Chapter 5:

BJT AC Analysis
5.17 Two-Port Systems Approach
This approach:
• Reduces a circuit to a two-port system
• Provides a “Thévenin look” at the output terminals
• Makes it easier to determine the effects of a changing load

With Vi set to 0 V:

The voltage across the

open terminals is:

where AvNL is the no-load

voltage gain.
 Amplified circuit model
1. Amplifying circuit symbol and analog signal amplification
Signal
source load

Voltage gain (voltage amplification) Current gain

Mutual resistance gain Mutual conductance gain

 Amplified circuit model
2. Amplified circuit model

Amplified circuit Two port network

F Input port characteristics can be equivalent to one input resistance

F The output port can be equivalent to different circuit forms

according to different situations.
 Amplified circuit model
2. Amplified circuit model
A. Voltage amplification model
—— Input resistance

——Open circuit voltage gain

—— Output resistance

voltage gain

The load value affects the gain value

If we want to reduce the impact of the load, then hope...?
(Consider changing the parameters of the amplifier circuit)
Ideal situation
 Amplified circuit model

A. Voltage amplification model

If we want to reduce the attenuation, then hope...?

Ideal situation
Amplified circuit model
B. Current amplification model
——Load short circuit
current gain

Current gain

If we want to reduce the impact Ideal situation

of the load, then hope...?
Input loop

If we want to reduce the attenuation, Ideal situation

then hope...?
 Main performance indicators of the amplifier circuit
1. Input resistance

Input resistance Reflects the strength of the signal acquisition

capability of the amplifier circuit
 Main performance indicators of the amplifier circuit
2. Output resistance

Output resistance Reflects the strength of the amplifier

circuit with load capacity

Note: The input and output resistors are AC resistors.

 Main performance indicators of the amplifier circuit

3. Gain
Reflecting the ability of the amplifying circuit to convert the power of
the power supply to the energy of the output signal under the control of
the input signal.

Four gains:
5.3 BJT Transistor Modeling

• A model is an equivalent circuit that represents the AC

characteristics of the transistor.
• A model uses circuit elements that approximate the behavior
of the transistor.
• There are three models commonly used in small signal AC
analysis of a transistor:
– re model
– Hybrid equivalent model
– Hybrid π model
5.3 BJT Transistor Modeling
AC Sketch an AC network:
network
1. Remove DC supplies (voltage
sources are replaced by short
circuit).
2. The coupling capacitor and
bypass capacitor can be
replaced by a short circuit.

AC equivalent
circuit 3. Removing all elements bypassed by
the short-circuit equivalents
introduced by steps 1 and 2.
4. Redrawing the network in a more
convenient and logical form.
5.4 The re Transistor Model

BJTs are basically current-controlled devices, therefore the re model uses a

diode and a current source to duplicate the behavior of the transistor.

One disadvantage to this model is its sensitivity to the DC level. This model
is designed for specific circuit conditions.
 Common-Base Configuration

Input impedance: Low

Output impedance: High

Voltage gain: voltage amplification

re model for CB configuration

Current gain: No current amplification

 Common-Emitter Configuration
The diode re model can be replaced by the
resistor re.

Input impedance: higher than CB

Output impedance: lower than CB

re model for CE
configuration
Voltage gain: Voltage amplification，
Vo and Vi are 180°out of phase

Current gain: Current amplification

re model requires you to determine , re, and

ro.
Use the common-emitter model for the common-collector configuration.
EXAMPLE 5.4
a. Determine re.
b. Find Zi (with ro=∞Ω).
c. Calculate Zo (with ro=∞Ω).
d. Determine Av (with ro=∞Ω).
e. Repeat parts (c) and (d) including r o = 50 kΩ in all
calculations and compare results.
Solution:
a. DC analysis:
 5.5 The Hybrid Equivalent Model
The following hybrid parameters are developed and used for modeling the transistor.
These parameters can be found in a specification sheet for a transistor.

vCE=const
iB=f(vBE) iB=const
iC=f(vCE)

two-port network of BJT

vbe= hiib+ hrvce

ic= hfib+ hovce

5.5 The Hybrid Equivalent Model
The following hybrid parameters are developed and used for modeling the transistor.
These parameters can be found in a specification sheet for a transistor.

• hi = input resistance
• hr = reverse transfer voltage ratio (Vi/Vo)  0
• hf = forward transfer current ratio (Io/Ii)
• ho = output conductance  
Simplified General H-Parameter Model: Approximate hybrid equivalent model

• hi = input resistance
• hr = reverse transfer voltage ratio (Vi/Vo)  0
• hf = forward transfer current ratio (Io/Ii)
• ho = output conductance  
re Model vs. h-Parameter Model

Common-Emitter

Common-Base
5.6 The Hybrid  Model
The hybrid  model is most useful for analysis of high-frequency transistor applications.
At lower frequencies the hybrid  model closely approximate the re parameters, and can
be replaced by them.
 AC Analysis with Equivalent models
Section 5.8 CE with fix-bias
Section 5.9 CE with voltage-divider bias
Section 5.10 CE with emitter bias CE

Section 5.14 CE with dc collector feedback bias

Section 5.13 CE with collector feedback
Section 5.11 CC: Emitter follower
Section 5.12 CB

AC unknowns Calculate:
Amplification
•Impedance
circuit
•Input impedance
•Output impedance
DC analysis AC equivalent circuit •Gain
to determine re with re model •Voltage gain
•Current gain
The working principle of the Common-Emitter
Fixed-Bias circuit
Dynamic working process

vi vBE=VBEQ+vi iB=IBQ+ib

Phase shift is 180° Voltage Current

amplification amplification
vo vCE iC=  iB

vo= -ic(RC//RL) vCE=VCEQ-ic(RC//RL) iC=ICQ+ic

23
5.8 Common-Emitter Fixed-Bias Configuration

AC network

• The input is applied to the base

• The output is from the collector
• High input impedance
• Low output impedance
• High voltage and current gain
• Phase shift between input and output is 180 AC equivalent with re model
Common-Emitter Fixed-Bias Calculations
Input impedance:

Output impedance:

Voltage gain:

CE amplifiers:
• High input impedance
• Low output impedance
• High voltage and current gain
• Phase shift between input and output is 180
EXAMPLE 5.4
a. Determine re.
b. Find Zi (with ro=∞Ω).
c. Calculate Zo (with ro=∞Ω).
d. Determine Av (with ro=∞Ω).
e. Repeat parts (c) and (d) including ro= 50 kΩ in all
calculations and compare results.
Solution:
a. DC analysis:
5.9 Common-Emitter Voltage-Divider Bias
re model requires you to determine , re,
and ro.

Input impedance:

Output impedance: Remove bypass capacitor CE, then

the performance evaluation will be?

Voltage gain:
EXAMPLE 5.5 determine:
a. re. b. Zi . c. Zo (ro= Ω). d. Av (ro= Ω).
e. The parameters of parts (b) through (d) if r o =50 kΩ and
compare results.
Solution:

There was a measurable difference in

the results for Zo and Av , because the
condition ro≥10RC was not satisfied.
5.10 Common-Emitter Emitter-Bias Configuration (Unbypassed RE)
Input impedance:

Output impedance:

Voltage gain:
Bypassed
If RE is bypassed by an emitter capacitor CE , the complete re
equivalent model can be substituted, resulting in the same
equivalent network as CE fixed-bias configuration.
EXAMPLE 5.8 For the network (with C E
unconnected), determine (using appropriate
approximations): a. re. b. Zi. c. Zo. d. Av.

Solution:
Another variation of an
emitter-bias configuration
EXAMPLE 5.9 Repeat Example 5.8 with CE in place.

Solution:
5.13 Common-Emitter Collector Feedback Configuration
Input impedance: • This is a variation of the common-
emitter fixed-bias configuration
• Input is applied to the base
Output impedance: • Output is taken from the collector
• There is a 180 phase shift
between input and output

Voltage gain:
EXAMPLE 5.9 For the network. determine:
a. re. b. Zi. c. Zo. d. Av.
e. Repeat parts (b) through (d) with ro=20kΩ and compare results.
Solution:
For the configuration of the below figure, determine the variables of interest (Zi, Zo, Av).
The derivations are left as an exercise at the end of the chapter.
 5.14 Collector DC Feedback Configuration

Phase Relationship The negative sign clearly reveals a 180° phase shift between input and output voltages.
EXAMPLE 5.13 For the network, determine:
a. re. b. Zi. c. Zo. d. Av.

The ac equivalent network appears in the below figure.

5.11 Emitter-Follower Configuration (CC)

• Emitter-follower is also known as the Voltage gain:

common-collector configuration. Input impedance:
• The input is applied to the base and
the output is taken from the emitter.
• There is no phase shift between
input and output.
Output impedance:
EXAMPLE 5.10 For the emitter-follower network, determine:
a. re. b. Zi. c. Zo. d. Av. e. Repeat parts (b) through (d)
with ro=25 kΩ and compare results.
Solution:
Other variations

Emitter-follower configuration
Emitter-follower
with a voltage-divide biasing
configuration with a collector
arrangement.
resistor RC .
5.12 Common-Base Configuration
• The input is applied to the emitter.
• The output is taken from the collector.
• Low input impedance.
• High output impedance.
• Current gain less than unity.
• Very high voltage gain.
• No phase shift between input and output.

Input impedance:

Output impedance:

Voltage gain:

Current gain:
EXAMPLE 5.11 For the network, determine:
a. re. b. Zi. c. Zo. d. Av. e. Ai.
5.16 Effect of Load Impedance on Gain

This model can be applied to any current-

or voltage-controlled amplifier.

Adding a load reduces the gain of the

amplifier:
5.16 Effect of Source Impedance on Gain

The fraction of applied signal

that reaches the input of the
amplifier is:

The internal resistance of the signal source reduces the overall gain:
5.16 Combined Effects of RS and RL on Voltage Gain

Effects of RL:

Effects of RL and RS:

5.19 Cascaded Systems
• The output of one amplifier is the input to the next amplifier
• The overall voltage gain is determined by the product of gains of the individual stages
• The DC bias circuits are isolated from each other by the coupling capacitors
• The DC calculations are independent of the cascading
• The AC calculations for gain and impedance are interdependent

are loaded gains

R-C Coupled BJT Amplifiers

Input impedance, first stage:

Output impedance, second stage:

Voltage gain:
Cascode Connection: CE–CB

This example is a CE–CB combination.

This arrangement provides high input
impedance but a low voltage gain.

The low voltage gain of the input stage

reduces the Miller input capacitance,
making this combination suitable for
high-frequency applications.
5.20 Darlington Connection
The Darlington circuit provides a very high current gain—the
product of the individual current gains:
D = 12
The practical significance is that the circuit provides a very
high input impedance.

5.21 Feedback Pair

This is a two-transistor circuit that operates like a Darlington pair, but it is not a
Darlington pair.
It has similar characteristics:
• High current gain PNP
• Low Voltage gain (near unity)
• Low output impedance
D = 12
• High input impedance

The difference is that a Darlington uses a pair of like

transistors, whereas the feedback-pair configuration uses
complementary transistors.
5.22 Current Mirror Circuits
Current mirror circuits provide constant current in integrated
circuits.

Current mirror circuit with higher output impedance.

5.23 Current Source Circuits
Constant-current sources can be built using FETs, BJTs, and combinations of these devices.

IE  IC
Summary of Chapter 5
• AC analysis
– Load line analysis
– Mathematical analysis by small signal model
• AC analysis method by small signal model
– DC analysis to determine re
– AC equivalent circuit by re model
– Calculation impedance and gain
• CE amplifier
• CB amplifier
• CC amplifier
• Cascaded amplifier system
– Effect of Rs and RL
– CE-CB
 Important Conclusions and Concepts
1. Amplification in the ac domain cannot be obtained without the application of dc
biasing level.
2. For most applications the BJT amplifier can be considered linear, permitting the use
of the superposition theorem to separate the dc and ac analyses and designs.
3. When introducing the ac model for a BJT:
 a. All dc sources are set to zero and replaced by a short-circuit connection to ground.
 b. All capacitors are replaced by a short-circuit equivalent .
 c. All elements in parallel with an introduced short-circuit equivalent should be removed from
the network.
 d. The network should be redrawn as often as possible.
4. The input impedance of an ac network cannot be measured with an ohmmeter.
5. The output impedance of an amplifier is measured with the applied signal set to zero.
It cannot be measured with an ohmmeter.
6. The output impedance for the re model can be included only if obtained from a data
sheet or from a graphical measurement from the characteristic curves.
7. Elements that were isolated by capacitors for the dc analysis will appear in the ac
analysis due to the short-circuit equivalent for the capacitive elements.
8. The amplification factor (β, or hfe ) is the least sensitive to changes in collector
current, whereas the output impedance parameter is the most sensitive. The output
impedance is also quite sensitive to changes in VCE, whereas the amplification factor is
the least sensitive. However, the output impedance is the least sensitive to changes in
temperature, whereas the amplification factor is somewhat sensitive.
9. The re model for a BJT in the ac domain is sensitive to the actual dc operating
conditions of the network . This parameter is normally not provided on a specification
sheet, although hie of the normally provided hybrid parameters is equal to βre, but only
under specific operating conditions.
10. Most specification sheets for BJTs include a list of hybrid parameters to establish
an ac model for the transistor. One must be aware, however, that they are provided for a
particular set of dc operating conditions.
11. The CE fixed-bias configuration can have a significant voltage gain characteristic,
although its input impedance can be relatively low. The approximate current gain is given by
simply beta, and the output impedance is normally assumed to be RC.
12. The voltage-divider bias configuration has a higher stability than the fixed-bias
configuration, but it has about the same voltage gain, current gain, and output impedance.
Due to the biasing resistors, its input impedance may be lower than that of the fixed-bias
configuration.
13. The CE emitter-bias configuration with an unbypassed emitter resistor has a larger input
resistance than the bypassed configuration, but it will have a much smaller voltage gain than
the bypassed configuration. For the unbypassed or bypassed situation, the output impedance is
normally assumed to be simply RC.
14. The emitter-follower configuration will always have an output voltage slightly less than
the input signal. However, the input impedance can be very large, making it very useful for
situations where a high-input first stage is needed to “pick up” as much of the applied signal as
possible. Its output impedance is extremely low, making it an excellent signal source for the
second stage of a multistage amplifier.
15. The common-base configuration has a very low input impedance, but it can have a
significant voltage gain . The current gain is just less than 1, and the output impedance is
simply RC.
16. The collector feedback configuration has an input impedance that is sensitive to beta and
that can be quite low depending on the parameters of the configuration. However, the voltage
gain can be significant and the current gain of some magnitude if the parameters are chosen
properly. The output impedance is most often simply the collector resistance RC.
17. The collector dc feedback configuration uses the dc feedback to increase its stability and
the changing state of a capacitor from dc to ac to establish a higher voltage gain than obtained
with a straight feedback connection. The output impedance is usually close to RC and the input
impedance relatively close to that obtained with the basic common-emitter configuration .
18. The approximate hybrid equivalent network is very similar in composition to that used
with the re model . In fact, the same methods of analysis can be applied to both models. For the
hybrid model the results will be in terms of the network parameters and the hybrid parameters,
whereas for the re model they will be in terms of the network parameters and β, re , and ro.
19. The hybrid model for common-emitter, common-base, and common-collector
configurations is the same . The only difference will be the magnitude of the
parameters of the equivalent network.
20. The total gain of a cascaded system is determined by the product of the gains
of each stage. The gain of each stage, however, must be determined under loaded
conditions.
21. Because the total gain is the product of the individual gains of a cascaded
system, the weakest link can have a major effect on the total gain.