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Engineering Measurements and Instrumentation:

First Edition
Reza Montazami
Iowa State University, [email protected]

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 REZA MONTAZAMI
ENGINEERING
MEASUREMENTS
AND
INSTRUMENTATION
FIRST EDITION
 Engineering
Measurements
and
Instrumentation
Version 1.0

Iowa State University

Contributing authors:
Reza Montazami
Haley Hood
Sarah Kreutner
Sabrina Bretz

This document is a work in progress and will be updated

Copyright
frequently. If you find information:
any errors, have any comments, or any
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suggestions foris an Open Educational
improving this resourceResource
please contact the
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Preface................................................................................................. 6
Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Electronics ........................................... 6
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 7
1.2 Charge ....................................................................................... 8
1.3 Current ..................................................................................... 10
1.4 Voltage .................................................................................... 12
1.5 Power ....................................................................................... 14
1.6 Modes of Electric Current ...................................................... 15
1.7 Root Mean Square.................................................................. 16
1.8 Average Power ....................................................................... 18
Chapter 2 Circuit Elements .............................................................. 21
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 21
2.2 Resistors .................................................................................... 22
2.3 Capacitors ............................................................................... 26
2.4 Inductors .................................................................................. 29
2.5 Reactance .............................................................................. 32
2.6 Impedance.............................................................................. 35
Chapter 3 Fourier Series ................................................................... 39
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 39
3.2 Odd and Even Functions ....................................................... 40
3.3 General Equations .................................................................. 42
3.4 Examples .................................................................................. 43
Chapter 4 Strain Measurement ....................................................... 46
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 46
4.2 Application .............................................................................. 47
4.3 Examples .................................................................................. 52
Chapter 5 Op Amps ......................................................................... 57
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 57
5.2 Ideal Op-Amp ......................................................................... 58
5.3 Op Amp Equations ................................................................. 59
5.4 Examples .................................................................................. 62
Chapter 6 Filters ................................................................................ 67
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 67
6.2 Uses of Filters ............................................................................ 68
6.3 Types of Filters .......................................................................... 69
6.4 General Equations .................................................................. 70
6.5 Application .............................................................................. 72
6.7 Examples .................................................................................. 75
Chapter 7 System Response I .......................................................... 79
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 79
7.2 Static and Dynamic Response .............................................. 80
7.3 Zero Order ................................................................................ 83
7.4 First Order ................................................................................. 84
7.5 Examples .................................................................................. 87
Chapter 8 System Response II ......................................................... 91
8.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 91
8.2 Second Order Systems ........................................................... 92
8.3 Examples .................................................................................. 96
Chapter 9 Signal Analysis ................................................................. 99
9.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 99
9.2 Signal Characteristics ........................................................... 100
9.3 Signal Classification .............................................................. 102
 9.4 Analog vs Discrete Signals ................................................... 103
9.5 Signal Mathematical Expressions ........................................ 104
9.6 Examples ................................................................................ 106
Chapter 10 Sampling and Data Acquisition................................ 108
10.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 108
10.2 Signal Sampling ................................................................... 109
10.3 Aliasing ................................................................................. 110
10.4 Examples .............................................................................. 111
Chapter 11 Uncertainty Analysis ................................................... 113
11.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 113
11.2 Measurement Error.............................................................. 114
11.3 Uncertainty .......................................................................... 120
11.4 Uncertainty in Strain Measurement Examples ................. 125
Chapter 12 Analog-Digital Conversion ........................................ 129
12.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 129
12.2 Analog/Digital Conversion ................................................ 130
PREFACE
This electronic book (e-book) is created with partial financial support from a
grant generously provided by the Miller foundation. This e-book is created as
an open educational resource (OER) and it is meant to be used by students and
educators for solely educational and non-commercial purposes.

This e-book is intended to be used as a complementary resource for engineering

measurements and instrumentation course, at junior engineering level.

If you have any comments or suggestions, please reach out to the author via
email: [email protected]

"Engineering Measurements and Instrumentation, First Edition" by Reza Montazami is licensed

under a Creative Commons Attribution-No Derivatives 4.0 International License, except where
otherwise noted. You are free to copy and share the material for any purpose as long as you follow
the terms of the license.  
CHAPTER 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF
ELECTRONICS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

To understand and manipulate a system, one needs to closely study and familiarize themselves with
the foundations of the system’s operation principals. What is the system made of, and how each
piece and part of the system work? How are the pieces and parts connected (in mechanical systems)
and are they communicating (in electrical systems)?

To gain a deep understanding of measurements, we must first study the principals of operation in
the system of interest and understand how the system works.

In the context of this e-book, we are particularly interested in electronic systems, studied through
electronic devices. All communications within and in between electronic devices is achieved by
motion of electronics. Therefore, we must first understand what an electron is, how its motion is
measured and quantified, and how to observe and collected data representing electron motion.
1.2 CHARGE

In physics, there are four fundamental forces or interactions acting within and between matter:

• Weak interactions: at subatomic level has the shortest range and is responsible for nuclear
decay.
• Strong interaction: is the strongest force of all and is responsible for holding matter
together.
• Gravitation: is the weakest of all four fundamental forces, affecting anything with mass or
energy causing them to gravitate toward one another.
• Electromagnetic interaction: is an interaction affecting anything with electrical charge
(simply just charge). Electromagnetic field is a result of electromagnetic force, responsible
for electric fields, magnetic fields, and electromagnetic radiation (including visible light!)
In short, the weak and the strong forces act at subatomic and atomic levels, influencing how (in
what form) matter exists. The gravitational force affects anything with mass, and the
electromagnetic force affects anything with charge.
What is charge? Charge is a physical property of matter that causes it to experience force when
exposed to an electromagnetic force field. Yes, a causality dilemma in definition.
Matter, in any form, is made of atoms, which are in turn made of subatomic particles: electrons,
protons, and neutrons. Subatomic particles are made of elementary particles, yet its discussion is
out of the scope of the topic in hand, therefore left alone. Neutrons and protons have approximately
the same mass, when electron is considerably lighter. In fact, mass of electron, compare to those of
neutron and proton, is so small that is typically neglected in ordinary calculations of mass of an
atom. While neutron has mass, it does not have an electrical charge, therefore neutral. Proton and
electron, on the other hand, are charged. They carry the same magnitude yet opposite charges;
proton carries positive charge, when electron carries negative charge. Charge of an atom is
quantized, meaning that there are well-defined (positive or negative) values (magnitudes) for
charge of an atom. This unit charge is called elementary charge and is denoted by (e). The
elementary charge is the force exerted on one proton. Note that in circuit equations e stands for the
elementary charge; and does not represent an electron.

𝑒 1.602176565 10 Coulombs

So, one proton carries a charge of 1e or e, while an electron has the opposite charge of ‐1e or ‐e.
There is no charge smaller than e at subatomic and atomic level. Elementary particles, however,
have smaller charge magnitudes. You can look up the Standard Model to see all types of charged
subatomic particles and elementary particles.

Atoms typically consist of an equal number of neutrons, protons, and electrons. Thus, they have an
equal number of positive and negative charges, which cancel out, making the atom neutral. Atoms
may have more protons or electrons. This kind of atom is called an ion, and it carries a charge.
Devices and systems that operate based on charge motion are called electric devices. Motion of
charge can occur through different mechanisms:

• Protonic (motion of protons)

• Electronic (motion of electrons)
• Ionic (motion of ions (charge carrying atoms))
Most of the everyday equipment and devices we use are
electronic. They consist of materials that allow electrons
to move through them. This ability is called electron
conductivity (simply just conductivity). Electron
conductivity depends on the material’s atomic and
molecular structures. For example, metals are highly
conductive because their atomic structure allows charge to
move freely. Graphene and diamond are both forms of
carbon, but their different molecular structures result in
them having different conductivities. Graphene is a good Figure 1.2.1: Diagram of a proton‐
conductor, while diamond is not conductive. exchange membrane

Electron conductivity is not the same as proton

conductivity. For example, typical fuel cells use a proton-
exchange membrane. This membrane splits hydrogen into protons and electrons (note that
hydrogen atom does not have neutron), allowing protons through while blocking electrons. Thus,
the membrane is proton-conductive, but not electron-conductive.
1.3 CURRENT

The flow of electrons through a conductive material is called current (I). How do we quantify
current? Since we are talking about flow (just like fluid flow in fluid dynamics), we need to quantify
rate of the amount of charge passing through a passage over time. In other words, need to count
how many electrons (therefore how much charge) pass through a specific region of interest as a
function of time. Remember that the charge of an electron is 𝑒 = 1.602176565 10 𝐶.

Therefore,

1 1
1 𝐶 6.241509343 10 electrons
𝐶 𝐶
1.602176565 10 𝑒
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛

In other words, 1 Coulomb is the sum of the charges of 6.24 10 protons, and ‐1 Coulomb is equal
to the charge of 6.24 10 electrons. So, since the charge of electrons is measured in Coulombs,
Coulombs
and current is the flow of electrons (over time) through a substance, the unit for current is .
second
This unit is called Ampere. 1 ampere of current means that 6.24 10 electrons pass through a
cross-section of a conductive substance in 1 second.

One way to measure and quantify how much charge is stored in a charge storage device (battery,
capacitor, etc.) is to measure how long does it take to remove all the charge at the rate of 1 ampere.
The amount of charge in a system can be denoted in Ampere-hour (Ah), or more commonly as
milliampere hour (mAh). Also note that 1 Ampere second equals to 1 Coulomb:

1𝐶
1𝐴 ∴ 1 𝐴. 𝑠 1𝐶
1𝑠

So, a system with 1 Ah charge can provide current of 1 ampere for 1 hour (then all charged particles,
electrons for instance, are drained from the system). For example, a battery with 500 mAh capacity,
has:

500 𝑚𝐴ℎ 0.5 𝐴ℎ 0.5 𝐴 3600 𝑠 1800 𝐶

The 1800 C is the amount of charge stored in this battery. It can be fully discharged in 30 minutes at
the rate of 1 A, in 1 hour at the rate of 0.5 A, or any other amp-time combinations.

How many electrons are stored in a battery of 500 mAh capacities?

By convention, current flow is from (+) pole to (-) pole of a source (e.g. battery); which, is opposite
to the direction of electron flow.
Figure 1.3.1: Conventional directions of current flow and electron flow
1.4 VOLTAGE

Similar to mechanical, and other forms of energy, electric potential energy is measured in Joules
(J). It is the ability to do work due to point charge configurations in a defined system. In other
words, the setup of a system and the location of its charge may create a potential to do work.
Remember that mechanical work is a product of force and distance, measured in 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚:

1𝐽 1𝑁⋅1𝑚

Electric potential difference (E), is defined as the difference in electric potential energy between
two points in a defined system. In other words, it is the potential difference between two points that
will give 1 Joule of energy to every Coulomb of charge that passes between the points. Electric
potential difference is measured in Volts (V):

𝐽
𝐸 𝑉
𝐶

Note that the unit volts (V) is commonly used instead of (E) to represent electric potential
difference.

We can think of electrical potential energy as the potential energy of water in a lake behind a dam.
When the water is elevated, it stores energy (potential energy); this energy can be released on
demand to conduct work, for instance to rotate a turbine (Figure 3.3.1). Just like water molecules
that can gain and store energy, charge can also gain and store energy. Note that potential energy is
a relative quantity and it is always measured between two parts of a system. In case of the water
accumulated behind a dam, the potential energy is measured between where the water starts to fall
and where it hits the turbine blades. In case of electrons, all points may be at the same physical
height, yet still have different electric potentials. As mentioned above, such difference in electric
potential, is measured in volts. Notice that water flow is measured as volumetric flow rate in
water unit L charge unit C
. This sounds a lot like Amperes, which is measured in . So, in this example,
sec sec
electron flow is analogous to water flow.

Figure 1.4.1: A. No water flow; no potential for work. B. Water flows slowly; some potential for work.
C. Water flows quickly; lots of potential for work. D. The potential energy in the system directly
depends on the potential difference in that system.
1.5 POWER

How fast does work get done, or in more sophisticated scholarly terms, what is the rate of
work
conducting work? Power is the rate of performing work, i.e., . Joule represents work, so one way
time
to measure power is . A similar definition can be obtained with joule representing energy: rate
of electric energy transfer in a system, over time. This unit is called Watts (W). Note that Joule can
be represented in several different ways:

𝐽 𝑊 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝐽 𝑁∙𝑚

𝐽 𝑉∙𝐶

Therefore, there are also several ways to represent power:

𝐽
𝑉 ∴𝐽 𝑉⋅𝐶
𝐶

𝐶 𝐶
𝐴 ∴𝑠
𝑠 𝐴

𝐽 𝑉⋅𝐶 𝑉⋅𝐶
⇒ 𝑉⋅𝐴
𝑠 𝐶 𝐶
𝐴 𝐴

⇒𝑃 𝑊 𝐸 𝑉 ⋅𝐼 𝐴
1.6 MODES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Electric current can be categorized under two major modes, or types, based on the pattern of
current flow: direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). The difference between the two
types of flow is that in DC electrons flow in one direction. Current flow of batteries and the output
of battery charger units are good examples of DC. On the other hand, in AC current the direction of
flow alternates as a function of time. That is, the current flow changes direction periodically. Current
flow of an ordinary power outlet (wall socket) is a good example of AC. Such alternation in direction
of flow can have different forms. The most common forms are sine waves, square waves, triangular
waves, and sawtooth waves. The pattern or shape of the alternating current is called waveform.

Among the above-mentioned waveforms, the most common is sine wave, which is available and
used at the ordinary and common power outlets. In addition to its shape, waves can also be
characterized for their baseline, amplitude, and frequency. Frequency of the AC at the common
household power outlets is 50 Hz (in the U.S.); meaning the direction of flow alternates 50 times per
second.
1.7 ROOT MEAN SQUARE

Looking at the plot of an AC waveform, one would notice that the average voltage of such waveform
is zero. Simple, the positive and negative voltages of each cycle are equal, therefore averaging the
function, we will get 0 V. When the average voltage is zero, consequently, the average power and
anything else calculated from V will become zero. To overcome this flaw, an extra step of data
analysis is needed to calculate the effective average voltage in AC. 𝑉 also known as 𝑉 or root
mean square (RMS) voltage is the effective value of varying voltage (similar argument holds for
current). AC meters generally read out the 𝑉 . Below is the mathematical representation of the
same concept.

In a DC circuit:

𝑉 𝐼𝑅

𝑃 𝑉𝐼 𝐼 𝑅

In an AC circuit, 𝑉 and 𝐼 are functions of time.

Figure 1.7.1 Example of Alternating Current

Note that 𝑓 (frequency) gives the number of cycles per second, in Hz. The time of interest is given
in 𝑡. The total number of cycles in the specified amount of time is given in 𝑓 ⋅ 𝑡.

𝑉 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 𝑉 ⇒ 𝑤 2𝜋𝑓

𝐼 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 𝐼

𝑉 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 𝑉 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡

𝐼 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 𝐼 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡

Average V and I are zero (in AC).
Power in AC is a function of time:
𝑉 𝑡
𝑃 𝑡 𝐼 𝑡 𝑅
𝑅
Power as a function of time is not practical. Thus, average power is calculated.

𝑃 𝑉 𝑡 𝐼 𝑡 𝐼 𝑡 𝑅

By definition
𝑉 𝑉 𝑡

⇒𝑃

𝑉 is averaged:
𝑉 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑉 𝑡
1.8 AVERAGE POWER

Average 𝑉 or 𝐼 doesn’t make sense because the average is zero for an alternating current. Average
power is:

𝑉 𝑡 𝐼 𝑡 𝑅 and 𝑃 𝑉 𝑡 𝐼 𝑡 𝐼 𝑡 𝑅

Let’s look at 𝑃 :

Average
Average Power =
Resistance

𝑉 𝑡
𝑃
𝑅

Figure 1.8.1 Average Power

For averaging, we also need a time period.

Average 𝑉 𝑡 𝑉 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 𝑉 𝑉 𝑡 averaged 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Therefore:

𝑉 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑉 𝑑𝑡

𝑉
⋅

Now cancel the perfect sine. By definition of RMS the interval is a whole number:

⇒𝑉

Trig identities: Power reduction formal:

1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
2
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑥
𝑛

𝛥𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 ⇒𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
√

For a perfect sin wave:

𝑉
𝑉
√2
𝐼
𝐼
√2

𝑃 𝐼 𝑅 𝑉 ⋅𝐼
 𝑉 𝑡 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ⇒

𝑉 𝑡 5

25𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 25𝑡

𝑉 𝑡 5

25𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 25𝑡

𝑉 𝑉 𝑡 𝑉 𝑡 𝑉 𝑡

Can do either 15 or 35 seconds:

𝑉 3 25 2 25

Note here that 𝛥𝑇 is 0 ⇒ 15 ⇒ 15.

𝑉 75 50

𝑉 3.07 𝑉
CHAPTER 2
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Many measurement instrumentations will use circuits. The circuit configuration allows the
instruments to measure with a greater accuracy than the human eye. In order to understand the
electronic components behind measurement systems we need to understand basic circuit
elements. This chapter will discuss important circuit elements such as resistors, capacitors, and
inductors and explain the phenomenon of resistance and impedance.
2.2 RESISTORS

Let’s return to the lake and turbine example. Suppose that the water flows into the turbine through
a pipe. The size of the pipe limits how fast the water can flow. Or, to put it in more general terms:
the radius of the inlet limits the rate of flow.

Figure 2.2.1: An inlet limiting flow

To maintain a high current flow, the inlet must have a large diameter, or there must be a strong
flow (i.e., a high voltage). We can generalize this concept for a constant V:

Diameter 𝐷 ↓⇒ Input 𝐼 ↓
𝐷 ↑⇒ 𝐼 ↑

Resistance (R) measures the limiting factor in a circuit. Resistance .

diameter

Let’s describe it more thoroughly. Resistance is the ratio of voltage to current:

𝑉
𝑅
𝐼

Physically, resistance is the tendency of an object to reduce current flow. In the water example,
resistance would measure how much the pipe restricted water flow. In a circuit, resistance
measures how much a conductor impedes the flow of current.
Resistance is measured in Ohms (𝛺).

1𝑉
1𝛺
1𝐴

Conductance (G) is the reciprocal of resistance.

It is also denoted in Siemens (S), which are equal to .

These two equations together, where V and I are directly proportional, are Ohm’s Law. Ohm’s Law
is true for most materials (although it depends on T (temperature) and other factors as well).

Resistivity is the amount of resistance given by a cubic meter of a material. It is measured in 𝛺 ⋅

𝑚. The symbol for resistivity is 𝜌, the Greek letter rho. We can find the resistivity of any solid block
of material if we know it resistance and volume:

𝜌 𝑅

where 𝑙 is the resistor’s length and 𝐴 is its cross-sectional area (height x width, or the area of a
circle for a cylindrical resistor). See Figure 2.2.2:

Figure 2.2.2 ‐ finding the volume of a resistor

For example, copper (cu) and glass have different resistivities:

𝜌 1.68 10 𝛺⋅𝑚
𝜌 1 10 𝛺⋅𝑚

The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity, the amount of current a material can conduct.
Conductivity is measured in Siemens per meter (𝑆⁄𝑚). Its symbol is the Greek letter sigma, 𝜎.

𝑙
𝜎 𝐺
𝐴
1
𝜌
𝜎
𝑙
𝑅 𝜌
𝐴

i.e., a short copper wire has a smaller resistance than a long one.

We have already mentioned the term resistor, so let’s define it: A resistor is a two-terminal
electronic component that reduces current flow. This can be any kind of material or structure that
impedes current - a coil, carbon, ceramic, etc.

Figure 2.2.3 ‐ Diagram symbols for resistors

Resistors can be configured several ways in a circuit. They can be in series:

Figure 2.2.4 ‐ resistors in series

Then:

𝑅 or𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 ... 𝑅 .
Or, the resistors can be in parallel:

Figure 2.2.5 ‐ resistors in parallel

Then:

or ... .
2.3 CAPACITORS

Capacitance is the ability of a system to store electric charge. The unit of capacitance is the Farad
(𝐹). It is named after Michael Faraday, a British scientist. A system with 1𝐹 of capacitance holds 1𝐶
of charge when under 1𝑉 potential difference.

1𝐶
1𝐹
1𝑉

Unlike resistance, which can be intrinsic to a material, capacitance is a systematic property. In other
words, it depends on the configuration of the circuit as well as its components. Capacitance is a
function of geometry and material.

A capacitor is a two-terminal electronic component that stores electric charge. Capacitors are
characterized by capacitance in 𝐹.

𝐶 ⇒ 1𝐹

Figure 2.3.1 ‐ Diagram symbols for capacitors

The most basic type of capacitor has 2 parallel plates made of conductive materials, with a dielectric
(nonconductor) layer in between.

Figure 2.3.2 ‐ Basic capacitor

The dielectric layer has a constant of permittivity, denoted as 𝜖. The permittivity determines the
amount of charge the capacitor can store, along with its area and the distance between plates.
Permittivity is measured in , while area (𝐴) is measured in 𝑚 and distance between plates (𝑑) is
measured in meters.

𝐴
𝐶 𝜖
𝑑

Figure 2.3.3

Capacitors will always have a small leakage current. This means that the capacitor slowly
discharges, either through another part of the circuit that still conducts when turned off, or through
flaws in the dielectric material.

Note that a capacitor can also be used to resist changes in voltage.

The maximum energy of a capacitor is denoted as 𝐸 . It can be determined from a capacitor’s

capacitance and voltage:

𝐸 𝐶𝑉 𝜖 𝑉

Like resistors, capacitors can be configured different ways in a circuit.

In parallel:

Figure 2.3.4 ‐ Capacitors in parallel

To find the total capacitance:

 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 ...𝐶

In series:

Figure 2.3.5 ‐ Capacitors in series

To find the total capacitance:

𝐶 ...
2.4 INDUCTORS

Inductance is the generation of electric potential in a conductor due to current flow. Here is what
happens:

1. Current creates a magnetic field

2. The changing magnetic field results emf in conductors (if close enough)
3. The conductor wound in coil allows the flow to move in a clockwise direction

Note: Electric potential in a circuit is called electromotive force (emf), in V.

An inductor is a two-terminal electronic component that resists variations in current flow. It is

typically a coil and a core.

Figure 2.4.1: Inductor symbol and inductors

The right-hand rule helps to determine the direction of magnetic flow. (As used in previous
classes). When a current flows through a wire, it generates a weak magnetic field. Coiling the wire
places multiple magnetic fields next to each other, strengthening their effect. A magnetic core also
increases the magnetic field. This is useful because the magnetic field expands or shrinks when
energy flows through it, meaning that it can store and release energy.
 Figure 2.4.2: Direction of magnetic field and the right‐hand rule

As a result, inductors resist changes in current - some of the energy in a current surge makes the
field stronger instead of flowing through. Similarly, if the current drops, the magnetic field begins
to shrink as energy flows out of the inductor. Inductors resist changes in current just like
capacitors resist changes in voltage.

Figure 2.4.3 ‐ Voltage across a conductor

Which direction does the magnetic field go? Remember the right‐hand rule: if you grabbed onto
the wire with your thumb pointing the direction of the current flow, the force would follow the
direction the rest of your fingers point.

Note: Unlike resistors, capacitors and inductors do not have a significant role in DC circuits.
Capacitors stop current in DC, and inductors act as a wire.
2.5 REACTANCE

Reactance is the resistance of a capacitor or inductor to changes in voltage or current in an A.C.

circuit and it is measured in ohms (𝛺). To put it simply, reactance is frequency-dependent
resistance.

𝑋 ,𝑋

Some key points:

• An ideal resistor has zero reactance (some resistors are coil)

• Ideal capacitor has zero resistance (leakage)
• Ideal inductor has zero resistance (resistance of wire in the coil)

𝑋 𝑤𝐿 2𝜋𝑓𝐿

Net reactance = 𝑋 |𝑋 | |𝑋 | 𝑤𝐿
𝑅 , 𝑋 and 𝑋 of a circuit can be shown on one coordinate system:

Figure 2.5.1 𝑅 , 𝑋 and 𝑋 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

In an A.C. circuit, once a current is applied, each component reacts differently. Voltage across each
component will show:
Note that 𝑉 is in phase with 𝐼, like a sine wave. 𝑉 is lagging behind 𝐼 by 90°, or 𝑉 and 𝐼 are 90°
out of phase. 𝑉 is leading 𝐼 by 90° - 𝑉 and 𝐼 are 90° out of phase.
Figure 2.5.2 𝐼, 𝑉 , 𝑉 and 𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑛
2.6 IMPEDANCE

Impedance is the net resistance of an A.C. circuit (the sum of R and X). This is similar to Ohm’s
Law 𝑉 𝐼𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅 . Impedance is the ratio of voltage to current (in an A.C. current). The net
resistance of an A.C. circuit (impedance) can also be shown on the same coordinate system.

Figure 2.6.1 Coordinate System

Where 𝜃 is the phase difference between 𝑉 and 𝐼:

𝑋
𝜃 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑅
0
𝜃 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 0⇒𝑅
1
1
𝜃 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 90∘
0
 1
𝜃 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 90∘
0

and X is

𝑋 |𝑋 | |𝑋 | or 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋

The magnitude of vector |Z| can be calculated from:

|𝑍| √𝑅 𝑋 .

Impedance are combined like resistors:

In series:

𝑍 𝑍 𝑍 ... 𝑍

In parallel:

1 1 1 1
...
𝑍 𝑍 𝑍 𝑍

To calculate the impedance of electronic components:

Resistors:

𝑍 𝑅

Capacitors:

1 1 1
𝑍 𝑒 𝑖
𝑗𝑤𝐶 𝑤𝐶 𝑤𝐶

Note that 𝑒 and 𝑒 𝑗.

 Figure 2.6.2 Imaginary number and their equivalents

Inductors:

𝑍 𝑗𝑤𝐿 𝑤𝐿𝑒 𝑖𝑤𝐿

Note that 𝑍 and 𝑍 are very similar to 𝑋 and 𝑋 , with imaginary components added.

𝑍 𝑅 𝑖𝑋

Note that 𝑍 is impedance, 𝑅 is resistance, and 𝑋 is the sum of reactance.

𝑍 |𝑍|𝑒

𝜃 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (in radians).

Figure 2.6.3 Imaginary and Real Number Coordinate System

CHAPTER 3
FOURIER SERIES

3.1 INTRODUCTION

When listening to a piano, one key will play a different sound than another key. If the piano player
holds down both notes we hear a sound that is not exactly like the first note or the second note but
both combined. Fourier series is a periodic function that is composed of harmonically related
sinusoidal waves. To understand Fourier series, this chapter will discuss odd and even functions
as well as Fourier series general equations.
3.2 ODD AND EVEN FUNCTIONS

An even function is defined as a function that is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
Algebraically, a function is even when

𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥

An example of an even function is

𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 7

𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 7⇒ 𝑥 7 𝑦 𝑥

An odd function is a function that has origin symmetry where the function is equal distance from
the origin but in opposite direction. Algebraically, a function is odd when

𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥

An example of an odd function is

𝑦 𝑥 𝑥

𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 ⇒𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥

Of course, some functions are not odd or even. An example is

𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 1

𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 1⇒𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑦 𝑥 and 𝑦 𝑥
 Figure 3.3.1 Example of cosine is an even function and sine is an odd function

Notice that 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45 ∴ 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 . Thus, cosine is an even function.

For sine, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45 0.7 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45 ∴ 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 . So, sine is an odd function.

3.3 GENERAL EQUATIONS

For a periodical function,

𝑓 𝑡 𝑛𝑇 𝑓 𝑡

Fourier representation:

𝑓 𝑡 𝑎 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑏 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡

/
1
𝑎 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
/

/
2
𝑎 𝑓 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
/

/
2
𝑏 𝑓 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
/

• 𝑎 : represents the average signal

• 𝑎 : represents the even signal
• 𝑏 : represents the odd signal

Therefore, for an odd function, 𝑎 0, for an even function, 𝑏 0.

3.4 EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1

Even or odd function?

a) 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥
b) 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥
c) 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

SOLUTION:

a) 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ⇒𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥

An odd function

b) 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ⇒𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥

An even function

c) 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 and 𝑦 𝑥

A function that is not odd or even:

EXAMPLE 2

Fourier Coefficients for a Slope Periodical Function

Period (T) = 10
𝑦 𝑥 𝑥
 5 𝑥 5
Figure 3.4.1 Example 2

SOLUTION:

𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 ∴ an odd function ⇒ 𝑎 0

1 1 1 𝑥 1 25 25
𝑎 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ⋅ | ⋅ 0
𝑇 10 10 2 10 2

2 2
𝑏 𝑓 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑇 10

2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝜔 2𝜋𝑓
𝑇 10 5

1 𝑛𝜋𝑥
⇒ 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥
5 5

𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥
𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
1 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛
⇒ 5 5
5 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
5 5

1 5𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋 5𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋

⇒ 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
5
5 5 5 5

(because 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋 )

1 10𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜋 10𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜋 10
⇒ 𝑛𝜋 ⇒ 1
5 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
5

N 10𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜋 10
1
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
1 10cos 𝜋 10 10 10
1
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2 10cos 2𝜋 5 10 5
1
2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
3 10cos 3𝜋 10 10 10
1
3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
... ... ...
 Table 3.4.1 Shows the equivalence of cos 𝑛𝜋 and 1

10 𝑛𝜋𝑡 10 𝑛𝜋𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑤𝑡 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛𝜋 5 𝑛𝜋 5
CHAPTER 4
STRAIN MEASUREMENT

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Stress and strain are used all throughout engineering and are a vital part of material selection,
machine life, failure methods, etc. An ideal strain measurement should have good spatial
resolution, be insensitive to ambient conditions such as temperature or pressure and have a high
frequency response for dynamic strain measurements. It is crucial to note the difference between
stress, and engineering stress. Engineering stress takes the change of area into account while
stress does not. Other topics discussed in this section include circuits, factor of safety, and gauge
factor.
4.2 APPLICATION

To measure the strain of an object, strain gauges are used. Inside the common strain gauge is a
metallic foil pattern. After the gauge is attached to the object, the foil inside the strain gauge will
deform as the object deforms. The deformed foil causes the electrical resistance to change. The
resistance change is usually measured by using a Wheatstone bridge circuit. The manufacturer
will typically give key components of the strain gauge such as resistance, dimensions, strain range,
and temperature range.

AXIAL STRAIN:

A strain equal to the change in length divided by its original length.

𝐿 𝐿 𝛿𝐿
𝜖
𝐿 𝐿

The units of axial strain are 10 in/in or 10 m/m or micro strain (𝜇𝜖) = 𝜖 10 . Note 𝐿 𝐿
𝛿𝐿

AXIAL STRESS:

The stress is a measure of force per area. There can be compressive stress (force into object) or
tensile stress (force away of object).
𝐹
𝜎 𝐸 𝜖
𝐴

𝜎 is the axial stress, 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area, 𝐸 is the elastic modulus of the object.

Figure 4.2.1 Axial Stress

POISSON’S RATIO

The ratio of lateral strain to axial strain.

 𝜖
𝑣
𝜖












Figure 4.2.2 Poisson’s Ratio

RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGES

Both metallic and semiconductor are resistance strain gauges. The resistance is calculated as

𝜌 𝐿
𝑅
𝐴

where 𝜌 is the resistivity (Ωm), L is the length (m), and 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area (𝑚 ).

The change in resistance is

𝑑𝑅
∆𝑅
𝑅

GAUGE FACTOR (GF)

Change in resistance with strain that is generally provided by manufacturer.

𝛿𝑅/𝑅 𝛿𝑅/𝑅 𝑑𝜌 1
𝐺𝐹 1 2𝑣
𝛿𝐿/𝐿 𝜖 𝜌 𝜖

Where is the Piezoresistance effect. Piezoresistive effect is the change of resistivity due to
strain.

Gauge factors are determined by a calibration process in a biaxial strain field. Most strain gauges
are used to measure uniaxial strain.

BRIDGE CONSTANT (𝜿)

Ratio of the actual bridge output to that of a single gauge. Can be used for multiple strain gauge
bridge configurations.

𝐴𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝜅
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝜅
𝐺𝐹𝜖
4

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUITS

Strain gauges are typically on one or more legs of a Wheatstone bridge circuit.

Figure 4.2.3 Wheatstone Bridge Circuit with one strain gauge

Wheatstone bridge with one active strain gauge:

𝑅 𝑅
𝐸 𝐸
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

𝑅 𝛿𝑅 𝑅
𝐸 𝛿𝐸 𝐸
𝑅 𝛿𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

For an initially balanced bridge (all R’s are equal),

𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 and 𝐸 0

Then if a strain is applied,

𝛿𝐸 𝛿𝑅/𝑅 𝛿𝑅/𝑅
𝐸 4 2 𝛿𝑅/𝑅 4

𝛿𝐸 𝐺𝐹𝜖 𝐺𝐹𝜖
𝐸 4 2𝐺𝐹𝜖 4

Using the Wheatstone bridge to measure strain, recall

 𝛿𝑅/𝑅 𝛿𝑅/𝑅 𝐸 𝛿𝑃 𝛿𝑃 1
𝐺𝐹 1 2𝑣 1 2𝑣
𝛿𝐿/𝐿 𝜖 𝜎 𝑃 𝑃 𝐸

for Wheatstone bridge with one active strain gauge and identical R’s,

𝛿𝐸 𝐺𝐹𝜖 𝐺𝐹𝜖
𝐸 4 2𝐺𝐹𝜖 4

𝛿𝐸 4
𝜖
𝐸 𝐺𝐹

Wheatstone bridge with multiple strain gauges:

Consider the general case where all 4 resistors in a Wheatstone bridge are active strain gauges,

𝛿𝐸 𝑅 𝑑𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑅
𝐸 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

𝛿𝐸 1
𝐺𝐹 𝜖 𝐺𝐹 𝜖 𝐺𝐹 𝜖 𝐺𝐹 𝜖
𝐸 4

Figure 4.2.4 Wheatstone Bridge Circuit with multiple strain gauges

If we choose strain gauges of equal resistances and gauge factors, then

𝛿𝐸 𝐺𝐹
𝜖 𝜖 𝜖 𝜖
𝐸 4
 Arrangement Compensation Bridge Constant Drawing
Provised (𝜅)

Single gauge in NONE 1

uniaxial strain
Two gauges sensing Temperature 2
equal and opposite
strain
Two gauges in uniaxial Bending Only 2
strain

Four gauges with pairs Temperature 4

sensing equal and and Bending
opposite strain
One axial gauge and Temperature 1+𝑣
one poison gauge and Bending
Four gauges with pairs Temperature 4
sensing equal and and Axial
opposite strain-
Sensitive to torsion
only. Typical shaft
arrangement

Table 4.2.1 Multiple Strain Gauges

4.3 EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1

Common metallic strain gauge material is a 55% copper, 45% nickel, alloy called constantan.
𝜌 is resistivity = 49 x 10 Ωm and typical strain gauge resistance is 120 Ω.
What length of wire of diameter 0.025 mm is required for this resistance?

SOLUTION:

𝜌 𝐿
𝑅
𝐴

𝑅𝐴
𝐿
𝜌

120 4.9 10
𝐿
49 ∗ 10

𝐿 0.12m

EXAMPLE 2

For the strain gauge setup shown below, what is the applied tensile load if the measured bridge
output under load is 2.5 mV? The normal resistance of
the strain gauge is 120 Ω, 𝐸 =10V, the bar is 3 cm wide by
1 cm high and is made of steel with E=200 GPa. Assume
GF of the strain gauge is 2.

SOLUTION:

𝐹
𝜖
𝐴𝐸

𝛿𝐸 𝐺𝐹𝜖 𝐺𝐹𝐹
𝐸 4 4𝐴𝐸

𝛿𝐸4𝐴𝐸
𝐹
𝐸 𝐺𝐹

2.5 10 6 3𝑥10 200𝑥10

𝐹
10 2

𝐹 30 kN Figure 4.3.1 Strain gauge for Example 2

EXAMPLE 3

Consider this system:

1) Wheatstone Bridge with 3 fixed and equal R of 2.5𝑘𝛺 each.

2) One-gauge sensor at 𝑅 position with GF = 2.
3) Sensor is placed on a metal sheet of 0.05cm x 10cm (t x w) made of steel (E=200 GPa)
4) Sheet is subject to tension of 0 - 70 kN.
5) Input potential of 15 V is used

A) What is the max expected strain 𝜖?

B) What is the max expected 𝛿𝑅 ?
C) What is the system’s sensitivity in mV/Ω?
D) What is the sensor’s output range?
E) Using a 12-bit ADC with 5V range, what is the quantization error? What is the percent error?
If an amplifier is used to reduce error to 1%, what should be the gain of the amplifier?
F) In a test setup, the 𝐸 is read to be 12.7mV, what force is acting on the system and what is the
strain 𝜖?
G) What is the system’s theoretical sensitivity in terms of mV/N?
SOLUTION:

A) Max expected 𝜖:

𝐹 70,000𝑁
𝜎 1.4 10 𝑃𝑎
𝐴 0.0005m x 0.1m

𝜎 𝜎 1.4 10
𝐸 ⇒𝜖 0.007
𝜖 𝐸 200 10

B) Max expected of 𝛿𝑅 :

𝛿𝑅/𝑅 𝛿𝑅/𝑅
𝐺𝐹 ⇒2 ⇒ 0.014 2500𝛺 𝛿𝑅
𝜖 0.007

𝛿𝑅 35𝛺

C) System’s sensitivity:

𝛿𝐸 𝛿𝐸 𝐺𝐹 𝐸 𝐺𝐹𝜖
𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ← when Rs are equal ⇒ 𝑘
𝛿𝑅 𝐸 4 4𝛿𝑅

𝛿𝑅/𝑅 𝐸 𝐺𝐹𝜖 𝐸 𝛿𝑅𝜖 𝐸

𝐺𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 ⇒𝑘 ⇒𝑘
𝜖 4𝛿𝑅 4𝛿𝑅𝑅𝜖 4𝑅

𝐸 15𝑉 𝑉 𝑚𝑉
𝑘 0.0015 1.5
4𝑅 4 2500 𝛺 𝛺

Confirm: 𝐸 𝐸 0.5 15 0.00149 1.5

D) Sensor’s output:

𝛿𝑅 0 35𝛺 ⇒ 𝑎𝑡 1.5 , 𝛿𝐸 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 0 52.5𝑚𝑉

Confirm: 𝐸 𝐸 15 0.5 0.0521 52.1𝑚𝑉

E) Quantization error:

Sensor range 52.5𝑚𝑉 0 52.5𝑚𝑉, 𝑀 12, 𝐸 10 𝑉

ADC resolution ⇒ 𝑄 2.441 10 𝑉 2.441𝑚𝑉

Quantization error 𝑄 2.441𝑚𝑉 1.22𝑚𝑉

% Error:

quantization error .
% 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 % 100 2.32%
sensor range .

Gain:

% Error 1% 0.01

1.22𝑚𝑉
0.01 ⇒ gain 2.3
gain 52.5𝑚𝑉

F) Force on the system:

𝑅 𝛿𝑅 𝑅 2500 𝛿𝑅
𝐸 𝐸 0.5 15 0.0127𝑉
𝑅 𝛿𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 5000 𝛿𝑅

2500 𝛿𝑅 0.0127 2500 𝛿𝑅

0.5 ⇒ 0.50087
5000 𝛿𝑅 15 5000 𝛿𝑅

2500 𝛿𝑅 2504.23 0.50087𝛿𝑅 ⇒ 4.233 0.499138𝛿𝑅

𝛿𝑅/𝑅 𝛿𝑅 8.48
𝛿𝑅 8.48𝛺 ⇒ 𝐺𝐹 2 ⇒𝜖 ⇒ 0.0017
𝜖 2𝑅 2 2500
𝜎 𝐹
𝐸 ⇒ 𝐸𝜖 200 10 0.0017 𝜎 339,200,000
𝜖 𝐴

⇒𝐹 339,200,000 0.1 0.0005 16960𝑁

G) Theoretical sensitivity :
 𝐸 52.5𝑚𝑉 𝑚𝑉
𝑘 0.00075
4𝐹 70,000𝑁 𝑁

EXAMPLE 4

/ /
Recall that 𝐺𝐹 1 2𝑣 1 2𝑣 and 𝜖
/

𝑉 𝑅 𝑅
𝑉 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

In a Wheatstone bridge, like Figure 4.3.2 we

have:

𝑉 12𝑉

𝑅 ? Figure 4.3.2 Wheatstone Bridge for Example 6

𝑅 1.5𝛺

𝑅 6𝛺

𝑅 is variable and adjusted to 12 Ohms.

Using an ammeter across points a and b, no current flow is measured. What is the resistance of 𝑅 ?

SOLUTION:

𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 12𝛺
𝑉 𝑉 0⇒ 12 0
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 1.5𝛺 6𝛺 12𝛺

𝑅 2 3𝑅 2𝑅 3
⇒ 0⇒ 0
𝑅 1.5𝛺 3 3𝑅 4.5𝛺

⇒ 3𝑅 2𝑅 3 𝑅 3 0⇒𝑅 3𝛺

Note that at balanced conditions: , so

.
EXAMPLE 5

On a Wheatstone bridge with 𝑉 9𝑉, the 𝑉 is equal to zero where 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 200𝛺.

A) Find the value of 𝑅 .

B) What is the sensitivity of the system in and ?

C) Confirm sensitivity with calculations for 𝛿𝑅 50𝛺.

SOLUTION:

A) Since 𝑉 0 for a non-zero 𝑉 and 𝑅 𝑅 ⇒𝑅 𝑅 200𝛺

note that for a balanced system , and in this case

𝑅 𝑅
1⇒𝑅 𝑅 200𝛺
𝑅 𝑅

B) Sensitivity is defined as:

since all of the 𝑅𝑠 are equal, where 𝐺𝐹 (Note that 𝜖 )

𝛿𝐸 𝐸 𝐺𝐹𝜖 𝐸 𝜖𝛿𝑅 𝐸
⇒ ⇒
𝛿𝑅 4𝛿𝑅 4𝛿𝑅𝑅𝜖 4𝑅

⇒ sensitivity = 0.0112 11.25

C) 𝛿𝐸 𝐸 9𝑉 ⇒

250 200
𝛿𝐸 9𝑉 0.5𝑉
450 400

𝛿𝐸 0.5𝑉 𝑉 𝑚𝑉
0.01 10
𝛿𝑅 50𝛺 𝛺 𝛺
CHAPTER 5
OP AMPS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Op amp stands for Operational Amplifier and got its name from its ability to perform math
operations. Op amps can be used to solve math problems, filter signals, or condition signals. Op
amps are DC coupled and have 2 sources (differential) for inputs over a certain range of
frequencies (bandwidth) and have one single-ended output. The op amps are typically integrated
in circuits to amplify voltage when there are resistors, capacitors, etc.
5.2 IDEAL OP-AMP

The ideal op amp would have infinite open loop gain, infinite voltage range available at the output,
and infinite bandwidth. The bandwidth of op amps is the frequency range where voltage gain is
above -3dB or 70.7% of the output maximum. This -3dB is often called the “half power point” or
the corner frequency. Lastly the relationship between an op amp gain and bandwidth is
proportional.

An ideal op amp would also have a zero noise, zero input offset voltage, and infinite slew rate.
Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of a signal in a circuit.

𝑑𝑉 𝑡
𝑆𝑅 max
𝑑𝑡

If signal changes exceed slew rate, the resulting signal will be distorted. For example, a square
input signal may have a triangular signal output signal if the signal exceeds the slew rate.
5.3 OP AMP EQUATIONS

• 𝑉 : differential voltage (wanted)

• 𝑉 : common mode voltage (noise)
• 𝐴 : common mode gain
• 𝐴 : differential gain (gain for an instrumentation amplifier)

COMMON MODE:

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 0

𝑉
𝐴
𝑉

Figure 5.3.1 ‐ Common mode signals circuit diagram

COMMON MODE REJECTION RATIO (CMRR):

Ability to reject common signal and pass signal if 𝑉 𝑉 . CMRR indicates how much of most
common mode signal is rejected.

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 0

𝑉 𝑉
𝐴
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉

𝐴
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅
𝐴

𝐴
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 | |𝑑𝐵
𝐴

𝑉 𝐴 𝑉 𝑉
 Note that 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉

Figure 5.3.2 ‐ Common Mode Rejection Ratio circuit diagram

NON‐INVERTING OP‐AMP:

The ideal case is 𝑖 𝑖 0. In this scenario there is no current.

𝑉 𝐴 𝑉 𝑉

𝑅
𝑉 𝑉
𝑅 𝑅

Figure 5.3.3 ‐ Non‐Inverting Op‐amp Circuit diagram





Figure 5.3.4 ‐ Non‐inverting Function

NON‐INVERTING OP‐AMP WITH NEGATIVE FEEDBACK (STABILIZING):

Figure 5.3.5 ‐ Non‐inverting, Negative feedback diagram

OTHER GENERAL EQUATIONS:

𝑉 1 0.9sin 𝑤𝑡 where 𝑤𝑡 ⇒ 2𝜋𝑓

2𝑅
0.9 1
𝑅

𝑑𝑉 𝑡 2𝑅
1 0.9
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

2𝜋𝑓𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝑡
5.4 EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1

Common Mode Signal:

Figure 5.4.1 Example 1 Common Mode Signal

SOLUTION:

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 0.5 0.5 1𝑚𝑉

𝑉 8𝑣

𝑉 8𝑉
⇒𝐴 8000
𝑉𝑑 1𝑚𝑉

𝐴 8000
⇒ 𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 666.67
𝐴𝑐𝑚 12

⇒ 𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 |666.67| 56.48𝑑𝐵

EXAMPLE 2
Common Mode Rejection Ratio:

Figure 5.4.2 Example 2 Common Mode Rejection Ratio

SOLUTION:

𝑉 1𝑚𝑉, 𝑉 1𝑚𝑉

𝑉 1𝑚𝑉, 𝑉 12𝑚𝑉

𝑉 12𝑚𝑉
𝐴 12
𝑉 1𝑚𝑉

EXAMPLE 3

Non-Inverting Op-Amp with Negative Feedback:

SOLUTION:

𝑉 𝐴 𝑉 𝑉 ⇒𝑉 𝐴𝑉 𝐴𝑉

𝑅
⇒𝑉 𝐴𝑉 𝐴𝑉
𝑅 𝑅

We know that 𝑉 𝑉 , so:

𝑅 𝑅
𝑉 𝐴𝑉 𝐴𝑉 ⇒ 𝑉 1 𝐴 𝐴𝑉
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

We also know that 𝑉 𝑓 𝑉 :

𝐴𝑉
𝑉
𝑅
1 𝐴
𝑅 𝑅
 A is 10 10 , which goes to 1. Thus, it cancels out of the equation:

𝐴𝑉 𝑅
𝑉 ⇒𝑉 𝑉
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝐴
𝑅 𝑅

Think about what happens when 𝑉 increases. Use equal 𝑅 and 𝑅 .

EXAMPLE 4

Thermocouple:

The voltage output from a J-type thermocouple referenced to 0°C is to be used to measure
temperatures of 50-70°C. The output voltages will vary linearly over this range from 2.585 to
3.649 mV.

a) If the thermocouple voltage is input to a 12-bit A/D converter having a ±5 V range,

estimate the percent quantization error in the digital value.

b) If the analog signal can be first passed through an amplifier circuit, compute the
amplifier gain required to reduce the quantization error to 5% or less.

SOLUTION:

a) First determine the sensor range to measure:

Sensor range 3.646 2.585 1.064𝑚𝑉 1.064 10 𝑉

Next find the A/D convert resolution:

𝐸 10
𝑄 2.441 10 𝑉
2 2

Finally, calculate the resolution error:

𝐴 𝑄 2.441 10
Error 1.22 10 𝑉
𝐷 2 2

Error 1.220 10
Error% % 100% 114%
Sensor range 1.064 10

So, the percent quantization error is 4%.

b) %Error 5% 0.05

Error
5% 100
Gain Sensor range
 Gain = 22.9.

EXAMPLE 5

For the instrumentation amplification circuit shown below, both inputs V1 and V2 can be assumed
to be sinusoidal and in phase, of the form 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 , with different amplitudes (𝐴 and𝐴 ) but the

same frequency f.
Figure 5.4.3 Example 5 Circuit

Other known specifications:
𝑅 10𝑘𝛺
𝑅 is user-defined

Amplifier LM201A:
Supply Voltage = 10𝑉
Slew Rate Limit = 0.7𝑉/𝜇𝑠

If 𝐴 0.6𝑉,𝐴 1.5𝑉

a) What is the maximum gain and corresponding value of 𝑅 that can be used to prevent
clipping?

b) For the gain established in part a), what is the corresponding maximum frequency of the
input signal that can be detected without slew rate distortion?

SOLUTION:

a) We know that:

𝑉 𝐴 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡

𝑉 𝐴 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡
 For the instrumentation amplifier, the relationship between the input and the original
output signal is

2𝑅
𝑉 1 𝑉 𝑉
𝑅

For this problem, we only care about the absolute value, which is

2𝑅
|𝑉 | | 1 𝑉 𝑉 | 10𝑉
𝑅𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

That is,

2𝑅
|𝑉 | | 1 0.9sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 | 10𝑉
𝑅𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

Note that 0.9sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 goes to 1.

2𝑅
0.9 1 10𝑉
𝑅

Therefore, 𝑅 1.98𝑘𝛺.

b) The slew rate of the signal is

𝑑𝑉 0.7𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝜇𝑠

That is

2𝑅 0.7𝑉 0.7𝑉
0.9 1 2𝜋𝑓volts cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 ⇒ 20𝜋𝑓
𝑅 𝜇𝑠 𝜇𝑠

Note that cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 has a maximum of 1.

Therefore,

0.7𝑉/𝜇𝑠
𝑓 11.14kHz
20 𝜋
CHAPTER 6
FILTERS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Filters are generally circuits with a transfer function that are directly correlated to the input
voltage frequency. These are used in many digital applications and help to interpret
inputs/outputs, display data, and control distortion. The main purpose of these devices is to
“filter” the signal. The filter gathers the important data and limits the points that are random and
undesirable. The filters allow the desired signal components to pass. The user can use low pass,
high pass, band pass, and notch filters depending on what the user’s desired signal is. This chapter
will discuss the uses, types, and applications of filters.
6.2 USES OF FILTERS

Figure 6.2.1 Two different graphs that fit the same data points (red dots)

Aliasing is a type of signal distortion where a receiver interprets a signal as the wrong frequency.
This occurs because digital signals are reported at given points in time. If the interval between
data points is too large, the signal is ambiguous - several graphs could fit the input data. If the
receiver picks the wrong graph, it will output the wrong frequency. An anti-aliasing filter can
prevent this problem.

Noise is another problem often found in digital representation of signals. Noise is random data
points or spikes in data, caused by irregular or sensitive frequencies. This makes the trends in data
hard to see. Filters limits noise, which helps the reader interpret the data.

GRAPH WITH NOISE GRAPH WITHOUT NOISE

Figure 6.2.2 Same graph before and after filtering for noise
6.3 TYPES OF FILTERS

An electrical signal filter is an electronic circuit that accepts and outputs certain signal frequencies
and rejects others. There are four main types of filters. The two most common are high- and low-
pass filters. These filters accept either high or low frequencies and limit the opposite.

The next type is the band-pass filter. This filter allows a minimum and maximum frequency
through, making it a combination of high- and low-pass filters. The last type is the notch filter,
which is the opposite of a band-pass filter. A notch filter allows all but a small range of signals
through.

Figure 6.3.1: Types of filters. 1: low‐pass, 2: high‐pass, 3: band‐pass, 4: notch.

A real-world example of a filter is a radio. Tuning to a station will cause a receiver to play only the
wanted signal and not receive other unwanted stations.

Passive filters consist of inductors (L), resistors (R), capacitors (C), and transformers (T), or some
combination. Since these components are analog, passive filters do not require an external power
supply. The simplest passive filters are the RL and RC filters.

Active filters rely on an external power supply and use both active and passive components.
Usually the active component is an amplifier. Active filters are limited to lower frequencies,
making them less versatile than passive filters. They are also more expensive because of their
complex components.

Figure 6.3.2: A simple RC circuit

How to find 𝐸 and 𝑍 for this circuit:

𝑍
𝐸 𝐸
𝑍 𝑅

1
𝑍
𝑗𝜔𝐶

Note: 𝑗𝜔 is the complex variable of frequency

6.4 GENERAL EQUATIONS

𝑍 1⁄𝐶 1
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝑍 𝑍 1/𝐶 𝑅 1 𝑅𝐶

Transfer function:

𝐸 1 1 1
𝐺 𝑠
𝐸 1 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 1 𝑆
𝑅𝐶

Inverse Laplace:

1 𝐸
𝑔 𝑡 𝑒
𝑅𝐶 𝐸

General form:

1 1
⇒ 𝑒
𝑛𝑠 1 𝑛
 1
𝐸 𝑒 𝐸
𝑅𝐶

For periodic input:

𝐸 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 , 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝜏 𝑅𝐶

1 1 𝐸
𝐺 𝑠 𝐺 𝑗𝜔
1 𝑅𝐶𝑆 1 𝑅𝐶𝑗𝜔 𝐸

1 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝐸 𝐸 ⇒𝐸
1 𝑅𝐶𝑗𝜔 1 𝑗𝜏𝜔
6.5 APPLICATION

MAGNITUDE AND PHASE SHIFT:

The transfer function has a magnitude (M) and a phase shift (𝜙)

1 1 1
𝑀 𝜔
1 𝑅𝐶𝜔 1 𝜔𝜏 1 2𝜋𝑓𝜏

𝜙 𝜔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

(Numerator and denominator of G(s) = )

𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝜙 𝜔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒

LOW PASS:
1
𝐺 𝑠
1 𝑅𝑐𝑗𝜔

0 𝑅𝑐𝜔
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑅𝑐𝜔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜔𝜏 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝜏
1 1

Figure 6.5.1 Example Circuit

At low frequencies C is open and at high frequencies C is closed. Therefore, short 𝐸 .

• 𝑓 : input signal
• 𝑓 : output signal
𝑓 𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝜙

𝑓 𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝜙
𝑓 ⇒𝑓 𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝜙
1 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑐 1 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑐

Magnitude ratio:

1 1
𝑀 𝑓
1 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑐 1 𝑓/𝑓
The cutoff frequency:

1
𝑓
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

Phase lag:

𝑓
𝜙 𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑓

Gain:

𝑉
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑑𝐵 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑀 𝑓
𝑉

Cut-off frequency, 𝑓 , is when 𝑀 𝑓 0.707 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 3𝑑𝐵

HIGH PASS:

𝑅𝑐𝑗𝜔
𝐺 𝑠
1 𝑅𝑐𝑗𝜔

𝑅𝑐𝜔 𝑅𝑐𝜔 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑅𝑐𝜔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜔𝜏 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝜏
0 1 2 2 2

At high frequencies C is open and at low frequencies C is closed.

• 𝑓 : input signal
• 𝑓 : output signal

𝑓 𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝜙

𝑓 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑐 𝐸 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑐
𝑓 ⇒𝑓 𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝜙
1 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑐 1 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑐

Magnitude ratio:

2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑐 𝑓 ⁄𝑓
𝑀 𝑓
1 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑐 1 𝑓/𝑓

The cutoff frequency:

1
𝑓
2𝜋𝑅𝑐

Phase lag:
 𝜋
𝜙 𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑓/𝑓
2

Gain:

𝑉
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑑𝐵 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑀 𝑓
𝑉

Cut-off frequency, 𝑓 , is when 𝑀 𝑓 0.707 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 3𝑑𝐵

6.7 EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1

𝑓 1
𝑓
1 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑐 𝑓
1
𝑓
a) Low Pass
b) High Pass

SOLUTION:

a) Low Pass

Figure 6.7.1 Low Pass Example

1
𝑍 𝐸 𝐶𝑆
𝐸 𝐸
𝑍 𝑅 1
𝑅
𝐶𝑆

𝐸 𝐸 (𝑅𝐶 𝜏 and 𝑆 𝑗𝑤)

𝐸 1 1 1
𝐸 1 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑐𝑗 1 𝑤𝜏𝑗 1 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶

𝑓 𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝜏 1

1 1
𝑓 ∴𝑀 𝑓
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 1 𝑓/𝑓

𝑓
𝜙 𝑤 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑓

𝑓 𝑡 𝐸 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝜙 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑀 𝑓 ⋅ sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝜙

 b) High Pass

Figure 6.7.2 High Pass Example

𝑅 𝑅
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝑍 𝑅 1
𝑅
𝐶𝑆

𝑅𝐶𝑆 𝜏𝑗𝑤
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
1 𝑅𝐶𝑆 1 𝜏𝑗𝑤

G(S)

𝐸 𝜏𝑤 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶
𝑀 𝑓
𝐸 1 𝜏𝑤 1 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶

𝑓 ⁄𝑓
𝑀 𝑤
1 𝑓/𝑓

𝜋 𝜋 𝑓
𝜙 𝑤 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶 𝑡𝑎𝑛
2 2 𝑓

𝑓 𝑡 𝐸 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝜙 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑀 𝑓 ⋅ sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝜙

𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑓 ⇒𝑀 𝑓 0.707, the gain is -3 dB.

EXAMPLE 2
Find | |, | |, | | for 𝑅 100𝑘𝛺, 𝑅 200𝑘𝛺 as a function of 𝑓.

Figure 6.7.3 Filter Example 2

SOLUTION:

The left part is a low pass filter, and the magnitude response is

𝑀 𝑓
/

Here, 𝑓 9.95𝑘𝐻𝑧

The middle part is an instrumental amplifier. We have

2𝑅
𝑉 1 𝑉
𝑅

Then, 𝑀 𝑓 1 2

The right part is a high pass filter. The magnitude response is

𝑓
𝐸 𝑓
𝑀 𝑓
𝐸 1 𝑓/𝑓

Here, 𝑓 4.97𝑘𝐻𝑧

Then 𝑀 𝑓
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝑀 𝑓 ⇒ 𝑀 𝑓 𝑀 𝑓
𝐸 𝐸𝑀 𝑓 𝐸

𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝑀 𝑓 ⇒ 𝑀 𝑓 𝑀 𝑓 𝑀 𝑓
𝐸 𝐸𝑀 𝑓 𝑀 𝑓 𝐸
CHAPTER 7
SYSTEM RESPONSE I

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Measurement systems will typically have a response related to time. These are dynamic
responses. Static responses are measurement responses not related to time. This chapter will
cover the differences between static and dynamic systems as well as zero order and first order
dynamic systems.
7.2 STATIC AND DYNAMIC RESPONSE

Static responses are not time dependent. When calibrating an instrument each input will have a
corresponding output which will create a calibration curve. Static responses are susceptible to
sensitivity which is the output change per input unit change. The slope of a static calibration plot
is the static sensitivity or static gain (𝜅).

𝑑𝑦
𝜅 𝜅 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

A straight line will have a linear relationship between input and output and have a constant
sensitivity. When there is a non-linear relationship between the input and output there is variable
sensitivity. Figure 7.2.1 is an example of a static response with variable sensitivity that is non-
linear. 𝜅 will not be constant for variable sensitivity calibration curves. Note that the input is not
related to time, for example, temperature could be an input and voltage could be an output.

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑥 x
Figure 7.2.1 Variable Sensitivity of a Static Response

A dynamic system response is time dependent. The general form with constant coefficients
𝑎 , 𝑎 , … , 𝑎 is represented as

𝑑 𝑦 𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑎 ... 𝑎 𝑎 𝑦 𝐹 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• n: order of the system

• F(t): input
• y(0): initial conditions
• y(t): output
The dynamic systems that we will discuss further are zero, first, and second order systems.

INITIAL CONDITIONS

INPUT SIGNAL MEASUREMENT OUTPUT SIGNAL

SYSTEM
OPERATION

Figure 7.2.2 Measurement System Response

ZERO ORDER SYSTEM:

When n=0, the general form is

𝛼 𝑦 𝐹 𝑡

System model is represented as

𝑦 𝜅𝐹 𝑡

FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS:

When n=1, the general form is

𝛼 𝑦 𝛼 𝑦 𝐹 𝑡

System model is represented as

𝜏𝑦 𝑦 𝜅𝐹 𝑡

SECOND ORDER SYSTEM:

When n=2, the general form is

 𝑎 𝑦 𝑎 𝑦 𝑎𝑦 𝐹 𝑡

Figure 7.2.5 Example of second order system

7.3 ZERO ORDER

Input and output are directly coupled. The output of a zero-order system is proportional to the
input. Examples include electrical-resistance, strain gauges, and seesaws.

𝑎 𝑦 𝐹 𝑡

𝑦 𝜅𝐹 𝑡

Figure 7.3.1 Example of zero order system

The output is directly correlated to the input by gain of 𝜅, and is very similar to static response system.
𝜅 represents the slope of the input vs. output curve.

1
𝜅
𝛼

Figure 7.3.2 Zero order system input vs. output

7.4 FIRST ORDER

Typical first order systems exhibit some form of storage or dissipative capability. There is a time
lag between input and output. Examples include thermometers where the capacity of the
instrument results in a time lag. (Time lag for heat transfer between surroundings and
thermometer.)

𝛼 𝑦 𝛼 𝑦 𝐹 𝑡

𝜏𝑦 𝑦 𝜅𝐹 𝑡

𝜏 is the time constant. Note for very small 𝜏 the 𝜏𝑦 term is negligible. As a result, the equation is
reduced to zero order, meaning the output is more instantaneous.

𝛼
𝜏
𝛼

1
𝜅
𝛼

Figure 7.4.1 Example of first order system

Step input and sine input are the two different types of input we wish to measure in this course.
Step input represents weight being applied to a spring system whereas a sine input generally
results in many periodic signals.

STEP INPUT

𝐹 𝑡 𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 0
𝐹 𝑡 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 0

𝜏𝑦 𝑦 𝜅𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 0

Solving for y(t)

This is a linear first-order differential equation, where the general solution is:
𝑦 𝑡 𝑐 𝑐 𝑒 /

/
𝑦 𝑡 𝜅𝐴 𝑦 0 𝜅𝐴 𝑒
 𝑦 ∞ 𝜅𝐴

Magnitude Ratio:

𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 0 /
𝑀 𝑡 1 𝑒
𝑦 ∞ 𝑦 0

At 𝑡 𝜏 𝑀 𝑡 .63
At 𝑡 2.303𝜏 𝑀 𝑡 .90
At 𝑡 5𝜏 𝑀 𝑡 .99

Dynamic Error:
Error is the difference between measured and true value. In this case true value is 𝜅𝐴 or 𝑦 but
measurement is time dependent.

𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 ∞ /
𝛿 𝑡 𝑒 1 𝑀 𝑡
𝑦 0 y ∞

• 𝛿 = the fractional difference between measured and true value

• 𝑡 = time dependent

Figure 7.4.2 Magnitude Ratio and Dynamic Error

SINE INPUT

𝐹 𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡

𝜏𝑦 𝑦 𝜅𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡

Solving for y(t)

𝜔𝜏𝜅𝐴 /
𝜅𝐴
𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 0 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝜙
𝜔 𝜏 1 √𝜔 𝜏 1
• 𝑦 = the initial condition
• 𝑒 / = the transient response
• √
= the magnitude of the steady state response
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝜙 = the wave form of the steady state response

Phase lag

180
𝜙 𝜔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜔𝜏 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝜋

𝜙 𝜔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜔𝜏 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

/
Note that the transient response approaches zero as 𝑡 becomes large and the 𝑒 term is the time
dependent term.
Magnitude Ratio:

1
𝑀 𝜔
√𝜔 𝜏 1

𝜔 2𝜋𝑓

𝑀 𝜔 magnitude of steady state/max magnitude of input

Dynamic Error:

1
δ 𝜔 1 𝑀 𝜔 1
√𝜔 𝜏 1
7.5 EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1

A certain thermometer has time constant of 𝜏=15 s at room temperature (i.e. 20 degrees C) the
thermometer is exposed to boiling water (i.e. 100 degrees C). Determine the rise time and
corresponding temperature.

𝜏 15 s,
𝑇 20 degrees C
𝑇 100 degrees C

SOLUTION:

Rise time is when y(t) is at 90% of max and equal to 2.3

/
𝑀 𝑡 .9 1 𝑒

/
𝑒 0.1

𝑡/𝜏 2.3

𝜏=15 s 𝑡 2.3𝑥15 34.5𝑠

𝜏=15 seconds x 2.3 = 34.5 seconds

Total change is 100-20=80 degrees C

90% of 80 degrees C is 72 degrees C

/
𝑦 𝑡 𝑇 𝑡 𝜅𝐴 𝑦 0 𝜅𝐴 𝑒
.
100 20 100 𝑒

On the 20 degree C baseline ⇒72+20=92 degrees C

91.7 degrees C

EXAMPLE 2

Dynamic error in temperature measured using a thermometer after 3 s is 70%. A) what is the
magnitude
a.) what is the magnitude ratio?

100%-70%=30% or .3
 b.) 𝜏 ?

𝑒 / 0.7
/
𝑙𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑛0.7
𝜏 8.45𝑠

c.) 𝑀 𝑡 𝑎𝑡 1𝑠 ?

𝑀 1 1 𝑒 / 1 𝑒 / .

=.111 or 11.1%

EXAMPLE 3

A temperature sensor is measuring an input of 50 Hz(max) with an error of 5% max. Calculate the
maximum time constant of the sensor that allows this measurement.

SOLUTION:

𝑓 50𝐻𝑧, 𝛿 𝜔 5%=.05, 𝜏 ?

𝛿 𝜔 |𝑀 𝜔 1| 0.05 0.95 𝑀 𝜔 1.05

𝑀 𝜔 ⇒ 0.95 1.05

1 𝜔𝜏 ⇒ 𝜔𝜏 1 0.108 and
. .

1 𝜔𝜏 ⇒ 𝜔𝜏 1 0.093
. .

0.093 𝜔𝜏 0.108 (satisfies for any 𝜔 or 𝜏)

. √ .
𝜏 ⇒𝜏 𝜔 2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋50 100𝜋

√ .
𝜏 0.00105 1.05 ms

EXAMPLE 4

A 1st order system has 𝑀 𝑓 200𝐻𝑧 = 0.707. A) 𝜏? B) 𝜙 =?

SOLTUION:

𝜔 2𝑝𝑖𝑓 2𝜋 200𝐻𝑧 1256.64 𝑠

 a) 𝑀 𝜔 0.707
√ .

1
1 579136.7𝜏 2 1 1
0.707

𝜏 ⇒𝜏 .795 ms
.

b) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜔𝜏 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜋 0.795 10 45 degrees or -.78 radians

EXAMPLE 5

A first order system with 𝜏 10 ms is subjected to a sine input of 15 V at 30 Hz. a) find the
amplitude of steady state output. b) Find the magnitude ratio. c) y(1 ms) when y(0)=0

SOLUTION:

a) Magnitude at 30Hz⇒ 7.03𝑉

√ .

.
b) 0.47 or 𝑀 𝜔 0.47
.

/
c) 𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 0 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝜙
√

.
.
𝑦 0.001 0 𝑒 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 30 𝑡 1.08
. .

𝑦 0.001 0 6.21𝑥 .905 7.03𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 0.89

𝑦 0.001 0.15

EXAMPLE 6

What should the time constant 𝜏 be in a 1st order system to have a dynamic error of 0.01 when
input is a sine wave with amplitude of 15 V at 100 Hz?

SOLUTION:

1
𝛿 𝜔 1 0.01
√𝜔 𝜏 1

1
0.01 1 0.99
√𝜔 𝜏 1
 1 1
𝜔 𝜏 1 ⇒𝜔 𝜏 1
0.99 0.99

𝜔 𝜏 0.0203

0.0203 0.0203
𝜏 5.1 10
2𝜋 100 394784.2

𝜏 0.00025 or 0.2 ms
CHAPTER 8
SYSTEM RESPONSE II

8.1 INTRODUCTION

A second order system is a mechanical system consisting of a spring, mass, and damper or an
electrical system consisting of a resistor, capacitor, and inductor. These systems have 2 energy
stores, where the mass of the system can store kinetic energy. This allows for dynamic
measurements to be taken where there is a transfer of energy between two different stores.
Examples include accelerometer or diaphragm-type pressure transducers.
8.2 SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS

𝑎 𝑦 𝑎 𝑦 𝑎 𝑦 𝐹 𝑡

General solution for second order systems:

1 2𝜁
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝜅𝐹 𝑡
𝜔 𝜔

1
𝑦 𝜏𝑦 𝑦 𝜅𝐹 𝑡
𝜔

1 𝑎 𝑎 2𝜁 1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜅
𝜔 𝑎 𝑎 𝜔 𝑎

Natural frequency is the frequency at which the system tends to oscillate naturally (without
external deriving force). If external deriving (forced frequency) is equal to the natural frequency,
the system resonates, as a result amplitude is increased by many folds.
𝑎
𝜔
√𝑎

Damping ratio describes the decay of oscillation in an oscillating system once disturbed

𝑎
𝜁
2 𝑎 𝑎

The characteristic equation of the second order system is

1 2𝜁
𝑟 𝑟 1 0
𝜔 𝜔

𝑟, 𝜁𝜔 𝜔 𝜁 1

Using Euler’s formula:

𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡

𝑟, 𝜆 𝑖𝜇

𝜆 𝜁𝜔

𝜇 𝜔 1 𝜁

The total solution is

 𝑦 𝑡 𝜅𝐹 𝑡 𝑦

There are three possible solutions for 𝑦 based on the value of 𝜁 1 :

Overdamped:

𝜁 1 0

𝜁 1

𝑦 𝑡 𝑐 𝑒 𝑐 𝑒

real, negative, and distinct roots

Critically damped:

𝜁 1 0

𝜁 1

𝑦 𝑡 𝑐 𝑒 𝑐 𝑡𝑒

real, negative, and equal to -𝜔 roots

Underdamped:

𝜁 1 0

0 𝜁 1

𝑦 𝑡 𝑐 𝑒 𝑐 𝑒 𝑒 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜇𝑡 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜇𝑡

complex and distinct roots

There are two inputs we will analyze, step and sine input. We will look at the overdamped,
critically damped, and underdamped responses for each input.

STEP INPUT:

Overdamped:

𝜁 1
 𝜁
𝑦 𝑡 𝜅𝐴 1 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝜔 𝑡 𝜁 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 𝜁 1
𝜁 1

Critically Damped:

𝜁 1

𝑦 𝑡 𝜅𝐴 1 𝑒 1 𝜔 𝑡

Underdamped:

0 𝜁 1

1
𝑦 𝑡 𝜅𝐴 1 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 1 𝜁 𝜙
1 𝜁

𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 𝜁

SINE INPUT:

𝜅𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝜙 𝜔
𝑦 𝑡 𝜔
1 2𝜁𝜔/𝜔 ⁄
𝜔

Phase Lag (in radians):

/
For 1 𝜙 𝜔 𝑡𝑎𝑛
/

/
For 1 𝜙 𝜔 𝜋 𝑡𝑎𝑛
/

Magnitude Ratio:

1
𝑀 𝜔 ⁄
1 𝜔/𝜔 2𝜁𝜔/𝜔

Now that we have covered the second order system responses. Here is an example of an electrical
system.

𝑦 2𝜁
𝑦 𝑦 𝜅𝐹 𝑡
𝜔 𝜔

𝑑 𝐼 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐸 𝑡
𝐿𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝐼 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝐸 𝑡
𝐿𝐶𝐼 𝑅𝐶𝐼 𝐼 𝐶
𝑑𝑡

𝐿𝐶 ⇒ 𝜔 (1/s)
√

2𝜁 𝑅𝐶 𝑅
𝑅𝐶 ⇒ 𝜁
𝜔 2√𝐿𝐶 4𝐿/𝐶

𝑦 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜅 𝐶

𝐿 is inductor (ohm s), 𝐶 is capacitor(s/ohm), 𝑅 is resistor(ohm) all in series, 𝐸 𝑡 is input voltage

and 𝐼 is current.
8.3 EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1

For the general solution show that for 𝜁 and

SOLUTION:

√
𝜏 , 𝜔 ⇒𝜔 , and 𝜏
√ √

𝑎
𝜏 𝜏
𝑎

EXAMPLE 2

A 2nd order system with 𝜁 0.5 and 𝜔 2 rad/s is subjected to a sine input of Bsin(4t). Calculate
the phase lag of the output in degrees.

SOLUTION:

Input is 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 therefore 𝜔 4

𝜔 4 2𝜁𝜔/𝜔
2 1⇒𝜙 𝜔 𝜋 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝜔 2 1 𝜔/𝜔

2 .5 2
𝜙 𝜔 𝜋 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜋 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2/3
1 2

𝜙 𝜔 𝜋 0.58 2.55 (rad)

2.55 rad (360 degrees/2𝜋 radians) = -146.1 degrees

For the same system, find 𝑀 𝜔

1
𝑀 𝜔 ⁄
1 𝜔/𝜔 2𝜁𝜔/𝜔

1
𝑀 𝜔 ⁄
1 2 2 .5 2

1 1
𝑀 𝜔 ⁄
9 4 √13
EXAMPLE 3

For the following system, adjust R so the system is critically damped.

Figure 8.3.1 Example 3

SOLUTION:

For the system to be critically damped, 𝜁 1

𝑅
𝜁 1
4𝐿/𝐶

90 10
𝑅 2 𝐿/𝐶 2
120 10

𝑅 54.77 ohms

EXAMPLE 4

For an input signal of 𝐸 10𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 and initial conditions of 𝑦 0 0 and 𝑦 0 0, calculate the
magnitude ratio and signal amplitude at 𝑡 1 ms where 𝜅𝐴 10 volts, 𝑓 500 Hz, 𝑅 1 Kohm,
𝐶 5𝜇𝐹, and 𝐿 10.14mH

SOLUTION:

𝜔 2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 500 1000𝜋 3140

1 1
𝜔 4441
√𝐿𝐶 10.14 10 5 10

/
.707 1 therefore 𝜙 𝜔 𝑡𝑎𝑛
/
 𝜁 1.54 rad
/ .
.

𝑀 𝜔 ⁄ = ⁄
/ / . . .

𝑀 𝜔 0.063

𝑦 𝑡 ⁄ = 0.063 10 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3140 0.001 1.54

/ /

𝑦 𝑡 0.629

EXAMPLE 5

An RLC system subjected to a step voltage of 12 volts is modified and the resistor is replaced by a
piece of wire with resistivity of 10 10 ohm/m and a length of 0.1 meters. Calculate 𝑦 1𝑚𝑠 .

SOLUTION:

𝐿 180𝜇𝐻, 𝐶 250𝑛𝐹, 𝜅𝐴 12 V

𝑅 10 10 0.1𝑚 10 10𝜇ohms

1 1
𝜔 149071.2
√𝐿𝐶 180 10 250 10

𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 10 10
𝜁 149071 𝐶 149071
2√𝐿𝐶 2 2

𝜁 250 10 10 10 0.5 149071 18 10

Therefore 𝜁 is under damped

1
𝑦 𝑡 𝜅𝐴 1 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 1 𝜁 𝜙
1 𝜁

𝑦 1𝑚𝑠 13.84𝑉
CHAPTER 9
SIGNAL ANALYSIS

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Signals are an important part of communication and electronics. They carry information about a
behavior or attribute to the interpreter. In the late 1900’s, engineers began to study and
manipulate signals. This led to the creation of computers which can store, create, and transmit
signals. In measurement systems, there is a physical variable being transmitted such as voltage,
current, or magnetic field strength. This chapter will discuss signal characteristics and different
types of signals.
9.2 SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS

Depending on the size and shape of a signal can produce different information. The following
definitions are important signal characteristics and must be understood to evaluate signals
accurately.

Amplitude is the height or magnitude of the signal and represents the strength of the signal.

Range is the distance between the upper and lower measurements of the signal.

Waveform is the shape and form of the signal such as sine, square, triangle, etc.

Frequency is the signal change over time and usually refers to cyclic frequency represented as
variable f. It is measured in Hertz (Hz) which is the number of cycles in one second. Circular
frequency is measured as radians per second and represented as variable ω. The relationship
between circular frequency and cyclic frequency is ω = 2πf.

Period is the time it takes to complete one cycle. It is the reciprocal of cyclic frequency and
represented as variable T. The relationship between frequency and period is T= 2π/ω = 1/f.

Figure 9.2.1 Signal Characteristics

9.3 SIGNAL CLASSIFICATION

Signals can be classified into different categories based on their characteristics. All signals are
either a deterministic or a nondeterministic (random) signal.

A deterministic signal can be expressed as a mathematical equation. Future values for a

deterministic signal can be predicted with confidence by using the mathematical model of the
deterministic signal. A nondeterministic signal is random and has uncertainty. Since there is no
exact mathematical model for a nondeterministic signal, the averages at different time intervals
can be used to evaluate the signal. Figure 9.3.1 shows more categories within deterministic and
nondeterministic signals.

Figure 9.2.2 Deterministic Signal Example Figure 9.2.3 Nondeterministic Signal Example

9.4 ANALOG VS DISCRETE SIGNALS

Signals can also be either analog or discrete (digital) signals. Analog signals are continuous and
have infinite possible data points. The analog clock for example has a first and second hand that
move clockwise in a smooth motion with infinite number of positions.

Discrete (digital) signals are finite with a limited number of possible data points. The digital clock
displays one time every minute and has a finite number of displays the digital clock will produce.

Figure 9.4.1 Analog Signal Figure 9.4.2 Discrete (Digital) Signal

Another example of a discrete signal is a binary signal because the signal has only two possible
levels.

Figure 9.4.3 Binary Signal (another example of discrete signal)

Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) converts analog signals into digital (discrete) signals. ADCs
help computers store necessary data points without overloading the computer. Digital-to-Analog
Converter (DAC) converts digital (discrete) signals into analog signals. DACs help turn a discrete
signal into a signal to interact with the “real world.” ADCs will be discussed later in this textbook.
9.5 SIGNAL MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS

Signals can be shown graphically like in Figure 9.2.1 or some can be represented as an expression.
A simple periodic sine function can be written as,
𝑦 𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝜑

• 𝐴: amplitude in units of y(t)

• 𝑛: number of cycles (dimensionless)
• 𝜔: circular frequency (rad/s) 2𝜋𝑓
• 𝑡: time (s)
• 𝜑: phase (rad)

Some expressions involve both sine and cosine functions,

𝑦 𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡

To combine the expression above as one form (either sine or cosine) the phase angle, φ, is used to
offset one of the terms.

For sine,

𝑦 𝑡 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝜃

For cosine,

𝑦 𝑡 𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝜑

To calculate C, θ, and φ,

𝐶 √𝐴 𝐵

𝜑 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵/𝐴

𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴/𝐵 𝜑

An important statistical parameter of signals is the Root-Mean-Square (RMS or rms). It is the

square root of the mean of the square of the signal. Refer to Root-Mean Square section of the
book.

For a continuous signal,

𝑦 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

For a discrete signal,

𝑦 ∑𝑦
9.6 EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1

Determine the rms value of the analog signal 𝑦 𝑡 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 V.

SOLUTION:

Root mean square equation is

1
𝑦 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇

The period is

𝑇 2𝜋/𝜔

Combine and solve for the root mean square,

1
𝑦 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇

4
𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇

4 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡
𝑦 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 2

4 𝑡 1
𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜔𝑡 |
𝑇 2 4𝜔

4 𝑇 1 1
𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜔𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0
𝑇 2 4𝜔 4𝜔

4 𝑇 1
𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜔 2𝜋/𝜔
𝑇 2 4𝜔

4 𝑇
𝑦
𝑇 2
 4
𝑦 𝑉
√2

Or,

𝑉
𝑦
√2

𝑉 4𝑉

4
𝑦 𝑉
√2

EXAMPLE 2

Combine the following signal inputs: 𝑦 𝑡 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 .

SOLUTION:

First combine 4sin(t) and cos(t)

𝑦 𝑡 4 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑛 1/4 4.123𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 0.2449

Combine cos(2t) and 3sin(2t)

𝑦 𝑡 1 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑛 1/3 3.162𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 0.3218

Since 𝑦 and 𝑦 are at different frequencies, they can not be combined.

𝑦 𝑡 4.123𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 0.2449 3.162𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 0.3218

CHAPTER 10
SAMPLING AND DATA
ACQUISITION

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Computers are limited in storage and work with discrete signals to prevent overloading the
computer. Instead of recording a continuous signal, they record necessary data points so they can
store the signal data digitally. Computers can take a reading from the analog signal at a sampling
frequency, 𝑓 , and produce a discrete signal. It is important to have the right sampling frequency to
have an accurate representation of the analog signal.

Figure 10.1.1 Poor sampling frequency (aliasing)

= SAMPLING
FREQUENCY, 𝑓

Figure 10.1.2 Good sampling frequency

10.2 SIGNAL SAMPLING

Consider analog signal y(t), if the signal is sampled every 𝛿𝑡 seconds over period T, the frequency
sample is 𝑓 1/𝛿𝑡=N/T. N is the number of measurements and 𝑇 𝑁𝛿𝑡. If the original signal
has different frequencies ranging from 0 to W Hz, the maximum frequency of the signal is W Hz.
According to the Nyquist Sampling Theorem,

𝑓 𝑓

Frequencies above the Nyquist frequency will cause aliasing to appear. To reduce error and
aliasing, the sampling rate (𝑓 ) must be greater than twice the maximum frequency of the signal.

𝑓 2𝑓

Figure 10.1.1 is an example of a sampling rate that is less than twice the signal frequency. The
sampling rate is not sufficient and produces a different signal. Figure 10.1.2 shows a sampling rate
of eight times the maximum frequency which produces an accurate discrete signal.
10.3 ALIASING

When the sample rate is too low, the sample signal does not fully represent the original signal and
therefore produces an altered signal. Aliasing describes the effect that causes different signals to
become indistinguishable when sampled. Filters can be added to reduce aliasing.

To reconstruct the signal, the lowest frequency signal is usually more important. We want to
minimize the aliasing frequency. This can be done by choosing an integer m to minimize the alias
frequency value,

𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛 |𝑓 𝑚𝑓 |

There is no way to distinguish negative and positive frequencies so only positive frequencies are
considered.
10.4 EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1

Convert the analog signal E(t)=10sin(2𝜋t) mV into a discrete time signal using sample time
increments of (a) 0.1 s, (b) 0.4 s, (c) 0.7 s, is the signal aliased?

SOLUTION:

𝜔 = 2𝜋

f = 𝜔/2𝜋 = 1 Hz = maximum frequency

Since the maximum frequency is 1 Hz, a good sample frequency must be greater than twice
the maximum frequency. If the sample frequency is less than 2 Hz, aliasing will appear.

a) 𝑓 10 𝐻𝑧
.

b) 𝑓 2.5 𝐻𝑧
.

c) 𝑓 1.429 𝐻𝑧 = Aliasing

EXAMPLE 2

Consider signals at (a) f=30 Hz, (b) f=80 Hz, (c) f=120 Hz, and (d) f=500 Hz. If the sampling
frequency is 𝑓 =50 Hz, compute the minimum alias frequencies.

SOLUTION:

a) 𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛 |𝑓 𝑚𝑓 |

𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛 |30 𝑚50|

To minimize aliasing, m must equal 1. Therefore, 𝑓 20 𝐻𝑧.

b) 𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛 |80 𝑚50|

If m=1, then 𝑓 30𝐻𝑧 this in not the minimum. To minimize aliasing, m must equal
2. Therefore, 𝑓 20 𝐻𝑧.

c) 𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛 |120 𝑚50|

To minimize aliasing, m must equal 2, 𝑓 20𝐻𝑧

d) 𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛 |510 𝑚50|

To minimize aliasing, m must equal 10, 𝑓 10𝐻𝑧

CHAPTER 11
UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Every measurement faces errors and uncertainties whether they can be prevented or not. Errors
in experimental observations are recognizable deficiencies due to experimental mistakes or
shortcomings. In some experiments, there are errors that are unknown to the observer which are
uncertainties. Uncertainty is defined as the potential deficiency in an experiment due to lack of
knowledge. This chapter will discuss types of errors and how to perform uncertainty analysis on
measurement instrumentations.
11.2 MEASUREMENT ERROR

The difference between the value measured and the true value is known as the measurement
error. Measurement errors can generally be categorized as systematic or random errors.

Systematic errors in experimental observations usually come from the measuring instruments.
For example, if a teacher weighed each student in their classroom but the scale was off by a pound,
then each student’s measured weight is off by a pound. There are two types of systematic errors
that can occur with instruments having a linear response. Offset error, also known as zero setting
error, occurs when the instrument does not read zero when the quantity measured is zero. The
other systematic error is multiplier or scale factor error where the instrument consistently reads
changes in the quantity to be measured greater or less than the actual changes. Offset and
multiplier systematic errors can occur if the instrument has measurement limitations, if there is
something wrong with the instrument, or if the instrument is not calibrated.

INSTRUMENT
READING IDEAL WITHOUT ERROR

ACTUAL QUANTITY

SLOPE IS
OFFSET MULTIPLIER
ERROR ERROR

Figure 11.2.1 Systematic errors in a linear instrument

The accuracy of a measurement is how close the measurement is to the true value of the quantity
being measured. The accuracy of measurements is often reduced by systematic errors, which are
difficult to detect even for experienced researchers, due to lack of knowledge.

Random errors in experimental measurements are caused by unknown and unpredictable

changes in the experiment. For example, if a teacher weighed each student in their classroom and
the scale was accurate but some of the student wore heavier clothing than others, then random
errors are expected. Random errors can occur if the environment influences the experiment, if the
experimenter cannot operate the instrument properly, or other variations in the measurement
process.
The precision of a measurement is how close several measurements of the same quantity agree
with each other or the repeatability of the measurements. The precision is limited by the random
errors and may be determined by repeating the measurements. Figure 11.2.2 shows the
relationship between accuracy and precision.

P
R
E
C
I
S
I
O
N

ACCURACY
Figure 11.2.2 Accuracy versus Precision
Random errors often have a Gaussian normal distribution. In such cases statistical methods may
be used to analyze the data. The mean, m, of several measurements of the same quantity is the best
estimate of that quantity. The standard deviation, s, of the measurements shows the accuracy of
the estimate.

Figure 11.2.3 Gaussian Normal Distribution, where the mean is zero.

68.27% of the measurements lie in the interval 𝑚 𝑠 𝑥 𝑚 𝑠

95.45% of the measurements lie in the interval 𝑚 2𝑠 𝑥 𝑚 2𝑠
99.73% of the measurements lie in the interval 𝑚 3𝑠 𝑥 𝑚 3𝑠

Mean is the average value of each data point and is the best estimate of the true value when the
sample size is large.
 𝜇 ∑𝑥
Where N is the number of data points.

Standard deviation shows the accuracy of the estimate or how far the data points are from the
average.

𝑠 ∑ 𝑥 𝑥 𝜎 ∑ 𝑥 𝜇

Variance is the square of the standard deviation.

𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 ∑ 𝑥 𝜇

Standard error of the mean is the standard deviation of the sample-mean’s estimate from the
population’s mean.

𝑆𝐸
√
In other words, if one takes random samples (same size) from the sample population, the standard
deviation of this samples’ means is approximately equal to SEM (standard error of the mean). SEM
is used to determine how precisely the sample mean estimates the population mean. Lower SEM
values indicate more precise estimation of the population mean. Large standard deviation results
in large SEM values. Large sample size results in small SEM values.

EXAMPLE: Costume Party

Let’s say there are two costume parties. The first party is a college costume party. The second
costume party is a baby birthday party with some adult supervision. Table 11. 1 shows the
number of guests that attended each party and the average age.

Party 1 Party 2
Number of Guests 20 20
Average Age (years) 20.72 20.72

Table 11.2.1 Costume Party Average Age

Table 11.2.1 shows the parties have the same number of guests and average age. This can be
misleading to someone who does not know whether the party was a college party or a baby party.
Let’s take another look at the data.
 Party 1 Party 2
19 36
22 39
21 44
22 38
21.5 37
19 38
21 42
22 37
20 36
19.5 46
22 2
21 3
18.75 1.5
23 2.25
22 2.5
19.5 2.75
22 1.75
19 2.25
21 2
19.25 1.5

Table 11.2.2 Data of Party 1 and Party 2

After looking at Table 11.2.2, the data is very different between Party 1 and Party 2 even though
they have the same number of guests and the same average age. To see how accurate the mean is
to the data, the standard deviation must be calculated.

Party 1 Party 2
Mean 20.725 20.725
Standard
1.3108 18.726
Deviation

Table 11.2.3 Mean and Standard Deviation of Party 1 and Party 2

The standard deviation for Party 1 is much smaller than Party 2 which can be seen in Table 11.2.3.
Since the guests at the first party were relatively close to the average, the standard deviation is
small. For the second party, most of the guests were much older or much younger than the
average. The average was not a good representation of the ages at the party and therefore the
standard deviation was much higher. Standard deviation is a useful data tool to show how
accurate the mean is relative to the rest of the data.

EXAMPLE 1

Calculate mean, standard deviation, and standard error of the mean (SEM):

Data set: 33, 42, 15, 10

SOLUTION:

1
𝜇 ∑𝑥
𝑁

33 42 15 10
𝜇 25
4

1
𝜎 ∑ 𝑥 𝜇
𝑁

33 25 42 25 15 25 10 25
𝜎 13.019
4

𝜎
𝑆𝐸
√𝑁

13.019
𝑆𝐸 6.510
√4

EXAMPLE 2

Calculate mean, standard deviation, and standard error of the mean (SEM):

Data set: 3.45, 3.67, 3.25, 3.41, 4.00, 3.89, 3.78, 3.68, 3.30, 3.39

SOLUTION:

3.45 3.67 3.25 3.41 4.00 3.89 3.78 3.68 3.30 3.39
𝜇 3.582
10
 3.45 3.582 3.67 3.582 ⋯ 3.30 3.582 3.39 3.582
𝜎
10
0.245

0.245
𝑆𝐸
√10

𝑆𝐸 0.0774
11.3 UNCERTAINTY

With errors, there are known experimental mistakes or shortcomings. When there is a potential
deficiency due to lack of knowledge, there is uncertainty. Measurement uncertainty is the
estimate of the probable error in the measurement. Uncertainty analysis is the process of
identifying and quantifying those errors.

When performing an uncertainty analysis assume:

1) Test objects are known
2) Measurement process is clearly defined and all known calibration corrections for bias error
have been applied
3) Data are obtained under fixed conditions
4) User has experience with the system

Uncertainty analysis can be performed during the design stage. The design stage is before any
measurements are taken and therefore the uncertainty analysis is not from the data. It can also be
performed during an advanced stage or single measurement or both. This is when there is limited
data and a large data set is not available or when deciding on the measurement procedure. The
other stage is the multiple measurement stage when there are sufficient repetitions and
replications of the measured data are available and there is enough data to do statistics.

When an uncertainty analysis is performed during the design stage, the analysis estimates the
total error associated with the instrument before any measurements are taken. This can help
determine whether the instrument will be suitable before attempting the experiment. The
instrument uncertainty is usually categorized as instrument resolution (𝑢 ) and calibration (𝑢 ).

The resolution of the instrument is the minimum readable output. For both an analog scale and
digital scale, the resolution error is equal to plus or minus half of the resolution:

Analog Scale: 𝑢 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Digital Display: 𝑢 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡

A/D Converter (M-bit, Full scale range): 𝑄 |𝑒 | 𝑄 or |𝑒 | 𝑄

The resolution error of the A/D Converter can also be estimated. The full-scale range and M-bit
must be known to calculate the resolution, Q. Depending on the output of the A/D converter, the
uncertainty of the error can be estimated as either Q or 𝑄. Both will have the same interval
length of Q.

Other instrument errors that are related to the calibration of the instrument are hysteresis,
linearity, sensitivity, zero offset, and repeatability which are shown in the following graphs:
 O
U
T
P O
DOWNSCA U
U
T T
P ACTUAL DATA
HYSTERES
V U
A T
L
U UPSCALE V

E A BEST LINEAR
L

INPUT VALUE U
E INPUT VALUE

Figure 11.4.1 Instrument Error: Hysteresis Figure 11.4.2 Instrument Error: Linearity

When the measurement going upscale is The linearity error determines how close the
different than the measurement going measurement data best fit line will be linear.
downscale, this type of instrument error is Ideally, the instrument should measure
called hysteresis. As seen in Figure 11.4.1, linearly. If it does not, like in Figure 11.4.2,
there is a range that the measurements vary results that are not linear have a higher
depending on the direction of the uncertainty. This can happen when the
measurement. measurements are outside the range of the
instrument.

MAXIMU
O
M FOR
U
TYPICAL
T
P
U
T NOMINAL
CURVE FOR
V
MINIMUM
A K FOR
L
U
INPUT VALUE

Figure 11.4.3 Instrument Error: Sensitivity

Sensitivity error is the change of output over change of input or the slope of the line. For example,
the slope may be different for higher and lower temperature measurements which is a sensitivity
error. As the slope changes there is a higher uncertainty.

O
U TYPICAL
T
SHIFT
P
U
T

NOMINA
V
L
A
L
U TYPICAL SHIFT
E (LOW)

INPUT VALUE


Figure 11.4.4 Instrument Error: Zero Offset



O
U
T
P
U
T

V
A Probable
2𝑆
L data scatter band
U on successive
E measurements


INPUT VALUE




Figure 11.4.5 Instrument Error: Repeatability

When each measurement is off by the same amount there is a zero-offset error. Ideally a calibrated
instrument should intersect at zero. If there is a zero-offset error, there is a shift and the
measurements will intercept at non-zero like shown in Figure 11.4.4.

Repeatability error happens when the measurement is repeated many times and there is a range
of results. This refers to the precision of the calibration.

Calibration is the process of quantifying and correcting the error due to the disconnection
between input and output. To begin calibration, the observer must apply known inputs and
observe the outputs. The inputs can be measured in random or sequential order. When measuring
in sequential order, a full cycle is preferred. To do this measure every other value from minimum
to maximum and then measure values in between the previous measurements going from
maximum to minimum. Calibration can also determine the input and output range, the accuracy,
the precision (random) errors, and the bias (systematic) errors of the measurement system.

The manufacturer will usually state the instrument uncertainties that were evaluated during
calibration. To combine the instrument errors, the root-sum-squares (RSS) method is used:

𝑢 𝜀 𝜀 ... 𝜀 ∑𝜀

where ε are the different instrument errors, and M is the number of errors.

The design-stage total uncertainty is expressed as:

𝑢 𝑢 𝑢

where 𝑢 is the interpolation (resolution) error and 𝑢 is the instrumentation (calibration) error.

The design-stage uncertainty will estimate the suitability of an instrument for the measurement. It
can help guide the observer to select the appropriate equipment and procedures.

Error propagation is the computation of the overall uncertainty for a measurement system
consisting of a chain of components or several segments/instruments.

Let R be a known function of the n independent variables, 𝑥 , 𝑥 , 𝑥 , . . . , 𝑥

𝑅 𝑓 𝑥 ,𝑥 ,𝑥 ,...,𝑥

Each variable contains some uncertainty 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑥 , . . . , 𝑢𝑥 that will affect the result R.

A sensitivity index (weight) is defined as

𝜃 | 𝑖 1,2, . . . , 𝑛

where 𝜃 is the absolute sensitivity coefficient and should be evaluated at the expected value of 𝑥 .

The uncertainty estimate in the result is determined from

𝑢 ∑ 𝜃𝑢 ∑ | 𝑢
11.4 UNCERTAINTY IN STRAIN
MEASUREMENT EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1

A 0-40 psi pressure transducer (specifications listed below) is used in a laboratory where the
room temperature may vary 12 𝐶. What is the total error that is introduced into the system
using this pressure transducer (Design-Stage Uncertainty)?
PERFORMANCE
SPECIFICATIONS Accuracy: 0.4% FS
Excitation: 15 to 35 Vdc Zero Adjustment (Balance): 3% FS
Output: 6-25 mA two wire Span Adjustment (Balance): 4% FS
Maximum Loop Impedance: 1500 Ω Compensated Temperature Range: 32 to
Insulation Resistance: 550 Vac 120 𝐹 (0 to 50 𝐶)
Power Supply Effect: 0.0003 mA/V Thermal Zero Effect: 0.05% FS/ 𝐶
Thermal Sensitivity Effect: 0.032% FS/ 𝐶
Maximum Pressure: 160% FS

SOLUTION:

Full Scale (FS) = max pressure - min pressure = 40 - 0 = 40 psi

ΔT = max temperature - min temperature = 12 - (-12) = 24 𝐶

Uncertainty in accuracy, thermal zero effect, and thermal sensitivity effect

𝑢 0.4%𝐹𝑆 0.4% 40𝑝𝑠𝑖 0.16 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝑢 0.05%𝐹𝑆/ 𝐶 0.05% 40𝑝𝑠𝑖 24 𝐶 0.48 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝑢 0.032%𝐹𝑆/ 𝐶 0.032% 40𝑝𝑠𝑖 24 𝐶 0.31 𝑝𝑠𝑖

Total accuracy uncertainty is

𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 0.16 0.48 0.31 0.59 𝑝𝑠𝑖

Total resolution uncertainty is

𝑢 0
 There is no resolution uncertainty because there is no display to read.

Total design-stage uncertainty is

𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 0 0.59 0.59 𝑝𝑠𝑖

EXAMPLE 2

A 0-40 psi pressure transducer (specifications listed in previous example) is used in a laboratory
where the room temperature may vary 12 𝐶. A 150 Ω resistor is used to convert the 6-25mA
pressure transducer output to a voltage signal that is subsequently digitized by a 12-bit 0-7 V ADC
(resolution error 1.71 10 V) and measured by a voltmeter. The voltmeter has an accuracy
of 0.03% of the reading. What is the pressure transducer resolution and the design stage
uncertainty?

SOLUTION:

𝐼 6 25 𝑚𝐴

Output voltage is

𝐸 𝑅 𝐼 0.9 3.75 𝑉

The A/D converter is 12-bit and 0-7 V and has a resolution error of

𝑄 𝐸 7
𝑢 1.71 10 𝑉
2 2 2

The accuracy uncertainty from the voltmeter is

𝑢 3.75 0.03% 1.125 10 𝑉

From the previous example the total accuracy uncertainty from the transducer is

𝑢 0.59 𝑝𝑠𝑖
 We need to convert the design stage error in terms of voltage

0.59
𝐼 25 6 10 0.28 10 𝐴
40 0

𝑉 𝑢 𝑅 𝐼 150 0.28 10 0.042 𝑉

Total design-stage uncertainty is

𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 0.042 𝑉

EXAMPLE 3

The resistance of a certain size of iron-band resistance thermometer element is given as 𝑅

𝑅 1 𝛼 𝑇 20 , where 𝑅 10𝛺 0.1%is the initial resistance at 20 𝐶, 𝛼 0.0057/ 𝐶
1%is the temperature coefficient of resistance for iron, and the temperature of interest is 𝑇
40 𝐶 1%. What is the element resistance and its uncertainty?

SOLUTION:

𝑢 ∑ 𝜃𝑢

𝑥 𝑅 , 𝛼, 𝑇

𝑅 10 𝛺

𝛼 0.005 𝐶

𝑇 40 𝐶

𝜕𝑅
𝜃 1 𝛼 𝑇 20 1 0.0057 40 20 1.114 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜕𝑅

𝑢 0.1% 10 𝛺 0.01 𝛺

𝜕𝑅
𝜃 𝑅 𝑇 20 10 40 20 200 𝛺 𝐶
𝜕𝛼

𝑢 1% 0.0057 5.7 10 ˚𝐶

𝜕𝑅 𝛺
𝜃 𝑅 𝛼 10 0.0057 0.057
𝜕𝑇 ˚𝐶
 𝑢 1% 40 0.4 𝐶

Total uncertainty is

𝑢 𝜃 𝑢 𝜃 𝑢 𝜃 𝑢 0.028 𝛺

At 𝑇 40 𝐶,

𝑅 𝑅 1 𝛼 𝑇 20 10 1 0.0057 40 20 11.14 𝛺

Therefore, the resistance and uncertainty are

𝑅 𝛥𝑅 𝑅 𝑢 11.14 0.028𝛺 11.14 0.25% 𝛺

EXAMPLE 4

Calculate the volume and uncertainty of a cone with radius measured to be 3𝑐𝑚 1% and height
measured to be 5𝑐𝑚 1%.

SOLUTION:
1
𝑉 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
3
Volume and uncertainty of the cone is
𝑟 3𝑐𝑚 1%
𝑉 47.12 1.05𝑐𝑚
ℎ 5𝑐𝑚 1% 47.12𝑐𝑚 2.23%

𝑢 3 0.01 0.03𝑐𝑚

𝑢 5 0.01 0.05𝑐𝑚

𝜕𝑉 2
𝜃 𝜋𝑟ℎ 31.42𝑐𝑚
𝜕𝑟 3

𝜕𝑉 1
𝜃 𝜋𝑟 9.42𝑐𝑚
𝜕ℎ 3

Total uncertainty is

𝑢 𝜃𝑢 𝜃 𝑢
1.05𝑐𝑚

Figure 11.4.1 Cone for Example 4

CHAPTER 12
ANALOG-DIGITAL
CONVERSION

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Since analog signals are continuous and have infinite possible data points, it is nearly impossible
to store the entire signal to a computer without overloading the computer. Discrete signals,
however, have a finite number of data points which makes storing its information easier. Analog-
to-digital converter (ADC or A/D converter) is a system that converts real world analog signals
into discrete signals. This is typically the last measurement system to store information into a
computer.
12.2 ANALOG/DIGITAL CONVERSION

In an A/D conversion, analog signals are converted to yes/no, on/off, or 0/1 pulses. This allows
the observer to read precise outputs without interpolation. The A/D converter is also easily
coupled to other devices and computers so data can be accurately collected as a function of time.
Other advantages of A/D conversions are noise-resistant signals, signals are easily reproduced,
voltages are generally low (5 V, 10 V, 12 V are typical), and signals can be easily filtered or
amplified.

ANALOG: DATA
PHYSICAL CONVERT VOLTAGE, CONVER DIGITAL TRANSFER REDUCTIO
VARIABLE CURRENT, FORM
N
POWER
TRANSDUCER DATA-ACQUISITION POST

ANALOG DIGITAL

Figure 12.2.1 Data acquisition systems

There are two types of input connections, single-ended and differential-ended. Single ended inputs
can have N number of channels that share the same low wire (LL GRD). Single ended inputs can
handle larger noise and share a common reference point with other signals. Differential ended
inputs have N/2 number of channels and can cancel out smaller common noises. The input
requires a separate ground-reference point or return signal.

Figure 12.2.2 Single ended connection Figure 12.2.3 Differential ended connection
When selecting the appropriate A/D converter, the user must consider the number of channels,
voltage range, resolution, and the conversion speed. The resolution refers to the number of
discrete values it can produce over a range of analog values. An A/D converter with M-bit will
output 2 different binary numbers or number of possible values. Larger M-bit values are desired.
For example, 8-bit will have 2 256 discrete values and 16-bit will have 2 65,536 discrete
values. Resolution in volts is then calculated as
𝑄

where 𝐸 is the full-scale voltage range. Note that smaller Q is better. To select a high-resolution
ADC, it is better to look for higher bits rather than lowering the voltage range.

Quantization error (resolution error) is

1
|𝑒 | 𝑄
2

Resolution error is due to the size of each quantized discrete value. Saturation error can also occur
when the output of the ADC is near the upper or lower limit of the voltage range.

Percent error can be calculated as

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟% 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟/𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 %

SATURATED
BINARY OUTPUT
OUTPUT

HIGHEST
BINARY
NUMBER

ACTUAL
QUANTIZATION

SATURATED Q
OUTPUT

VOLTS

ANALOG INPUT

12.2.4 Analog‐Digital Conversion Resolution