Chapter 1: Digital Systems and Binary Numbers

1.1 Digital Systems

1.2 Binary Numbers
1.3 Number­Base Conversions
1.4 Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers
1.5 Complements of Numbers
1.6 Signed Binary Numbers
1.7 Binary Codes
1 8 Binary Storage and Registers
1.8
1.9 Binary Logic

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 Digital Systems
• Digital age:
– digital systems play a prominent role in everyday life; used in communication, business
transactions traffic control,
transactions, control spacecraft guidance
guidance, medical treatment,
treatment weather monitoring,
monitoring the
Internet, and many other commercial, industrial, and scientific enterprises
• Digital system examples:
– mobile phone
– digital camera
– digital versatile disc (DVD),
(DVD) personal digital assistance (PDA),
(PDA) MP3,
MP3 …
– digital TV
– most, if not all, of these devices have an embedded special­purpose digital computer
• Digital computers: What you will learn in the micro-processor course.
– generality or flexibility
– users can specify
if andd change
h the
h program, a sequence off iinstructions,
i or the
h data
d according
di to
the specific need
– general­purpose digital computers can perform a variety of information­processing tasks that
range over a wide spectrum of applications
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 Signal
• Digital systems manipulate discrete elements of information represented in a digital
system by physical quantities called signals.
•VVoltages
lt and
d currents
t are the
th mostt common electrical
l t i l signals.
i l
• The signals in most present­day electronic digital systems use just two discrete values or
binaryy values
• Binary values are represented abstractly by:
- digit: 0 and 1  A binary digit is called a bit.
- logic: False (F) and True (T)
- level: Low (L) and High (H)
- word: Yes and No
- state: On and Off.
• Discrete elements of information are represented with groups of bits called binary codes.
For example: 01112 = 710
• Analog­to­digital converters perform quantization process on analog (continuous)
signals to form a digital (discrete) signals.
signals

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 General-purpose Digital Computer
• The major parts of a computer are a memory unit, a central processing unit (CPU), and
input–output units (I/O). [check these in your Computer course]
• Memory
M unit
it stores
t programs as well
ll as input,
i t output,
t t andd intermediate
i t di t data.
d t
• CPU performs arithmetic and data­processing operations as specified by the program.
• The program and data prepared by a user are transferred into memory by means of an
input device such as a keyboard.
• An output device, such as a printer, receives the results of the computations, and the
printed
i d results
l are presentedd to the
h user.
• Voice, image, finger touch, gesture, brain wave, …, also can be used as input or output.
• Communication unit provides interaction with other users through the Internet.
Internet
• A digital computer can perform not only arithmetic computations and logical operations
but also can make decisions based on internal and external conditions.

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 Hardware Description Language (HDL)
• A digital system is an interconnection of digital modules.
• To understand the operation of each digital module, it is necessary to have a basic
k
knowledge
l d off digital
di it l circuits
i it and d th
their
i llogical
i l function.
f ti
• A major trend in digital design methodology is the use of a hardware description
g g ((HDL)) to describe and simulate the functionality
language y of a digital
g circuit.
• An HDL resembles a programming language and is suitable for describing digital
circuits in textual form, simulating a digital system to verify its operation before
hardware is built,
built and automating the design process in conjunction with logic synthesis
tools.
• Ignorance of industry’s practices on HDL modeling will lead to cute, but worthless,
HDL models that may simulate a phenomenon, but that cannot be synthesized by design
tools, or to models that waste silicon area or synthesize to hardware that cannot operate
correctly.
y [take
[ the Digital
g System
y g course for more learning
Design g on HDL]]

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Decimal Numbers
• Decimal number (base-10 or radix-10) digit

… a5a4a3a2a1a0.a1a2a3… aj
Decimal point Power

  105 a5  104 a4  103 a3  102 a2  101 a1  100 a0  101 a1  102 a2  103 a3  

Example:

7,329  7  103  3  102  2  101  9  100

• General form of base-r system

an  r n  an 1  r n 1    a2  r 2  a1  r1  a0  a1  r 1  a2  r 2    a m  r  m
Coefficient: aj = 0 to r  1

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Base-r Numbers
Example: Base-2, binary
(11010.11) 2  (26.75)10
 1  24  1  23  0  22  1  21  0  20  1  2 1  1  2 2
Example: Base-5
Base 5
(4021.2)5
 4  53  0  52  2  51  1  50  2  51  (511.5)
(511 5)10

Example: Base-8, octal

(127.4)8
 1  83  2  82  1  81  7  80  4  81  ((87.5))10

Example: Base-16, hexadecimal, (A, B, C, D, E, and F are used for the digits 10 ~ 15, respectively)

(B65 F)16  11  163  6  162  5  161  15  160  (46,687)10

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Binary to Decimal Conversion
Example:
(110101)2  32  16  4  1  (53)10

Special Powers of 2

 210 ≈ 103 (1024) is Kilo, denoted “K”

 220 ≈ 106 ((1,048,576)) is Mega,
g denoted “M”
 230 ≈ 109 (1,073,741,824) is Giga, denoted “G”
 240 ≈ 1012 (1,099,511,627,776)
(1 099 511 627 776) iis Tera,
T d
denoted
t d “T”

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 Powers of Two

• A byte is equal to eight bits and usually used in computer capacity.

• A computer hard disk with four gigabytes of storage has a capacity of 4G = 232 bytes
(approximately 4 billion bytes).
• A terabyte
b iis 1024 gigabytes,
i b approximately
i l 1 trillion
illi bytes.
b
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 Binary Arithmetic Operations
• Addition • Subtraction
Augend: 101101 Minuend: 101101
Addend: +100111 Subtrahend: 100111

Sum: 1010100 Difference: 000110

• Multiplication
The binary multiplication table is simple:
0  0 = 0, 1  0 = 0, 0  1 = 0, 1  1 = 1
Extending multiplication to multiple digits:
Multiplicand 1011
Multiplier  101
Partial Products 1011
0000-
1011
1011--
Product 110111
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 Number-Base Conversion
Name Radix Digits
Binary 2 01
0,1

Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

Hexadecimal 16 0123456789ABCDEF
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
 The six letters A, B, C, D, E, and F in hexadecimal represent: 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15,
p y
respectively.

 Base-r to decimal conversion is done byy expanding

p g the number in a ppower series and
adding all the terms.
 Decimal to base-r conversion is done by dividing the number and all successive
quotients by r and accumulating the remainders.
remainders

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 Decimal to Binary Conversion
Example1.1
Convert decimal 41 to binary. The quotient-divided-2 process is continued until the
integer quotient becomes 0.

Integer
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
41/2 = 20 1 a0 = 1
20/2 = 10 0 a1 = 0
10/2 = 5 0 a2 = 0
5/2 = 2 1 a3 = 1
2/2 = 1 0 a4 = 0
1/2 = 0 1 a5 = 1

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 Long Division
 The arithmetic process can be manipulated more conveniently as follows:

÷2
41 = 20 × 2 + 1
= (10 × 2 + 0) × 2 + 1
= ((5 × 2 + 0) × 2 + 0) × 2 + 1
= (((2 × 2 + 1) × 2 + 0) × 2 + 0) × 2 + 1
= ((((1 × 2 + 0) × 2 + 1) × 2 + 0) × 2 + 0) × 2 + 1
= (((1 × 2 + 0) × 2 + 1) × 2 + 0) × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20
= ((1 × 2 + 0) × 2 + 1) × 23 + 0 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20
= (1 × 2 + 0) × 24 + 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20
= 1 × 25 + 0 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20

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Decimal to Octal Conversion
Example 1.2
Convert decimal 153 to octal. The required base r is 8.

153 = 19 × 8 + 1
= (2 × 8 + 3) × 8 + 1
= 2 × 82 + 3 × 81 + 1 × 80

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 Decimal Fraction Number to Binary
Example1.3
Convert (0.6875)10 to binary. The multiplied-by-2 process is continued until the
fraction becomes 0 or until the number of digits has sufficient accuracy.
accuracy

 To convert a decimal fraction to a base-r number, a similar procedure is used. However,

multiplication is by r instead of 2, and the coefficients found from the integers may
range in value from 0 to r  1 instead of 0 and 1.
1

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 Decimal Fraction Number to Octal
E l 14
Example1.4
Convert (0.513)10 to octal.

 The conversion of decimal numbers with both integer and fraction parts is done by
g the integer
converting g and the fraction separately
p y and then combining
g the two
answers.
 From Examples 1.1 and 1.3: (41.6875)10 = (101001.1011)2
 From Examples 1.2 and 1.4: (153.513)10 = (231.406517)8
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Numbers with Different Bases
 23 = 8 & 24=16
16
each octal/hexadecimal digit corresponds to three/four binary digits

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 Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers 23 = 8, 24 = 16
 Conversion
i from
f binary
bi to octall can be
b done
d by
b positioning
i i i theh binary
bi number
b into
i
groups of three digits each, starting from the binary point and proceeding to the
left and to the right.
(10 110 001 101 011 ． 111 100 000 110) 2 = (26153.7406)8
2 6 1 5 3 7 4 0 6
 Conversion from binary to hexadecimal is similar, except that the binary number is
divided into groups of four digits:

 Conversion
C i from
f octall or hexadecimal
h d i l to binary
bi i done
is d b reversing
by i the
h preceding
di
procedure.

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 Complements of Numbers
 Complements
C l t are usedd in
i digital
di it l systems
t to
t simplify
i lif theth subtraction
bt ti operation
ti
 There are two types of complements for each base-r system: the radix complement and
diminished radix complement.
the
h r's complement
l andd the
h second h ((r  1)'s
d as the ) complement.
l
■ Diminished Radix Complement

Example:

 For binary numbers, r = 2 and r – 1 = 1, so the 1's complement of N is (2n  1) – N.

Example:

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 Complements of Numbers
■ Radix Complement
The r's complement of an n-digit number N in base r is defined as rn – N for N ≠ 0
0 Comparing with the (r  1) 'ss complement
and as 0 for N = 0. complement, we note that the rr'ss
complement is obtained by adding 1 to the (r  1) 's complement, since rn – N =
[(rn  1) – N] + 1.
Example: Base-10

The 10's complement of 012398 is 987602

Th 10's
The 10' complement
l t off 246700 iis 753300

Example: Base-2

The 2's complement of 1101100 is 0010100

The 2's complement of 0110111 is 1001001

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 Subtraction with Complements
• The subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers M – N in base r can be done as follows:

• Add the minuend M to the r’s complement of the subtrahend N.

 M + (rn-N) = M – N + rn

• M ≥ N  the sum will produce an end carry rn, which can be discarded, what is
left
e t iss the
t e result
esu t M-N
N

• M < N  the sum does not produce an end carry, and is equal to rn- (N –M)

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 10’s Complement Subtraction
Example 1.5
Using 10's complement, subtract 72532 – 3250.

Example 1.6
Using 10's complement, subtract 3250 – 72532

There is no end carry.

Therefore, the answer is – (10's complement of 30718) =  69282.

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 2’s Complement Subtraction
Example 1.7
Given the two binary numbers X = 1010100 and Y = 1000011, perform the subtraction (a)
( ) Y  X byy usingg 2's complement.
X – Y and (b) p

There is no end carry.

Therefore, the answer is
Y – X =  (2
(2'ss complement
of 1101111) =  0010001.

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 1’s Complement Subtraction
 Subtraction
S b i off unsigned
i d numbers
b can also l be b done
d by
b means off the (  1)'s
h (r 1)'
complement. Remember that the (r  1) 's complement is one less then the r's
complement.
Example 1.8
Repeat Example 1.7, but this time using 1's complement.

There is no end carry,

carry
Therefore, the answer is
Y – X =  (1's complement
off 1101110) =  0010001.
0010001
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 Signed Binary Numbers
 To represent negative integers, we need a notation for negative values.
 It is customary to represent the sign with a bit placed in the leftmost position of the
number.
number
 The convention is to make the sign bit 0 for positive and 1 for negative.

E l Al
Example: Although
h h there
h iis only
l one way to represent +9,
9 there
h are three
h diff
different
ways to represent -9 with eight bits:

 Table 3 lists all possible four-bit

four bit signed binary numbers in the three representations
representations.

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 Arithmetic Addition with Signed Binary Numbers
 The
Th addition
ddi i off two numbers
b iin the
h signed-magnitude
i d i d system follows
f ll the
h rules
l off
ordinary arithmetic.
 If the signs
g are the same,, add the two magnitudes
g and ggive the sum the common
sign.
 If the signs are different, subtract the smaller magnitude from the larger and give
th difference
the diff the
th sign
i if the
th larger
l magnitude.
it d
 The addition of negative numbers represented in signed-2's-complement form is
obtained from the addition of the two numbers, including
g their sign
g bits.
 A carry out of the sign-bit position is discarded.
Example: signed-2's-complement arithmetic

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 Arithmetic Subtraction
 In 2’s-complement form:

1. Take the 2’s complement of the subtrahend (including the sign bit) and add it to
the minuend (including sign bit).
2. A carry out of sign-bit position is discarded.

(  A)  (  B )  (  A)  (  B )
(  A)  (  B )  (  A)  (  B )
Example:

( 6)  ( 13) (11111010  11110011)

(11111010 + 00001101)

00000111 ((+ 7))

 Since binary numbers in signed­complement system are added and subtracted by the
same basic addition and subtraction rules as unsigned numbers, computers need
only one common hardware circuit to handle both types of arithmetic.
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 Binary Codes
• An n­bit binary code can have up to 2n distinct combinations of 1’s and 0’s, with each
combination representing one element of the information set that is being coded.
• A sett off ffour elements
l t can be
b coded
d d with
ith two
t bits:
bit 00,
00 01,
01 10,
10 11.
11
• A set of eight elements requires a 3­bit code and a set of 16 elements requires a 4­bit
code. ((What are these codes?))
• The bit combination of an n­bit code is the count in binary from 0 to 2n - 1.
• Each element must be assigned a unique binary bit combination, and no two elements
can have
h the
h same value;
l otherwise,
h i the
h coded assignment
i will
ill bbe ambiguous.
bi
• Although the minimum number of bits required to code 2n distinct quantities is n, there is
no maximum number of bits that may be used for a binary code. For example, the 10
decimal digits can be coded with 10 bits, and each decimal digit can be assigned a bit
combination of nine 0’s and a 1. In this particular binary code, the digit 6 is assigned the
bit combination 0001000000.
0001000000 (It is called one-hot code.)
code )

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Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD)
 A number with k decimal digits will require
4k bits in BCD.
 Decimal 396 is represented in BCD with 12
bits as 0011 1001 0110, with each group of
4 bits representing
p g one decimal digit.
g
 A decimal number in BCD is the same as its
equivalent binary number only when the
number
b iis between
b t 0 andd 9.
9
 A BCD number greater than 10 looks
different from its equivalent
q binary
y number,,
even though both contain 1's and 0's.
 The binary combinations 1010 through
1111 are not used and have no meaning in
BCD.

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BCD Conversion and Addition
Example:
Consider decimal 185 and its corresponding value in BCD and binary:

■ BCD Additi
Addition

If the decimal addition has carry, correct the results by adding 6 = 0110.

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 BCD Addition
Example:
Consider the addition of 184 + 576 = 760 in BCD:

■ Consider the addition (+375) + (-240) = +135, done in the signed­complement system:

9760 is the 10’s complement of 0240.

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Other Decimal Codes

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Gray Code

 Gray
G code
d changes
h only
l one bit in
i the
th code
d
group going from one number to the next.
 For example,
p , ggoing
g from 7 to 8,, the Grayy code
changes from 0100 to 1100. Only the first bit
changes, from 0 to 1; the other three bits remain
the same
same.
 If binary numbers are used, a change, for
example, from 0111 to 1000 may produce an
i
intermediate
di erroneous number b 1001 if theh
value of the rightmost bit takes longer to change
than do the values of the other three bits.

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 Gray Code (Continued)
• Does this special Gray code property have any value?
• Example: Optical Shaft Encoder

111 000 100 000

B0
B1
110 001 101 001
B2

G2
G1
111 G0
101 010 011

100 011 110 010

(a) Binary Code for Positions 0 through 7 (b) Gray Code for Positions 0 through 7

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 Gray Code Generation
• Gray codes

0 00 000 0000
1 01 001 0001
11 011 0011
10 010 0010
110 0110
111 0111
101 0101
100 0100
1100
1101
1111
1110
1010
1011
1001
1000

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 ASCII Character Code
• Digital computers handle not only the numbers, but also other characters or symbols,
such as the letters of the alphabet.
•A
An alphanumeric
l h i character
h t sett is
i a sett off elements
l t that
th t includes
i l d theth 10 decimal
d i l digits,
di it
the 26 letters of the alphabet, and a number of special characters. Such a set contains
between 36 and 64 elements if only capital letters are included, or between 64 and 128
elements if both uppercase and lowercase letters are included.
• The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) uses seven bits to
code 128 characters, as shown in Table 1.7 .
• The 7 bits of the code are designated by b1 through b7, with b7 the most significant bit.
• The letter A, for example, is represented in ASCII as 1000001 (column 100, row 0001).
• The ASCII code also contains 94 graphic characters that can be printed and 34
nonprinting characters used for various control functions.
• Th
The graphic
hi characters
h t consist
i t off the
th 26 uppercase letters
l tt (A through
th h Z),
Z) the
th 26
lowercase letters (a through z), the 10 numerals (0 through 9), and 32 special printable
characters, such as %, *, and $.

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ASCII Character Set

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ASCII Control Characters

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 UNICODE
• UNICODE extends ASCII to 65,536 universal characters codes
– For encoding characters in world languages
– Available in many modern applications
– 2 byte (16
(16-bit)
bit) code words
– See Reading Supplement – Unicode on the Companion Website
http://www.prenhall.com/mano

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 Error-Detecting Code
 To detect errors in data communication and processing, an eighth bit is
sometimes added to the ASCII character to indicate its parity.
 A parity bit is an extra bit included with a message to make the total
number of 1's either even or odd.

Example:
Consider the following two characters and their even and odd parity:

parity bit

What kind of errors can be detected?

Can the error be corrected?

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 Memory: Binary Storage and Registers
■ Registers
 The binary information in a digital computer must have a physical existence
in some medium for storing individual bits
bits.
 A binary cell is a device that possesses two stable states and is capable of
storing one bit of information (0 or 1).
 A register is a group of binary cells.
 A register with n cells can store any discrete quantity of information that
contains n bits.
bits
n cells 2n possible states
 The
Th content
t t off a register
i t (the
(th information
i f ti stored
t d in
i it) iis iinterpreted
t t d diff
differently
tl
depending on the application of CPU.

Enumerate the kinds of memory you know.

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Register Transfer of information

• The transfer of binary

y information
from a keyboard into a register in
the memory unit.

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Binary Information Processing

 Binary
Bi variables
i bl are manipulated
i l t d by
b
means of digital logic circuits.
 Data is commonly
y hold in registers.
g
 Digital logic circuits and registers are
covered in Chapters 2 through 6.
 Memory unit
i is
i explained
l i d in
i Chapter
h 7.
 The description of register operations and
the design of digital systems are covered
in Chapter 8 .

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 A Digital Computer Example

Memory

Control
CPU unit Datapath

Inputs:
p Outputs:
Keyboard, mouse, LCD, modem, speakers
modem, microphone Input/Output

Synchronous or Asynchronous?

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 Binary Logic
 Binary logic consists of binary variables and a set of logical operations
operations.
 The variables are designated by letters of the alphabet, such as A, B, C, x, y, z, etc,
with each variable having two and only two distinct possible values: 1 and 0.
 There are three basic logical operations: AND, OR, and NOT.

N represented
AND: p byy a dot or by
y the absence of an operator.
p
• x·y = z or xy = z is read “x AND y is equal to z.”
• z = 1 if and only if x = 1 and y = 1; otherwise z = 0. (Remember that x, y, and z are
bi
binary variables
i bl andd can be b equall either
ith tot 1 or 0,
0 andd nothing
thi else.)
l )
OR: represented by a plus sign.
• x + y = z is read “x O
OR y is equal
q to z,”
, meaningg that z = 1 if x = 1 or if y = 1 or if
both x = 1 and y = 1.
• If both x = 0 and y = 0, then z = 0.
NOT: represented
NOT d bby a prime
i (sometimes
( i by
b an overbar).
b )
• x’ = z (or x = z ) is read “not x is equal to z,” meaning that z is what x is not.
• If x = 1,, then z = 0,, but if x = 0,, then z = 1.
• also referred to as the complement operation, since it changes a 1 to 0 and a 0 to 1.
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Truth Table of Logic Operation

A logic variable is always either 1 or 0.

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 Binary Logic Levels
 Binary logic levels have evolved from a higher
voltage to lower for saving power consumption.
 5 V  3 V  1.8
18V…
 Typically,
a high voltage region (VDD) represents logic 1
a low voltage region (GND) represents logic 0
 The transition region is forbidden for proper logic
operation.
 The required signal range for logic is different at
the input and output sides of logic elements.
elements The
signal range at output side is more stringent than
that at input side. The difference is called noise
margin.
margin

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 Basic Logic Gates
 Graphic Symbols and Input Output Signals for Logic gates:
Input-Output

Input-Output signals for logic gates

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Multiple-Input Gates

F = (AB)(CD) = ABCD
A A
B F B F
C
C
D
D

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Inverting Gates
NOT + AND = NAND A B F
0 0 1
A A F 0 1 1
F
1 0 1
B B 1 1 0

NOT + OR = NOR A B F
A F A 0 0 1
F 0 1 0
B B 1 0 0
1 1 0

Exclusive OR/NOR Gates

XOR F=A B F=A B
XNOR
A B F A B F
A F A F 0 0 1
0 0 0
B 0 1 1 B 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
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Homework #1

1.4
18
1.8
1.18
1.22
1 36
1.36

Due: one week

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