all
APPROPRIATE TEST CONDITIONS tests of bridge rail and median barrier systems give prob-
ability of injury levels above 0.5. The flexible cable guard-
During the past 10 years, a variety of bridge rail and guard-
rail system is the only one that falls within the tolerable
rail crash tests have been conducted under the sponsorship
levels presented by Graham (13) and Weaver (35). How-
of state and federal agencies. This text compares and dis-
ever, two of the tests-the New York strong beam, weak
cusses 10 tests that correspond roughly to the upper-limit
post (NY-A) and the Texas double flexbeam median bar-
test condition requirements of HRB Circular 482 (11)
rier (T4-1)-come close to the Weaver criterion of a SI
(i.e., 60-mph speed, 25° impact angle, and 4,000-lb ve-
of 1 (a probability of injury of 0.5).
hicle). The rail systems vary from rigid, sloped-face con-
crete median barriers through contemporary and experi- It may be concluded that the criterion of Graham (13)
mental barriers of considerable flexibility to flexible cable is not achievable with the contemporary bridge rail systems
guardrails. Some of these barriers are included in NCHRP included in this discussion when the systems are subjected
Report 118 (34); others are reported in ITI publications to the upper-limit test conditions of 60 mph, 25°, and
41000 lb. The next question then is whether HRB Circular
(37, 38, 47, 48). Figure 15 illustrates the barriers, and
482 upper-limit conditions are reasonable for passenger
Table 14 outlines details of the tests. As shown in this
table, the test data have been adjusted to the 60-25-4,000 injury considerations. It is the opinion of the authors that
test conditions by means of the procedure given in Ap- these upper-limit conditions (60-25-4,000) may be satis-
pendix C. factory for a structural evaluation of a rail system but are
It is difficult to compare the seventies of different tests not appropriate for the evaluation of performance with

TABLE 14
DETAILS OF BARRIER TESTS

ITS TEST NO.

ITEM T4-1 T-E3 CMB-1 NY-A TI-B Tl-D 595-C 595-D FT-A FT-B
Vehicle:
Year 1963 1963 1963 1964 1961 1964 1963 1961 1963 1959
Make Ply. Ply. Ply. Dodge Ford Dodge Chev. Ply. Ply. Olds.
Weight (lb) 3,640 3,610 4,000 3,800 3,920 3,620 3,430 3,000 3,200 4,720
Impact angle (deg) 25 25 .25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
Observed:
Initial speed (mph) 57.3 59.3 62.3 55.4 56.2 61.6 54.3 56.3 58.3 54.8
Dynamic deflection of barrier (ft) 1.3 0.5 0 1.5 0.4 0.3 5.0 6.0 0.5 1.2
Average longitudinal deceleration
to parallelism (g) 3.1 33 2.1 1.3 4.5 0.5 1.3 0.6 2.2 3.0
Average lateral deceleration to
parallelism (g) 4.4 6.2 8.0 4.8 5.4 6.9 2.3 2.3 6.5 4.6
Adjusted:
Vehicle weight (lb) 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000
Impact angle (deg) 25 25 25 25 25 25 25. 25 25 25
Initial speed (mph) 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Dynamic deflection of barrier (ft) 1.6 0.6 0 1.9 0.5 0.3 7.2 9.1 0.7 1.2
Average longitudinal deceleration
to parallelism (g) 3.2 2.8 2.0 1.3 5.0 0.5 1.3 0.5 2.2 3.7
Average lateral deceleration to
parallelism (g) 4.6 6.1 7.4 5.1 6.0 6.5 2.2 1.9 6.5 5.5
 21

respect to occupant injury. Justification for this opinion nedy (38). In their study of median encroaéhments, they
is developed in the following paragraphs. accumulated data that result in the curve shown in Fig-
A much quoted source of data on the subject of en- ure 17. This curve shows that 8 percent of the angles
croachnient aiigles is the work of 1-lutchinson and Ken- observed were greater than 25°, which would seem to

B (42) L—D (42)

3R—(c) (..)

Texas Highway Dept. bridge rail Texas Highway Dept. bridge rail with
lower W—section added by Texas
Transportation Inst.

-A and B(42) -A (4k)

—(a) (44) i—(f) (_)

Fragmenting tube bridge rail New York strong beam, weak post
median barrier

T—E3 () -1 (47)

Texas Highway Dept. type E3 Texas double—flexbeam median barrier

railing

CMB—1 (47) ...4 595—C and D ()

5 (34) °°°'-• YG—(c) ()

New Jersey concrete median Flexible cable quardrail

barrier
Figure 15. Illustrations of the barrier systems tested for. which data are given in Table 14.
 22

10

'
—'8
(I)

be

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Longitudinal Acceleration, (g's)
Figure 16. Suggested chart to determine probability of injury.

indicate that the 25° angle is not extremely high with re- inhibited) from driver performance on a bridge or elevated
spect to collision safety. However, it is possible that this section. On an elevated roadway, the close proximity of
curve is conservative (i.e., the curve may give angles larger bridge rails is probably a constant warning against radical
than might be expected in collisions with bridge rails) steering maneuvers (i.e., performance should be more
because: inhibited).
I. Exit speeds cannot be determined from the data in the These two factors suggest that the impact angle of 25° is
Hutchinson and Kennedy study (38). Therefore, it can be probably too high for use in evaluating the potential of a
assumed that speeds varied over a wide range. It has been given barrier for producing injuries.
argued that as speed increases the angle of impact with a To continue this argument, consider Figure .18, which
barrier decreases (e.g., Ref. 1, p. 7 et seq.) It is suggested includes plots of the cumulative distribution of fatal acci-
that this argument may be extended to include encroach- dent speeds and median encroachment angles. The abscissa
ment angles. It is further suggested that if speed had been scale of encroachment angle was matched to the scale of
determined and if only those encroachments at exit speeds accident speed in the following way:
over a certain value were considered, the curve shown in
Figure 17 would have dropped considerably, as indicated I. Encroachment angle was assumed to be inversely re-
by the shaded zone. lated to speed. This has been demonstrated for the maxi-
2. Since the Hutchinson and Kennedy data were taken mum turning maneuver but has not been demonstrated for
in a wide, unobstructed median zone, it is probable that the general case of roadside encroachments.
driver performance was significantly different (i.e., less 2. Boundary conditions were assumed for the end points
 23

100
I 1 H I.
After Hutchinson and Kennedy (38)
/ (266 Encroachments)

IiI

Speculated Shift in Curve if Only

Encroachments Above a Certain Speed
40 T - Are Considered
--------i:----

20

5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Encroachment Angle, Degrees
Figure 17. Distribution of encroachment angles.

of the Hutchinson and Kennedy encroachment angle data The median (50 percentile) speed is 63 mph and the
and the fatal accident speed data (i.e., 45°—the maximum median encroachment angle is 80°.
from Hutchinson and Kennedy—corresponds to 10 mph, 90 percent of the speeds are less than 80 mph. This
the minimum significant speed from Fig. 2; and 2*—the speed corresponds to an encroachment angle of 11.5°.
98 percentile angle from Hutchinson and Kennedy—cor- 90 percent of the angles are less than 22.5°. This
responds to 100 mph, the approximate 98 percentile speed angle corresponds to a speed of 57 mph.
from Fig. 2).
3. Based on these assumed end conditions, arithmetic Probability of injury, as a first approximation, is as-
angle and speed scales were constructed. This construc- sumed to be directly related to acceleration and thus to the
tion resulted in the following relationship between speed impact force on the vehicle. The average lateral force,
and angle: Fiat., is used to compare Conditions 1, 2, and 3 with the
0=-0.48V+49.78 (11) HRB Circular 482 upper-limit conditions (60-25-4,000),
using
in which
W V1' sin2 (0)
o = impact angle (deg); and Fiat' (12)
2g{AL sin(0) - B[1 - cos(0)] + D}
V = impact speed (mph).
From the figure so constructed, the following informa- in which W = 4,000 Ib, A = 0.454, L = 17.5 ft, 2B =
tion may be obtained: 6.5 ft, and D = 0.
24

It is seen that Condition 4, the most widely used test

AVERAGE
condition, requires a barrier to absorb a significantly larger
LATERAL FORCE,
lateral force than any of the other three. Conditions 2 and
CONDITION Fiat (Ku's) 3, which are believed to provide an upper boundary for
63 mph, 8°, 4,000 lb 9.6 more than 90 percent of the bridge rail impact conditions
80 mph, 11.5°,4,000lb 22.4 (considering the conservatism of the Hutchinson and Ken-
57 mph, 22.5°, 4,000 lb 22.8 nedy curve), give values of lateral forces of 22.4 and
60 mph, 25°, 4,000 lb 28.1 22.8 kips, respectively. If a value of 23 kips is selected to
represent this range, test conditions can be designed to

After Hutchinson and Kennedy (38)

100

[GURE 2

We

20

20 40 60 80 100
Fatal Accident Speed,. (mph)

I I I I 1
.45 40 30 20 10 2

Median Encroachment Angles, Degrees

Figure 18. interaction of speed and encroachment angle.
 25

achieve this value. For example, if test speeds of 50, 60, TABLE 15
and 70 mph were selected, impact angles of 29.3°, 20.7°, DETAILS OF TESTS
and 15.2°, respectively, would result in an average lateral
force of 23 kips. Because the median fatal accident speed ITEM CMB-3 CMB-4
was 63 mph, the lower speeds (50 and 60 mph) may be
Vehicle:
considered somewhat low for comparing the safety aspects Year 1963 1963
of barriers. Therefore, the 70-mph test speed is selected. Make Chev. Chev.
Weight (lb) 4,210 4,210
COMMENT: On the basis of the foregoing discussion, the Impact angle (deg) 7 15
combined test conditions of 70 mph and 15° are more
Observed:
appropriate for comparing barrier systems from the vie w-
Initial speed (mph) 60.9 60.7
point of passenger injury. Dynamic deflection of barrier (ft) 0 0
Several other observations of a general nature can be Average longitudinal deceleration
to parallelism (g) 0.4 1.3
derived from the comparison of the tests of ten different Average lateral deceleration to
rail systems in the 25° impact condition. All systems con- parallelism (g) 2.2 4.7
tained the impacting vehicle and thus were shown to be
Probability of injury 0.22 0.48
structurally adequate. Figure 19 is a bar graph showing the
ten tests arranged in order of increasing probability of in- Severity index 0.44 0.96
jury. The order corresponds almost directly to the degree
of lateral flexibility, varying from the flexible cable guard-
rail with a lateral deflection under impact of 6 ft to the ceptable from the viewpoint of safety when the more realis-
concrete median barrier that had a negligible lateral deflec- tic test conditions advocated in this chapter are used.
tion. This effect is shown in Figure 20. Two other tests Further, the CMB system's only drawback—extreme ri-
were run on the concrete median barrier at reduced angles gidity—is not as critical as has been previously contended.
of impact. Details of these two tests are presented in Skeels (39) offered the following comment:
Table 15. It is seen that the probability of injury decreases
My experience with the General Motors parapet indi-
as the angle decreases. For the impact angles of 25°, 15°, cates that the impacting angle is much more important
and 7°, the probability of injury was 0.75, 0.48, and 0.22, than the speed. At an angle of 7°, there was really not
respectively. Taken to the extreme as the angle approaches much difference in apparent severity to the driver or
zero, all systems, or at least those with a smooth contact passenger between speeds of 45 and 60 mph, but a very
surface, become equal in their potential to cause injury. noticeable increase between angles of 7° and 11° at the
same speed. In Table 15, I believe that the Probability
That is, all rail systems approach a zero probability of of Injury Index number [0.22] is high as I have made at
injury. Going to the other extreme where the impact angle least 50 runs against the GM parapet at a 7° angle at
is 90°, the difference in the various systems would be 5-60 mph, with and without passengers, and no one has
maximized, with the rigid concrete median barrier having been close to being injured. I would not quibble about
the 0.48 figure for a 15° hit, though, as I think this is
the highest potential to cause injury. It is therefore con- realistic. I would not volunteer to drive that test—the
cluded that the concrete median barrier may be quite ac- point being that for the GM parapet the severity is quite

0.8

0.6 Weaver's Limit

a'

H Li7
'H
o 0.4
a. a's
/

.0
S

°' 0.2

6.0 I 5.0 I 1.5 I 1.3 I 1.2 1 0.3 I 0.5 0.5 I 0.4

Test Conditions Adjosted To 4000 lb and 60 mph

Figure 19. Comparison of the ten barriers tested.

26

low for low angles but increases rapidly at the 120 to 150 1.0
point.
One other point that might be brought out is that the
so-called sloped-face rigid barriers are not really rigid so
far as the car and its occupants are concerned. When the 0.8
wheel climbs the slope, the flexibility of the tires, sus
pension, car frame, wheels, and even the interior pad-
ding are brought into play to modify the rigidity of the
barrier. It also allows the lateral forces to be applied
directly to the strongest part of the car; namely, the
wheels and suspension, instead of trying to push on the
weakest part—the sheet metal. This action also explains
the improved performance of the barriers with a longer
and higher sloped face as the car is banked higher and
the above-named flexible elements are brought into play
more effectively. An ideal barrier might have a concave
face 10' high and 15' deep but this would not be practi-
cal, so some compromise has to be reached. This report
could bring out these points as there really is no mys-
tery about the reason for the good performance of sloped
barriers, but many do not understand it.
The purpose of this chapter has been to consider the
different values of the tolerable acceleration limits that have
Dynamic Deflection of Barrier, (ft.)
been proposed and to suggest the most realistic way of
determining compliance with these limits. Figure 20. Relationship between deflection and probability of injury.
The conclusions are:
cases they may not be achievable when the test conditions
The test condition of a 25° impact angle is extreme are 70-15-4,000.
with respect to passenger injury criteria. A more realistic The Weaver limits, at the 50 percent probability of
condition of 70-15-4,000 is suggested. injury level, may indicate the approximate boundary be-
The toleranee limits suggested by Graham are not tween - minor and severe passenger injuries and should be
achievable by the best contemporary bridge rail systems carefully considered in determining the suitability of a
when tested under the conditions of 60-25-4,000. In many particular bridge rail system.

CHAPTER FOUR

INTERPRETATION AND APPRAISAL

BRIDGE RAIL SERVICE REQUIREMENTS estimate of the average lateral unit impact force that might
be anticipated when a selected vehicle strikes a barrier de-
NCHRP Report 86 (1) presents 10 bridge rail service re-
signed for the strength requirement. These curves have
quirements. Of these, two requirements are considered with
been prepared using (1, Eq. 5):
a view to updating the information contained in the report.
The first requirement is: V12 sin2 (0)
Giat (13)
1. A bridge rail system must laterally restrain a se- 2g{AL sin(0) - B[1 - cos (0)] + D)
lected vehicle. in which

Strength of Barriers V1 = vehicle impact velocity (fps);

0 = vehicle impact angle (deg);
The basic requirement for restraining a selected vehicle g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/sec2 );
is strength. Appendix B presents nomographs that per- AL = distance from vehicle's front end to center of mass
mit one to estimate lateral impact forces for automobiles, (ft);
trucks, and buses having certain vehicle parameters, pre- 2B = vehicle width (ft); and
viously discussed. The designer is also provided with an D = lateral displacement of barrier railing (ft).
 27

Although spectacular truck collisions have occurred in Sloped-face concrete median barriers are being con-
which trucks have broken through bridge barriers, the oc- structed across bridges in urban areas; and, in some in-
currence of such accidents fortunately is infrequent at the stallations on elevated expressways or in cut sections,
present time. As the population of trucks increases, how- sloped-face barriers are being installed on outer edges of
ever, it may become necessary to increase design loadings the traveled way. Photographs of some of these types of
for barriers or to employ sloped-face configurations of ade- installations appear in an article in the October 1971 issue
quate strength to redirect colliding trucks as well as pas- of Civil Engineering (40, p. 80). Also, sloped-face me-
senger vehicles. dian barriers have been constructed of steel for installation
on certain bridges where the weight of the barrier must be
Height of Barriers
reduced.
Another factor entering into the strength design of a bridge The second service requirement for bridge barriers is:
barrier is the height of the barrier, and a discussion of the
2. A bridge rail system must minimize vehicle decel-
results from full-scale dynamic tests of selected barriers has erations.
been presented in Chapter Two. It has been noted that the
tenth edition of AASHO Standard Specifications for High- It is evident that traffic barriers for use on and near
way Bridges requires that a traffic railing shall be at least bridges can be designed and constructed with adequate
27 in. high. Because automobiles have been found to get strength to eliminate vehicle penetrations; or, in the words
over such barriers during certain types of collisions, Chap- of Henault and Perron:
ter Two recommends installation of barriers higher than It is always possible to obtain a barrier which is suffi-
27 in. It has been suggested (by General Motors Proving ciently strong by strengthening its components. (41,
Ground) that barrier heights up to 54 in. would be re- p.61)
quired to serve large trucks. The maximum height for a It is also clear that such strong barriers can severely
barrier is a difficult parameter to select. Lundstrom, et al., damage an errant vehicle in a collision incident. Thus, a
suggested: strong traffic barrier becomes a hazard at the edge of the
For a rough approximation, the height of the rail should traveled way.
approach the height of the center of gravity of any ve- Guardrails mounted on posts set in the ground provide a
hicle using the bride. (15, p. 179)
movable barrier because the ground yields on impact, and
Measurements ha been made on school buses and the this behavior has been proven to reduce the hazardous
height of the center of gravity has been estimated to be nature of such traffic barriers. However, barriers on bridges
greater than 3 ft (assuming all seats are occupied). Simi- do not have this movability because they are designed with
lar measurements and estimates indicate that loaded trucks strong connections at the bridge deck.
have heights of center of gravity to and greater than 6 ft, Several proven concepts for reducing the force of impact
and that of a loaded, transit-mix concrete truck may ex- are to:
ceed this height, for example, as may trucks loaded with Provide a. sloped-face configuration for barriers (e.g.,
drag lines and similar heavy equipment. New Jersey median barrier, General Motors parapet, Cali-
Barrier heights of 6 ft or more can certainly be achieved, fornia Type 20 bridge barrier).
as can strength adequate to restrain any impact force; how- Employ breakaway devices (e.g., New York strong
ever, the configuration of a barrier must be considered, as beam, weak post barrier).
well as its height and strength. Automobiles and trucks can Install collapsible materials between strong rail and
mount some barriers more readily than others, and this fact strong post (e.g., FHWA-SWRI frangible tube barrier).
has been put to good use in the design of sloped-face
barriers. Each of these concepts has been proven by full-scale
Where accident history has warranted a higher, stronger crash tests, and each has advantages as well as dis-
barrier, additional height and strength have been provided advantages.
for certain barrier installations on sharp curves on elevated HRB Circular 482 is reproduced in Figure 21. This cir-
freeways. Such installations currently appear to be the cular sets out requirements for full-scale dynamic testing
exception rather than the rule. of barriers. Many barriers have been tested at or above the
The available evidence indicates that a height of 32.in. is maximum speed and angle of impact. Test results have
proving satisfactory for sloped-face concrete median in- been reported in Proceedings HRB (20) and in various
stallations and for sloped-faced concrete bridge barriers on Highway Research Records; summaries of test results on
high-speed expressways. As the vehicle population changes, guardrails and median barriers are given in NCHRP Re-
the height criterion must be continually reviewed and re- ports 36, 54, 115, and 118. A review of these reports
vised. Smaller cars and larger trucks must be accommo- reveals that until recently (16) few tests were conducted
dated, and barriers must not be constructed at heights that at the lower impact angle of 70• Thus, as was emphasized
obscure merging traffic. in NCHRP Report 86 (1), the strength of some barriers
The trend toward barriers higher than 27 in. above the to laterally restrain an errant automobile has been well
pavement is accelerating, as is the employment of sloped- documented; and many barriers have been proven to have
face medians and parapets. A recent compilation of in- inadequate strength, usually at connections.
formation on this subject has been prepared by the Federal It is clear that a method for evaluating the results of full-
Highway Administration (e.g., Notice EN-20, May 1971). scale crash tests and the behavior of existing barriers is
28

SEPPEMBER 1962 CIRCULAR 482

Highway Research Board Committee Activity

COMMITTEE ON GUARDRAILS AND GUIDE POSTS
PROPOSED FULL-SCALE TESTING PROCEDURES FOR GUARDRAILS
The Committee on Guardzails and Guide Posts has been approached on occasions
to supply broad outlines for guidance to manul'acturers or agencies wishing to con-
duct tests on guardrail systems. In order that such tests be conducted on as
uniform a basis as possible, the fundamental requirements for testing guardrail
systems are outlined by the Subcommittee on Testing Procedures, as follows:

The objectives of a guardrail system are defined to be:

To prevent a vehicle from entering the protected area behind the rail.
To redirect the vehicle without material change of speed to a course
parallel to the rail.
To achieve these objectives with a lateral deceleration which is tolerable
to the passengers of the vehicle.
The test section of guardrail shall be erected as follows:
Rail shall' be Installed straight and level.
Post embedment must be typical of that expected in the field.
The approach surface shall be smooth and stabilized or paved.
The minimum length of test section shall be 150 ft, complete with vertical
supports, horizontal members and end anchorages as necessary.

The test vehicle shall be of standard design, weighing 4,000 lb 200 lb, with
load, and have a center of gravity approximately 21 in. above the pavement.
Tests shall be made at a speed of 60 mph at Impact angles of 7 0 and 25°.
Specified performance shall be attained at any point within the length of
the test Installation, and shall include tests with impact at points between 15 ft
and 20 ft from each end of the installation.
It is recognized that lateral deflection of the rail is related to highway
design, and may be allowed in order to reduce lateral deceleration.
The general design of the guardrail system must be such as to recognize the
need of maintainability, adequate connections to bridge parapets, and the reaction
of vehicles striking the approach end.
By the Subcommittee on Testing ?rocedures
Edmund R. Ricker, Chairman
J. L. Beaton, A. E. Brickman
M. D. Graham, S. B. Larsen, P. C. Skeels
Figure 21. Full-scale testing procedures proposed for guardrails. Source: Ref. 11.

needed, but such an evaluation technique is not at hand. might expect that injuries to occupants of vehicles would
Additional insight toward meeting this service requirement increase as the damage to colliding vehicles increases. It is
has been presented in Chapter Three. stipulated that such a "prudent man" concept is fraught
Selecting levels of tolerable deceleration remains the with anomalies. A discussion of the evaluation technique
prerogative of individual administrators, although informa- is contained in Appendix C.
tion contained herein permits an understanding of the re-
sults of a specific selection. This report does not present DISCUSSION OF CURRENT DESIGN PROCEDURES
an optimum solution, but it does present a technique that Current design procedures vary, among the several states;
provides an estimate of the adequacy of barriers from the in general, however, bridge barriers are designed in ac-
viewpoint of safety. cordance with the AASHO Standard Specifications for
The technique is based on the idea that a prudent man Highway Bridges (as revised periodically). A flow chart
 29

INPUTS: Bridge Barrier

Selection:
Metal Railing,
AASHO Loads*
Posts, Stress Level
Height Concrete Walls
First Cost Estimates (AASHO Specs)
Maintenance Reports Computations

Decision Criteria:
Limiting Stress
Height
Formulate Design Criteria
Revise Details of
Connections, Rail Strength,
Etc. New Information:
Prototypes in use, Prepare Standard
Crash Test Data, Plans,
Accidents Reports Construct

Modify No
Observe
AASHO Satisfactory
Behavior of
Specs* Installation

Yes

*Tenth Edition Permits

Crash Tests in Lieu
Of Spec. Loads
Continue Using
Established
Specifications
and Procedures
Figure 22. Flow chart of development of bridge barrier design methods.

of the development of current design. methods is presented tion is used in selecting barrier configuration, and many
in Figure 22. The chart indicates the piecemeal nature of states prepare construction plans having alternate barriers
the information available upon which design criteria are fabricated from steel, aluminum, or concrete. Having Se-
formulated to produce standards for design of new bar- lected a barrier, the designer proceeds with computations
riers. The flow chart leads one to conclude that current and uses the AASHO specifications as the decision cri-
design methods are based on providing adequate strength to teria for limiting stress and height. Plans are prepared and
keep automobiles from going through or over bridge bar- barriers are constructed.
riers. The flow chart is presented in a systems framework Installations are observed by field personnel, supervisors
and describes a subsystem synthesis of design methods that from headquarters, federal officials, media representatives,
do not permit quantitative evaluation of barrier perform- and the public. Although feedback is time dependent, it
ance. In the procedure shown in the diagram, the inputs leads to eventual reevaluation of barriers in use. Primarily
are (1) specified AASHO loads, (2) an arbitrary height, the evaluation is aimed at the strength of the design. When
(3) cost information (usually taken from recent bid tabu- collisions occur and the vehicles are restrained, the design
lations), and, frequently, (4) reports from maintenance is usually considered satisfactory and the design procedure
and other field personnel on barrier repairs. This informa- is perpetuated. As piecemeal reports of accidents indicate
30

that barriers are inadequate in some fashion, the AASHO sented by Michie, et al. (43). These comparisons support
Specifications are revised and some configurations elimi- the hypothesis that peak decelerations appear to be two to
nated or changed. Designers reexamine standard designs three times larger than average decelerations estimated by
and revise drawings to conform to revised specifications; Eq. B-i (contained in Appendix B). These peak forces may
this process leads to formulation of new design criteria and be short in duration but need to be considered in designing
the cycle is repeated. a barrier.
The flow chart describes the design procedure within a It is the opinion of the authors that connections in bar-
systems framework. The over-all evaluation of the safety riers should be designed by applying a dynamic factor of
of a barrier remains a subject of conjecture, because quan- 2 to 3 to the average decelerative forces estimated by
titative criteria for evaluation of barriers remain unestab- Eq. B-i. This dynamic factor is needed at beam-to-beam
lished and will remain so until a clearer expression of the connections, beam-to-post connections, and at base con-
requirements for barrier behavior is presented. nections. Proper application of this dynamic factor should
produce adequate connections, which in turn will provide
FULL-SCALE PROTOTYPE TESTING
structural continuity in post and rail systems thus reducing
Methods of estimating average impact forces were sug- the probability of the snagging and pocketing of colliding
gested in NCHRP Report 86 and have been extended in vehicles.
Appendix B of this report. Examination of data from The foregoing discussion is intended to provide guide-
crash tests clearly indicates that peak decelerative forces lines for design. However, full-scale crash testing of proto-
occur during a collision incident. An excellent discussion type barriers continues to be a necessary step in design,
and comparison of average and peak decelerations is pre- testing, and evaluation of barriers, as indicated in Figure 22.

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34

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 35

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13 7-178. LARSEN, P. M., and PETERSON, J. S., "Guard Fences in
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and Injury Control Systems." Proc. HRB, Vol. 40 Installation of a Median Barrier on the San Bernardino
(1961) pp. 541-556. Freeway." California Div. of Highways (1958).
36

"Barrier Separates Traffic Lanes (Isle-Guard)." Public 1956

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AYRE, R. S., and HILGER, M. A., "Dynamics of Highway
BEATON, J. L., "Inspection and Tests of Welding of High-
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BEATON, J. L., "Full-Scale Tests of Concrete Bridge Rails
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PEDERSON, N. L., MATHEWSON, J. H., and SEVERY, D. M., 137 (1956) 26 pp.
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SEVERY, D. M., and BARBOUR, P., "Acceleration Accu-
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SEVERY, D. M., and MATHEWSON, J. H., "When a Car
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SEVERY, D. M., MATHEWSON, J. H., and PEDERSON, N. L.,
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SKELTON, R. R., "Crash Barrier Tests on Multiflora Rose
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TRESIDDER, J. 0., "An Investigation into the Use of a
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AASHO, Specifications for Highway Guards. (1957). 1954

BURG, W. A., "About Highway Guardrails." (Arizona
Practice) Rural Roads, Vol. 7, No. 5 (Sept.-Oct. 1957) AYRE, R. S., and ABRAMS, J. I., "Dynamics of Guardrail
pp. 38-40, 43-44. Systems." Proc. HRB, Vol. 33 (1954) pp. 201-210.
FIELD, R. N., and BEATON, J. L., "Final Report of Full ISRAEL, R. J., "Flared Guard Railing." California High-
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KUHLMAN, H. F., and SAYERS, V. M., "Strength and De- KENYON, R. H., "Warrants for the Use of Guard Rails and
flection Tests of Various Materials Used as Guardrail Guide Posts." Proc. Western Assoc. State Highway
Posts." California Div. of Highways (1957). Officials (1954) pp. 175-178.
SEVERY, D. M., and MATHEWSON, J. H., "Automobile-
"Oregon to Use New Type Highway Median Barriers."
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(Nov. 1957) p. 9. dents." California Highways and Public Works, Vol. 33
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1953
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 37

"City and Railway Collaborate: Invent New Pavement 1949

Guard." Eng. News-Record, Vol. 151, No. 14 (Oct. 1, FINKBINER, N. M., "Beam Type Guardrail Tests." Proc.
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and Eng., Vol. 50, No. 8 (Aug. 1953) p. 73. I. Preliminary Survey of Aft-Facing Seated Position."
TELFORD, E. T., and ISRAEL, R. J., "California Median
AF Tech. Rep. No. 5915 (June 1949) p. 16, USAF Air
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1952
1942
BOESGAARD, E., "Safety Wall to Prevent Road Accidents—
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1941
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ISRAEL, R. J., "Guard Rails Have a Flare for Safety." RAHN, G. A., "Report of Committee on Highway Guard—
Western Construc., Vol. 27, No. 6 (June 1952) pp. 94, Tests and Studies, 1924-1941." Proc. HRB, Vol. 21
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1951 1940

"Report on Erection and Maintenance of Highway Guard."

AASHO, Specification for Highway Guards. (1951) 19 pp. Bull. No. 73, Am. Road Builders Assoc. (1940).
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38

APPENDIX B

DESIGN NOMOGRAPHS

In NCHRP Report 86 a mathematical equation was de- Entry to the lower nomograph is made from the horizontal
veloped to predict the average impact force perpendicular axis (e.g., V1 = 60 mph) a vertical line (Line A) is con-
to a barrier following a collision. The equation for aver- structed to intersect a selected value of IX d (e.g., / X d
age lateral impact force is: 20) a horizontal line (Line B) may be constructed to per-
mit an estimate of the impact angle (0 = 23°). The same
WV12 sin(0) results could be obtained by using Eq. B-2. The horizontal
F12 = ( B-i)
2g{AL sin(0) - B[i - cos(0)] + D} line also crosses the parametric values of barrier displace-
Eq. B-i has been combined with an equation that predicts ment for various vehicle weights. Assuming an automobile
impact angle as a function of impact speed, coefficient of weight of 4,000 lb (dashed line), one can estimate the
friction (1) between tires and pavement, and the lateral average impact force by proceeding as follows: construct
distance (d) between a vehicle and a barrier before the a vertical line (Line C), from the intersection of Line B and
former turns into a collision course with the latter. The the dashed line representing a 4,000-lb car, extend Line C
resulting equation is: until it intersects the specified impact speed (in the exam-
fgdl ple, 60 mph), finally construct a horizontal line (Line D)
0 (B-2) and estimate the average impact force on the right as ap-
11
cos- 1 proximately 26 kips. The average unit impact force per-
Eq. B-2 is used to develop the nomographs shown in Fig- pendicular to the barrier is read on the left as 6.5 G (which
ures B-i through B-4. In each of the nomographs, the is also an estimate of the average vehicle deceleration
product of / and d has been taken as a parameter, thus perpendicular to the barrier). The same results could be
permitting the nomograph user to vary the value of either obtained by using Eq. B-i.
one in making estimates. For example, taking / X d = 20, The estimates of impact force obtained by this pro-
when! = 0.2, d = 100 ft; when 0.5, d = 40 It; or when
cedure are based on several assumptions, which were stated
.f=0.8,d=25ft.
in NCHRP Report 86. It is important to reiterate two of
Or, if the roadway width is known, the coefficient of fric-
these assumptions: (1) decelerations are constant during
tion may be varied to produce a range of values of the
parameter IX d for use in the nomographs. A study of the time interval required for the vehicle to become par-
vehicle parameters is presented in Chapter Two, and this allel to the barrier, and (2) the lateral component of
information was used to divide vehicle population into velocity is zero after the vehicle becomes parallel to the
three groups: (i) automobiles, (2) trucks, and (3) buses. barrier. The first of these assumptions disregards the effect
Automobiles of varying weights are modeled in Figure of peak decelerations, and the second implies that the
B-i, and parameter D is shown for each of three vehicle impact force is reduced to zero when the vehicle becomes
weights. Trucks of varying weights are modeled in Fig- parallel to the barrier.
ure B-2 for unyielding barriers (D = 0) and in Figure B-3 Application of the nomographs for estimating lateral
for barriers capable of displacing 1 ft (D = i) while re- impact forces will produce estimates of the average forces,
maining intact. Buses are modeled in Figure B-4. which are below peak values. It is suggested that connec-
tions may be designed by applying an appropriate dy-
USE OF NOMOGRAPHS namic factor to the forces obtained from the nomographs.
The nomographs may be entered either from the horizon- Current information suggests a dynamic impact factor for
tal axis with a specified impact speed or from the vertical peak forces between 2 and 3. Thus, in the example cited
axis with a specified impact angle. An example of the first the peak impact force on the system could be on the order
case (impact velocity specified) is shown in Figure B-i. of 52 kips to 78 kips for purposes of designing connections.
 39

3000.Ib.14000 lb.! 5000 lb.

.' 10.0 30.0- l-40.0-I----50.0

0
CA
CL

40.0 w
C)
Cr
17' 240320
0
LL
-
-18.0-- -24.0- - 30.0 C-)
a-

-J
4
12.0- -160— -200
I-
4
-J
Lii

4
CD
—6.0-- -8.0— -10.0
Ix

VI,2OmP

0. C [.1oSIS]

4C

tro~'qo
0-~
.4J2! 5 - '. . - .30
4. .... -_

'td 2o
/ -
10

72'i-7
IC
MANUFACTURERS LISTED
0
AUTOMOBILES 4,000
-
, 5,000
I I I
C
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
VL, VEHICLE SPEED (MPH)
Figure B-i. Average lateral deceleration and impact force of automobiles as a function of roadway, vehicle, and traffic railing
characteristics.
40

VEHICLE WEIGHT IN KIPS

20 60
Ml —200 4300-1-4001-500 4-600

iF
160- 480 0.
j-24O--32O-4OO j
U
0
Ii.
120 1180244300360
I-
U

-
/ a
80 -JI20---I60-200-j-240
a:
AOVO U
I.-
-- 4
-J
—4060 80 100 I40
4
a:
Ui
VI 20mPh

-01- 0101010

4(

ci
a)
10
//X::\ '..-.---.----.

21
D /20
OF T . ,-'
-,

LL

MANUFACTURERS LISTED
GROSS VEHICLE WEIGHT (GVW)
60.000 30.000
50.000 TRUCKS
40.000 ---- 20.000 I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
V1, VEHICLE SPEED (MPH)

Figure B-2. A verage lateral deceleration (D = 0 It) and impact, force of trucks as a function of roadway, vehicle, and traffic rail-
ing characteristics.
 41

E WEIGHT IN KIPS

200 +300+400-1- 500 -1- 600

I,
0
z0 vi
71
ec
/ 160 t24o-I-320 -1-400}48o
w LjJ
—j 06f
w 0
U U.
w 6.0 120 180 240300360
0 I-
Nee U
(LI

d
3:
/
4.0 80

-J 40_
4
Ix
Lu
2.0 Ui
40 +60+80+IOO+A40
-J

-0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0

4c

— IFT
rild

__/_7_•_ --
10

I
p
MANUFACTURERS LISTED
GROSS VEHICLE WEIGHT (GVW)

( —.
. - o'o
40000 ----- 20.000
TRUCKS I

0 10
0-1 20 30 40 50 60 70 60
V1. VEHICLE SPEED (MPH)

Figure B-3. Average lateral deceleration (D = I It) and impact force of trucks as a function of roadway, vehicle, and traffic rail-
ing characteristics.
42

VEHICLE WEIGHT IN KIPS

16.0 24.0
160 -I- 240

0
CL
z
o 128-1-192
8.0
I- U
I
I C)
I Er
I 0
w
C.)
Ii-
w 6.0
0 / 4
96
-I-'
I C.)
-
CL
1
C-)
x qj004,
4.0 64 -j--- 96
I w
I I-
-J
I -J
U I w
I-
< 2.( 32 ±48
-J II Er
Li
v%.20m2
g

4(
'
EE 4>€°
/ I . 1

-
4tt •q0

'o'' 7 /\ '-.. 30

¼• "--..
/ -.---.-------

'd /
/ MANUFACTURER'S LISTED
GROSS VEHICLE WEIGHT (GVW)

- - - 24.000 lbs.
BUSES
"0 tO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

V11 VEHICLE SPEED (MPH)

Figure B-4. Average lateral deceleration and impaci force of buses as a function of roadway, vehicle, and traffic railing characteristics.
 43

APPENDIX C
METHOD FOR REDUCING, ANALYZING, AND EVALUATING
DATA FROM HIGH-SPEED FILM

A method for reducing, analyzing, and evaluating data ANALYSIS OF DATA

from high-speed film was developed during the course of The method employed to compute change in velocity and
a study conducted by the Texas Transportation Institute average deceleration components is illustrated in Figure
for the Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department C-3. The values substituted in the governing equations were
of Transportation (42). A discussion of this method fol- taken from data acquired by frame-to-frame analysis of
lows, as do typical calculations for tests conducted at the high-speed films of the collision incident in each test. Ex-
Texas Transportation Institute. ample data and results from computation are contained in
In Chapter Three certain information obtained at vari-
Table C-i.
ous test conditions is discussed and evaluated for equiva- Velocities V1, V 2, and V3-the directed speeds of the
lent testing conditions of 60 mph, 45° impact angle, and colliding vehicle-were determined by measuring the dis-
4,000-lb cars. The technique for computing equivalent placement of a reference mark on the vehicle over an
conditions is also presented in this appendix. interval of time. V1 was calculated over a time interval
just prior to impact; V 2, when the vehicle became parallel
DATA REDUCTION to the rail; and Va, when the vehicle lost contact with the
1. Observe high-speed film, read and tabulate movement of rail.
car with respect to time (simultaneous values of S and t at
each data point):
Displacement (S) of a fixed point (target) on the
car and TABLE C-i
Time (t) at successive positions of the car.
Start recording S and t prior to impact. Use film HIGH-SPEED FILM DATA
from data camera No. 1 (see Fig. C-i).
DISPLACEMENT, DISPLACE-
Continue recording S and t after impact. Use film MENT, S
TIME, t S TIME, t
from data camera No. 2 (see Fig .C-1). (MsEC) (PT) (MsEC) (PT)

2. Plot the time-displacement data, as shown in Figure Q

-69 -4.5-,
C-2. -46 -3.0 408 18.3
3. Look at the high-speed film again, observe and record -23 -1.5 429 19.1
the displacement and time at which the car is parallel to 0 Impact 0 -i 449 19.9-i
10 0.7 469 20.7 Ii
the barrier. 1.3 490 21.4
20 :
Use film from data camera No. 2; record data 31 2.0 510 22.3- a
41 2.6 531 23.1
(S, t). 551 23.8
51 3.3
Use film from data camera No. 3; record data 61 3.8 571 24.6
(5, t) as a check. 71 4.4 592 25.3
Reconcile data obtained in Step 3a and Step 3b. 82 4.9 612 26.1
92 5.5 633 26.8
4. Observe film again, read and record displacement and 102 5.9 653 27.5
time at which car leaves barrier; proceed as in Step 3. 112 6.4 674 28.3
122 6.8 . 694 29.0
5. Now, compute slope of curve plotted in Step 2 at the 143 7.6 714 29.8
time: 163 8.4 735 30.4
184 9.2 755 31.1
Of impact-Use the average values of S and 776 31.8
204 10.1
over a target displacement of approximately 4 ft 225 10.9 796 32.5
(as indicated in Table C-i). 245 11.7 816 33.2
Car is parallel to barrier-Use average values over 265 12.5 837 33.8
an interval similar to that indicated in Step 5a. 286 13.4 857 34.5
306 14.2 -1 w
u
o 878 35.2
Car leaves barrier-Proceed as in Step 5b. 15.0 1 898 35.8
327
347 15.9 918 36.4
6. The slope of the S-t curve is an estithate of the speed 16.6-' 6 939 37.1
367
at each critical point, since V1 = iS1/ t1 where "I" indi- 388 17.5 959 37.7
cates the instant of the car's (1) impact with, (2) being
parallel with, and (3) leaving the barrier. Source: Test 505 Ti-A after Olson, et al. (42).
44

Data Camera No. 3

rrler

I/Id FA

Figure C-i. High-speed photography camera positions.

The finite increment of displacement, 1S1at , is computed and the results are tabulated in Table C-2. It is recognized
using Eq. 2 in Figure C-3. Dimension D1 is computed that peak values may be two to three or more times the
using AL and B measured for each vehicle and the angle 9 magnitude of the average values presented in Table C-2;
for each test. Dimension D2 is estimated from high-speed these peak values may be very significant in the design of
films obtained from a camera located parallel to the bridge barrier systems and connections. The relationship between
rail. average loads and peak loads is not resolved in this study.
The distance tS10, g.
is observed from high-speed film in Average values of impact force have been computed and
a camera placed perpendicular to the bridge rail. presented in this report and shed some light on the sig-
The average decelerations perpendicular and parallel to nificance of the relationship of the forces parallel and
the rail (average Giat and average G ioi,g ) are computed by perpendicular to a barrier as shown in Table C-2.
Eq. 3 and Eq. 4, shown in Figure C-3. The average total The 10 service requirements presented in NCHRP Re-
deceleration (average G tota i) is defined, Eq. 5, as the vec- port 86 serve as the basis for an evaluation of four barriers
tor sum of these components, as shown in Figure C-3. tested at the Texas Transportation Institute, as shown in
Table C-3.
EVALUATION OF RESULTS
METHOD USED TO ADJUST DATA TO FIT A
High-speed films were examined to determine the reduc-
4,000-LB CAR TRAVELING 60 MPH
tion in velocity produced by a collision incident and to
estimate the average total impact force (average G totai) It was first assumed that the predicted maximum dynamic
and its components parallel (average Giong.) 'and perpen- deflection (Dr ) of the barrier varied linearly with the ratio
dicular (average Gjat ) to the barrier. A summary of the of the predicted initial kinetic energy (KE) to the ob-
method of photographic analysis is contained in Figure C-3, served initial kinetic energy (KE10 ).
 45

S(From H.S. Film) Car Parallel To

1.1 Barrier r Car Leaves Barrier
C)

0. Barrier
I-.

- -
Plan View Of Barrier Crash Test

Parallel tLeaves Barrier

Time, t, (Seconds)

Plot Of Car Movement During Time Of Collision

AS2 AS3
V1 V2'= V3=
UI_I
At2 At3
Figure C-2. Data plot showing critical velocities.

Where Then

(C-I) 8111 = S10 - D0 + DD (C4)

then The predicted average lateral acceleration (ãint.p) is then

D9 = ( D0)K (C-2)
V 2 ft, sin2 0
Because the dimensions of the car, as well as the initial (C-5)
2g S12
impact angle, are not changed for a predicted test, the
vehicle lateral displacement (Slat.) changes only by the in which
difference between the predicted and observed maximum
dynamic deflection. Displacements and accelerations are V j = the initial speed; and
determined from impact until the car is parallel to the g = 32.2 ft/sec2
barrier. The formula used to obtain Sl,,t. is
It was then assumed that the predicted vehicle longi-
S1 , = AL sin 0 + B(l - cos 0) + D (C-3) tudinal displacement (S1ongp) varied with the ratio of the
in which predicted to observed lateral displacement, or

AL = the longitudinal distance with respect to the car ,

-'long. - long.0 (C6)
from the front to the center of gravity; ( J
\ lat.P. /
0= is the impact angle;
B = the transverse distance with respect to the car from In addition, the ratio of the initial kinetic energies (K)
the side of impact to the center of gravity; and was assumed to be equal to the ratio of the changes in
D = is the maximum dynamic deflection of the barrier. kinetic energy, so
 46

VEHICLE VEHICLE IS
CONTACTS PARALLEL TO
BARRIER BARRIER VEHICLE
LEAVES
BARRIER

GOVERNING EQUATIONS:
(V, sin 0)2
AV=V2 —V1 Average Giat =

2
0)2_ V2
Average Glong = (Vi
Cog
lS1at = Di - D2
2gAS long

1/2
(5) Average Gtti = [(Ave. Giat)2 + (Avg. Gioflg)2J
- - -- -

Figure C-3 Geometric representation of photographic analysis. Source: Ref. 42.

i KE, Then predicted average longitudinal deceleration (ãiongp)

K= KE isnow
- m(V 2 - V,2) K TO (V ff2)
(C-7) m
° 2 cos20 -
m0(V02 _ V 02 ) along. = (C-9a)
Siat
2g Siong.0
in which 5lat0
V f = the speed of the car when parallel to the barrier. m0 Sla t
m - the mass of the car. =K (C9b)
m Sia tp
If we consider only that portion of kinetic energy which It is recognized that the assumptions involved in this
is due to the velocity component perpendicular to the derivation are conjectural. If the new predictions for bar-
barrier, we obtain: rier displacement, longitudinal g, and transverse g have
some validity—an assumption which is unproven—the
m(V2 2 cos20 - V, 2 ) authors strongly believe that the equations give reasonable
(C-8a)
m0(V 2 cos29 - V1 2 ) estimates for only a relatively small range of impact speeds,
barrier deflections, impact angles, and vehicle masses. For
or example, it is believed that the equations give reasonable
estimates when converting to the idealized condition from
m0 ranges of speed (60 ± 5 mph), angle (250 ± 2°), and
V. 2 cos2O - V . 2 = K (V 2 cos20 •V1 2 ) ( C-8b)
MP mass (4,000 ± 500 lb).
 47

TABLE C-2
TEST DATA SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS

DATA FROM FILMS COMPUTED RESULTS

CHANGE IN SPEED
DISPLACEMENT (Fr/sEc) AVERAGE DECELERA-
SPEED (FT/sEc) (FT) TION (G)
(V1- (V1- (V2 -
TEST Vi V.. V S10,,5. V2) V3 ) V) Gi,,. G10 5. G,,t,,1
Ti-A 65.2 40.2 39.2 2.5 13.1 25.0 26.0 1.0 4.7, 2.2 5.2
Ti-B 82.7 41.3 39.1 3.5 13.0 41.4 43.6 2.2 5.4 4.7 7.2
Ti-C 85.0 61.1 58.3 5.2 15.0 23.9 26.7 2.8 3.9 2.2 4.5
Ti-D 90.1 80.4 79.7 3.3 14.5 9.7 10.4 0.7 6.8 0.2 6.8

* v1 is the speed of the vehicle at impact;

V. is the speed of the vehicle when it becomes parallel to the rail; and
V., is the speed of the vehicle at loss of contact with the rail.
s F,,,t.= vehicle weight x G,,,5 ;
F,,,,,5 = vehicle weight X
F,,,50, = vehicle weight )( G,,,,,,; and
= F,,,,,,,/F,,,
COMPUTED AVERAGE IMPACT FORCE *
F,,,,(lb) F,,,,,5 0b) F,,, 1 (1b) is
TEST
Ti-A 8,740 4,090 9,670 0.47
Ti-B 21,170 18,420 28,220 , 0.87
Ti-C 14,310 8,070 16,520 '0.56
Ti-D 24,620 720 ' 24,620 0.03

Source: After Olson, et al. (42).

TABLE C-3
EVALUATION OF BARRIERS USING TENTATIVE SERVICE REQUIREMENTS

SERVICE T-i BRIDGE RAIL MODIFIED

REQUIRE- TRANSITION RAIL T- 1 BRIDGE RAIL
MEN'!' TEST Ti-A TEST Ti-B . TEST Ti-C TEST T1-D

1 Adequate lateral restraint is provided by each of these barriers; penetration and vaulting do not occur.
G =5.2 =7.2 , G,,,,,, =4.5 G,,,,,,, =6.8
Vehicle damage rating: Vehicle damage rating: Vehicle damage rating: Vehicle damage rating:
2 4.9 , 6.4 3.9 4.5
Probability of injury: Probability of injury: Probability of injury: Probability of injury:
50% 85% 30% 45%
Good redirection, Poor redirection, Good redirection. Fair redirection.
3 slight snagging. severe snagging.
4 Each barrier remained intact following the collision.
5 Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable
6 Yes '-V - Yes This approach rail is Yes
compatible geometrically
and has adequate connec-
tion to bridge rail.
7 Each barrier satisfies the requirement for delineation and does not obstruct drivçr's sight distance.
8 - No curb No curb No curb . No curb
9 No repairs required Replaced W-section Replaced posts and No repairs required
W-section
Safety: 3 Safety: 4 Safety: i Safety: 2
Economics: Economics: Economics: Economics:
10 Vehicle repair: 2 Vehicle repair: 4 Vehicle repair: 1 Vehicle repair: 3
Barrier repair: 2 Barrier repair: 3 Barrier repair: 4 Barrier repair: 1
Aesthetics: 1 Aesthetics: 1 Aesthetics: 1 Aesthetics: I

Source: After Olsen, et al. (42)

48

APPENDIX D

COMPARISON OF PREDICTED AND OBSERVED AVERAGE UNIT DECELERATIVE FORCES

PERPENDICULAR TO BARRIERS

Data obtained from high-speed films of collisions with bar- matical expression developed in NCHRP Report 86 (1).
riers were reduced and analyzed by the method described The results shown include values from crash tests con-
in Appendix C. The values of average lateral unit impact ducted at the Texas Transportation Institute during 1969
force (perpendicular to the barrier) obtained from the ifim through 1971, which have been added to the values re-
data are compared in Figure D-1 with the estimated aver- ported in Appendix A of NCHRP Report 86. The com-
age lateral unit impact force computed by using the mathe- parisons are very satisfactory..
 49

10

t.i

7
+20%

I / -20%

fr2

0 2 4 6 8 10

Mathematical Model (Average g's)

(Equation 5, Ref. 1, p. 12)

O New York Tests (Ref. 1, p. 12)

E Montreal Tests (Ref. 1, p. 39)
TTI Tests on Barriers (1969-71)
X FHWA-SWRI Fragmenting Tube Barrier (Ref. 44)
* New York Strong Beam Barriers (Ref. 45)
Texas Ti Barriers (Ref. 42)
Texas Concrete Median Barrier (Ref. 46)
Figure D-1. Comparison of average q forces.
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50 Factors Influencing Safety at Highway-Rail Grade 76 Detecting Seasonal Changes in Load-Carrying Ca-
Crossings (Proj. 3-8), 113 p., $5.20 pabilities of Flexible Pavements (Proj. 1-5(2)),
51 Sensing and Communication Between Vehicles (Proj. 37 p., $2.00
3-3), 105 p., $5.00 77 Development of Design Criteria for Safer Luminaire
52 Measurement of Pavement Thickness by Rapid and Supports (Proj. 15-6), 82 p., $3.80
Nondestructive Methods (Proj. 10-6), 82 p., 78 Highway Noise—Measurement, Simulation, and
$3.80 Mixed Reactions (Proj. 3-7), 78 p., $3.20
53 Multiple Use of Lands Within Highway Rights-of- 79 Development of Improved Methods for Reduction of
Way (Proj. 7-6), 68 p., $3.20 Traffic Accidents (Proj. 17-1), 163 p., $6.40
54 Location, Selection, and Maintenance of Highway 80 Oversize-Overweight Permit Operation on State High-
Guärdrails and Median Barriers (Proj. 15-1(2)), ways (Proj. 2-10), 120 p., $5.20
63 p., $2.60 81 Moving Behavior and Residential Choice—A Na-
55 Research Needs in Highway Transportation (Proj. tional Survey (Proj. 8-6), 129 p., $5.60
20-2), 66 p., $2.80 82 National Survey of Transportation Attitudes and
56 Scenic Easements—Legal, Administrative, and Valua- Behavior—Phase II Analysis Report (Proj. 20-4),
tion Problems and Procedures (Proj. 11-3), 174 p., 89 p., $4.00
$6.40 83 Distribution of Wheel Loads on Highway Bridges
57 Factors Influencing Modal Trip Assignment (Proj. (Proj. 12-2), 56 p., $2.80
8-2), 78 p., $3.20 84 Analysis and Projection of Research on Traffic
58 Comparative Analysis of Traffic Assignment Tech- Surveillance, Communication, and Control (Proj.
niques with Actual Highway Use (Proj. 7-5), 85 p., 3-9), 48 p., $2.40
$3.60 85 Development of Formed-in-Place Wet Reflective
59 Standard Measurements for Satellite Road Test Pro- Markers (Proj. 5-5), 28 p., $1.80
gram (Proj. 1-6), 78 p., $3.20 86 Tentative Service Requirements for Bridge Rail Sys-
60 Effects of Illumination on Operating Characteristics tems (Proj. 12-8), 62 p., $3.20
of Freeways (Proj. 5-2) 148 p., $6.00 87 Rules of Discovery and Disclosure in Highway Con-
61 Evaluation of Studded Tires—Performance Data and demnation Proceedings (Proj. 11-1(5)), 28 p.,
Pavement Wear Measurement (Proj. 1-9), 66 p., $2.00
$3.00 88 Recognition of Benefits to Remainder Property in
62 Urban Travel Patterns for Hospitals, Universities, Highway Valuation Cases (Proj. 11-1(2)), 24 p.,
Office Buildings, and Capitols (Proj. 7-1), $2.00
144 p., 89 Factors, Trends, and Guidelines Related to Trip
$5.60
63 Economics of Design Standards for Low-Volume Length (Proj. 7-4), 59 p., $3.20
Rural Roads (Proj. 2-6), $4.00 90 Protection of Steel in Prestressed Concrete Bridges
93 p.,
64 Motorists' Needs and Services on Interstate Highways (Proj. 12-5), 86 p., $4.00
(Proj. 7-7), $3.60 91 Effects of Deicing Salts on Water Quality and Biota
88 p.,
65 One-Cycle Slow-Freeze Test for Evaluating Aggre- —Literature Review and Recommended Research
gate Performance in Frozen Concrete (Proj. 4-3(1)), (Proj. 16-1), 70 p., $3.20
21p., $1.40 92 Valuation and Condemnation of Special Purpose
66 Identification of Frost-Susceptible Particles in Con- Properties (Proj. 11-1(6)), 47 p., $2.60
crete Aggregates (Proj. 4-3(2)), 62 p., $2.80 93 Guidelines for Medial and Marginal Access Control
67 Relation of Asphalt Rheological Properties to Pave- on Major Roadways (Proj. 3-13), 147 p.,
ment Durability (Proj. 9-1), 45 p., $2.20 $6.20
68 Application of Vehicle Operating Characteristics to 94 Valuation and Condemnation Problems Involving
Geometric Design and Traffic Operations (Proj. 3- Trade Fixtures (Proj. 11-1(9)), 22 p., $1.80
10), 38 p., $2.00 95 Highway Fog (Proj. 5-6), 48 p., $2.40
69 Evaluation of Construction Control Procedures— 96 Strategies for the Evaluation of Alternative Trans-
Aggregate Gradation Variations and Effects (Proj. portation Plans (Proj. 8-4), 111 p., $5.40
10-2A), 58 p., $2.80 97 Analysis of Structural Behavior of AASHO Road
70 Social and Economic Factors Affecting Intercity Test Rigid Pavements (Proj. 1-4(1)A), 35 p.,
Travel (Proj. 8-1), 68 p., $3.00 $2.60
71 Analytical Study of Weighing Methods for Highway 98 Tests for Evaluating Degradation of Base Course
Vehicles in Motion (Proj. 7-3), 63 p., $2.80 Aggregates (Proj. 4-2), 98 p. $5.00
72 Theory and Practice in Inverse Condemnation for 99 Visual Requirements in Night Driving (Proj. 5-3),
Five Representative States (Proj. 11-2), 44 p., 38 p., $2.60
$2.20 100 Research Needs Relating to Performance of Aggre-
73 Improved Criteria for Traffic Signal Systems on gates in Highway Construction (Proj. 4-8), 68 p.,
Urban Arterials (Proj. 3-5/1), 55 p., $2.80 $3.40
74 Protective Coatings for Highway Structural Steel 101 Effect of Stress on Freeze-Thaw Durability of Con-
(Proj. 4-6), 64 p., $2.80 crete Bridge Decks (Proj. 6-9), $3.60
70 p.,
74A Protective Coatings for Highway Structural Steel— 102 Effect of Weldments on the Fatigue Strength of Steel
Literature Survey (Proj. 4-6), 275 p., $8.00 Beams (Proj. 12-7), 114.p., $5.40
74B Protective Coatings for Highway Structural Steel— 103 Rapid Test Methods for Field Control of Highway
Current Highway Practices (Proj. 4-6), 102 p., Construction (Proj. 10-4), 89 p., $5.00
$4.00 104 Rules of Compensability and Valuation Evidence
75 Effect of Highway Landscape Development on for Highway Land Acquisition (Proj. 11-1),
Nearby Property (Proj. 2-9), 82 p., $3.60 77 p., $4.40
 Rep. Rep.
No. Title No. Title
105 Dynamic Pavement Loads of Heavy Highway Vehi- 133 Procedures for Estimating Highway User Costs, Air
cles (Proj. 15-5), 94 p., $5.00 Pollution, and Noise Effects (Proj. 7-8), 127 p.,
106 Revibration of Retarded Concrete for Continuous $5.60
Bridge Decks (Proj. 18-1), 67 p., $3.40 134 Damages Due to Drainage, Runoff, Blasting, and
107 New Approaches to Compensation for Residential Slides (Proj. 11-1(8)), 23 p., $2.80
Takings (Proj. 11-1(10)), 27 p., $2.40 135 Promising Replacements for Conventional Aggregates
108 Tentative Design Procedure for Riprap-Lined Chan- for Highway Use (Proj. 4-10), 53 p., $3.60
nels (Proj. 15-2), 75 p., $4.00 136 Estimating Peak Runoff Rates from Ungaged Small
109 Elastomeric Bearing Research (Proj. 12-9), 53 p., Rural Watersheds (Proj. 15-4), 85 p., $4.60
$3.00 137 Roadside Development—Evaluation of Research
110 Optimizing Street Operations Through Traffic Regu- (Proj. 16-2), 78 p., $4.20
lations and Control (Proj. 3-11), 100 p., $4.40 138 Instrumentation for Measurement of Moisture—
111 Running Costs of Motor Vehicles as Affected by Literature Review and Recommended Research
Road Design and Traffic (Proj. 2-5A and 2-7), (Proj. 21-1), 60 p., $4.00
97 p., $5.20 139 Flexible Pavement Design and Management—Sys-
112 Junkyard Valuation—Salvage Industry Appraisal tems Formulation (Proj. 1-10), 64 p., $4.40
Principles Applicable to Highway Beautification 140 Flexible Pavement Design and Management—Ma-
(Proj. 11-3(2)), 41 p., $2.60 terials Characterization (Proj. 1-10), 118 p.,
113 Optimizing Flow on Existing Street Networks (Proj. $5.60
3-14), 414 p., $15.60 141 Changes in Legal Vehicle Weights and Dimensions—
114 Effects of Proposed Highway Improvements on Prop- Some Economic Effects on Highways (Proj. 19-3),
erty Values (Proj. 11-1(1)), 42 p., $2.60 184.p., $8.40
115 Guardrail Performance and Design (Proj. 1571(2)), 142 Valuation of Air Space (Proj. 11-5), 48 p.,
70 p., $3.60 $4.00
116 Structural Analysis and Design of Pipe Culverts 143 Bus Use of Highways—State of the Art (Proj. 8-10),
(Proj. 15-3), 155 p., $6.40 406 p., $16.00
117 Highway Noise—A Design Guide for Highway En- 144 Highway Noise—A Field Evaluation of Traffic Noise
gineers (Proj. 3-7), 79 p., $4.60 Reduction Measures (Proj. 3-7), 80 p., $4.40
118 Location, Selection, and Maintenance of Highway 145 Improving Traffic Operations and Safety at Exit Gore
Traffic Barriers (Proj. 15-1(2)), Areas (Proj. 3-17) 120 p., $6.00
96 p., $5.20 146 Alternative Multimodal Passenger Transportation
119 Control of Highway Advertising Signs—Some Legal
Systems—Comparative Economic Analysis (Proj.
Problems (Proj. 11-3(1)), 72 p., $3.60 8-9), 68 p., $4.00
120 Data Requirements for Metropolitan Transportation 147 Fatigue Strength of Steel Beams with Welded Stiff-
Planning (Proj. 8-7), 90 .p. $4.80 eners and Attachments (Proj. 12-7), 85 p.,
121 Protection of Highway Utility (Proj. 8-5), 115 p., $4.80
$5.60 148 Roadside Safety Improvement Programs on Freeways
122 Summary and Evaluation of Economic Consequences —A Cost-Effectiveness Priority Approach (Proj. 20-
of Highway Improvements (Proj. 2-11), 324 p., 7), 64 p., $4.00
$13.60 149 Bridge Rail Design—Factors, Trends, and Guidelines
123 Development of Information Requirements and (Proj. 12-8), 49 p., $4.00
Transmission Techniques for Highway Users (Proj.
3-12), 239 p., $9.60
124 Improved Criteria for Traffic Signal Systems in
Urban Networks (Proj. 3-5), 86 p., $4.80
125 Optimization of Density and Moisture Content Mea-
surements by Nuclear Methods (Proj. 10-5A),
86 p., $4.40
126 Divergencies in Right-of-Way Valuation (Proj. 11-
4), 57 p., $3.00
127 Snow Removal and Icc Control Tcchniques at Inter-
changes (Proj. 6-10), 90 p., $5.20
128 Evaluation of AASHO Interim Guides for Design
of Pavement Structures (Proj. 1-11), 111 p.,
$5.60
129 Guardrail Crash Test Evaluation—New Concepts
and End Designs (Proj. 15-1(2)), 89 p.,
$4.80
130 Roadway Delineation Systems (Proj. 5-7),
349 p.,
$14.00
131 Performance Budgeting System for Highway Main-
tenance Management (Proj. 19-2(4)), 213 p.,
$8.40
132 Relationships Between Physiographic Units and
Highway Design Factors (Proj. 1-3(1)), 161 p.,
$7.20
Synthesis of Highway Practice
No. Title
1 Traffic Control for Freeway Maintenance (Proj. 20-5,
Topic 1), 47 p., $2.20
2 Bridge Approach Design and Construction Practices
(Proj. 20-5, Topic 2), 30 p., $2.00
3 Traffic-Safe and Hydraulically Efficient Drainage
Practice (Proj. 20-5, Topic 4), 38 p., $2.20
4 Concrete Bridge Deck Durability (Proj. 20-5, Topic
3), 28 p., $2.20
5 Scour at Bridge Waterways (Proj. 20-5, Topic 5),
37 p., $2.40
6 Principles of Project Scheduling and Monitoring
(Proj. 20-5, Topic 6), 43 p., $2.40
7 Motorist Aid Systems (Proj. 20-5, Topic 3-01),
28 p., $2.40
8 Construction of Embankments (Proj. 20-5, Topic 9),
38 p., $2.40
9 Pavement Rehabilitation—Materials and Techniques
(Proj. 20-5, Topic 8), 41 p., $2.80
10 Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Maintenance and
Equipment Personnel (Proj. 20-5, Topic 10), 35 p.,
$2.80
11 Development of Management Capability (Proj. 20-5,
Topic 12); sop., $3.20
12 Telecommunications Systems for Highway Admin-
istration and Operations (Proj. 20-5, Topic 3-03),
29 p., $2.80
13 Radio Spectrum Frequency Management (Proj. 20-5,
Topic 3-03), 32 p., $2.80
14 Skid Resistance (Proj. 20-5, Topic 7), 66 p.,
$4.00 -
15 Statewide Transportation Planning—Needs and Re-
quirements (Proj. 20-5, Topic 3-02), 41 p.,
$3.60
16 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (Proj.
20-5, Topic 3-08), 23 p., $2.80
17 Pavement Traffic Marking—Materials and Applica
tion Affecting Serviceability (Proj. 20-5, Topic 3-
05), 44 p., $3.60
18 Erosion Control on Highway Construction (Proj.
20-5, Topic 4-01), 52 p., $4.00
19 Design, Construction, and Maintenance of PCC
Pavement Joints (Proj. 20-5, Topic 3-04), 40 p.,
$3.60
20 Rest Areas (Proj. 20-5, Topic 4-04), 38 p.,
$3.60
21 Highway Location Reference Methods (Proj. 20-5,
Topic 4-06), 30 p., $3.20
22 Maintenance Management of Traffic Signal Equip-
ment and Systems (Proj. 20-5, Topic 4-03) 41 p.,
$4.00
23 Getting Research Findings into Practice (Proj. 20-5,
Topic!!) 24p., $3.20
24 Minimizing Deicing Chemical Use (Proj. 20-5,
Topic 4-02), 58 p., $4.00
THE TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD is an agency of the National
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