NAME: DAVID ANTHONY ALANI

INSTITUTE: UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

FACULTY: ENVIRONMENTAL

SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT: QUANTITY

SURVEYING

MATRIC NUMBER: 170505501

QTS 511 TERM PAPER/REPORT

 A. Oil and Gas Structures for Production

1. Compliant Tower

A compliant tower (CT) is a fixed derrick structure typically used in offshore oil or

gas production. A drilling rig consists of a narrow flexible (compliant) tower and a

pile foundation supporting a conventional drilling and production deck. A compliant

tower is designed to withstand large lateral deflections and forces and typically he is

used in water depths of 1,500 to 3,000 feet (450 to 900 m). These structures are

considered free-standing but media-supported (by water). They exhibit static stability

but have much higher lateral deflection/flexibility compared to land-based structures,

up to 2.5% vs 0.5%, and are partially buoyantly supported . It is unknown if these

structures would be self-supporting if built on land. The current deepest is the

Chevron Petronius Tower at 623 meters. With the continued exploration of offshore

hydrocarbons, a major challenge for operators has been to reduce oil field

development costs. In the deep sea and marginal production areas, this challenge has

led to the development of structural technology.Reduced oil field development costs

have been a significant problem for operators with the ongoing exploration of

offshore hydrocarbons. This difficulty has prompted the development of structural

technology in the deep sea and in low-production areas.

Image of a compliant tower
2. Fixed Platform

A fixed platform is a shallow-water platform that is affixed to the seafloor directly.

They are supported by legs made of steel or concrete that are placed on the ocean

floor or by their own weight. These platforms are solid and withstand shifting in the

wind and the water.

Type

Fixed platforms are available in five main types, from traditional fixed platforms for

use up to 150m water depth to thrust-legged platforms for use at water depths of

2000m.

 Conventional Fixed Platform

 Compliant Towers

 Tension Leg Platforms 

 Sea-star Platform

Conventional Fixed Platform

Concrete or steel can be used to build a traditional fixed platform, or FP. In contrast to

caisson rigs, which have undersea oil storage tanks that enable them to float to their

final site after being constructed in extremely shallow water, the former are rigs that

are mostly constructed from steel pipes stacked on the seabed.

Compliant Towers

A flexible tower that extends below deck to the seabed is part of the narrow rig known

as the Tower Platform. They resemble FPs but have a significantly smaller footprint,

and because of the turret's flexibility, they can move while being pressed by deeper

and rougher waves.

Tension Leg Platforms

Tension Leg Platforms, often known as TLPs or Floating Platforms, are buoyant

platforms stabilized by strong anchors or tendons. The hull is joined by these anchors

to a template fastened to the ocean floor.

Sea-star Platform

The Sea-star Platform is comparable to the TLP, except it is a semi-submersible

platform in which drilling fills the bottom, star-shaped hull with water. Tendons

extend from its lower shell's star-shaped structure. These platforms are kept in tension

by a mix of semi-submersible technology and tension leg design.

3. Tension Leg Platform

The Tension Leg Platform (TLP) is a compliant platform that is fixed vertically.

Tendons are taut mooring lines used to anchor excessively buoyant floating platforms

vertically (or tethers). The structure is kept upright, with no rotating or vertical

movement (pitch and roll). It can move laterally and is horizontally flexible (shocks

and shakes).

The wind turbine is supported by a floating foundation (platform) in the TLP type.

This TLP wind turbine may be erected and put into service onshore, as opposed to the

Spar type, which requires offshore assembly and poses logistical challenges.
4. FPSO (Floating Production Storage and Offloading)

Many offshore oil and gas producing regions throughout the world currently use

FPSO (Floating Production Storage and Offloading) and FSO (Floating Storage and

Offloading) systems as their main method. In the upper production facility, FPSOs

collect liquids (oil, water, and several other substances) from subsea reservoirs

through risers and separate the liquids into crude oil, natural gas, water, and

contaminants. On board is a floating production system. Crude oil kept in the FPSO's

storage tanks is moved to shuttle tankers for transportation to the market or additional

refinement on land. The majority of FPSO/FSO are designed like ships, and

depending on the environment, they can be attached to the ocean floor using a variety

of anchoring mechanisms. Suitable for a wide range of water depths and

environmental conditions, it can be designed to remain on site for 20+ years of

continuous operation.
5. Sub-sea System

The wells in sub-sea production systems are submerged as opposed to surface-based.

Oil is retrieved from the seafloor and "tethered" to current production platforms,

much like FPS. Mobile drilling rigs are used to drill wells, and instead of constructing

a production platform for the well, the produced natural gas and oil are sent to

adjacent production platforms through risers or subsea pipes. As a result, numerous

wells throughout a sizable region can be served by production platforms that are

carefully located. Sub-sea systems can only be removed from the water and

transported; they are mainly used in water depths greater than 7,000 feet.Well

systems, production systems, intervention systems, sub-sea treatment systems,

protective structures, manifolds, templates, and pipeline systems are all examples of

sub-sea systems. Well systems also include well completion systems and sub-sea trees

(connections, utilities, risers, injection pipelines, and production pipelines)

6. SURF system

Sub-sea Umbilical, Risers, and Flow Lines (SURF) Market | WMR RESEARCH

SURF (Sub-sea Umbilical, Risers, and Flow lines) connects sub-sea production to

surface systems. Despite not coming into touch with the produced fluids, utilities

operate as a vital link between sub-sea production systems, processing systems, and

the surface. From the subsea well to the riser and from the riser to the surface

treatment system, raw fluid is transported via the flow line. The global he SURF

(seabed umbilical, risers and flow lines) market is expanding as a result of the

growing exploration and production activities in deep and ultra-deep water and rising

demand for oil and gas. In the US, for instance, a 2013 geological survey projected

that 126.4 Bbbl of undiscovered oil still exists, with the US having the biggest oil

potential of the three countries (Brazil, Guyana, and Mexico). A large portion of this

potential is present in the ultra-deep water's pre-salt layer.

7. Rigs (Service rig, semi-submersible rig)

A drilling rig called a semi-submersible rig, often known as a "semi-sub," "semi," or

"floater," is used to drill wells in water depths beyond the reach of jack-up rigs (water

depths greater than 400 feet). Unlike jack-up rigs, which are moored to the seabed,

semi-submersible rigs float during drilling. A drilling rig known as a semi-

submersible rig rests on several supports that are connected to floating pontoons in a

deck area. Wells may be drilled with the semi-submersible equipment in water as

deep as 9,500 feet. 9,472 feet is the current record-setting depth for a semi-

submersible dynamic positioning rig. Semi-submersible rigs are preferred in

challenging offshore environments due to their stability. Wells can be drilled using

semi-submersible rigs to a total depth (TD) of 30,000 to 35,000 feet.

8. Drill ships
A drill-ship is an adaptable or built transportable offshore oil rig that may be used as a

platform by a single-hull vessel, catamaran, three-hull vessel, or barge. The drill ship

aligns itself using a mooring system or dynamic positioning system after arriving at

the borehole location before starting to drill it. Drill-ships that can be moored or

dynamically deployed have long been used in floating drilling operations. Mooring

drill-ships are no longer commonly utilized because of the comparatively weak

movement characteristics of ship-shaped vessels.

9. Support Vessels

A customized vessel created to operate at sea and fulfil a variety of functions is

known as an offshore support vessel. They can do tasks like supporting platforms,

handling anchors, building, and maintaining. Today, we examine these adaptable

ships' capabilities in more detail. OSV offers offshore support, which includes fixing

offshore wind turbines and transferring equipment onto an oil rig. They are crucial for

developing and maintaining offshore equipment as well as for getting supplies and

materials where they are needed. They may be created for practically any project

because to their adaptability.

10. PLET (Pipeline End Termination)

PLET is the end or completion of the pipeline. Skids typically include a male hub

that serves as an attachment point for the jumper. Jumpers use collet connectors to

create permanent connections. A skid may also have other components such as: B.

ROV interface plate, ball valve and associated mud mat. The PLEM can act as a

splitter, splitting the product stream into multiple routes to feed FPSOs, refineries, and

accumulation tanks simultaneously.

B. Sub-sea Terminologies

1. Conductor Housing
The first set of strings below the structural casing (i.e., the propulsion tubes or ship's

ladder tubes that safeguard loose near-surface formations and permit drilling fluid

circulation) are known as conductor casings.

Water sands and unconsolidated strata are protected from shallow gas by conductors.

Typically, the housing head is fastened to this strand. This line can be equipped with

a BOP (Blowout Prevention) stack or diverter. This string is often cemented at an

offshore well's surface or mudline during cementing.

2. Jumpers
This is a small pipe fitting that connects two subsea parts so that production fluids

can be moved between them. a distributor and a tree, another distributor and a

distributor, or an export sled and a distributor. Other submerged structures like

PLEM/PLET and riser bases can also be connected. Jumpers can be used to carry

production fluids as well as to inject water into wells. The jumper's length and

qualities depend on how far apart the various parts (trees, flowlines, manifolds, etc.)

are from one another. In contrast to rigid jumper systems, which have limited space

and handling, flexible jumper systems offer versatility.

3. Manifold
An system of pipes and/or valves known as a manifold is used to mix, distribute,

control, and frequently monitor fluid flow. To collect production fluids or to inject

water or gas into a network of wells, subsea manifolds are set up on the ocean floor.

4. Riser

Risers, like pipelines and flowlines, convey production materials like injection fluids,

control fluids, and gas lifts in addition to produced hydrocarbons. Both stiff and

flexible risers are often insulated to withstand the temperatures of the seafloor.

Pipelines are utilized to move materials from facilities to the seabed as well as from

the seabed to drilling and production rigs on the surface. A particular kind of pipeline

made for this kind of vertical conveyance is called a subsea riser. Risers are the

connection between offshore oilfield development, production, and drilling rigs.

They can be employed as import/export or production vehicles.

5. Sub-sea Control System

An integrated group of sensors, actuators, other control modules, and supporting

processing hardware makes up a control module. Other control modules may be

found within such control modules. Multiple automatic on/off block valves in the

manifold control and direct flow to one or more destinations in accordance with set

points transmitted to the manifold control module. The actual gadget model is made

up of a "control module."

6. Sub-sea Distribution Unit

Underwater, the Subsea Distribution Unit (SDU) distributes hydraulic, chemical,

electrical, fiber optic, and other subsystem components to the SUTA (Subsea

Umbilical Termination Assembly). The SDU supplies flying lines, which link to

subsea trees and subsea manifolds, with hydraulic, chemical, fiber optic, and

electrical supplies. The SDU is attached to an underwater foundation, such as a mud

mat, by installing it on a special mounting base. The umbilical and other in-line

infrastructure that enable communication from the subsea Control to the surface are

part of the Submersible Distribution System (SDS), which is made up of a variety of

components. major activities The following primary tasks are often designed into

subsea distribution systems: 

 Hydraulic power distribution; 

 Chemical injection distribution; 

 Electrical power distribution;

 Communication distribution.

7. Suction Pile
The majority of offshore structures currently in use are suction anchors and pilings,

and they appear to be appropriate for tidal facilities. Sediment depth is required for

suction anchoring. Soft silt to hard clay sediment depths provide the appropriate

insertion depth to produce the required drag to firmly retain the anchor while it is

working. While high-speed channels (where currents routinely exceed 2 m s-1) are

often cleaned well, these anchors may be appropriate where tidal currents are

relatively sluggish and sediment depths are sufficient. When great positional

accuracy of the anchor is not essential for installation, suction pile anchors can be

installed quickly and affordably.

8. Tension Leg Platform

A compliant platform that is positioned vertically is known as a tension leg platform

(TLP). Swim platforms that are too buoyant are vertically tethered by tendons, which

are taut mooring lines (or tethers). Except for vertical movement (heave), structures

are kept vertical (pitch and roll). bendable in the horizontal plane and lateral

movement (impact and impact). The wind turbine is supported by a floating

foundation (platform) in the TLP type. This TLP wind turbine may be erected and put

into service onshore, as opposed to the Spur type, which requires offshore assembly

and poses logistical challenges.

9. Tubing Hanger
During well drilling and well workover procedures, tube hangers, a wellhead

component, are used. As implied by the name, it assists in suspending and supporting

the tubing string from the wellhead's topmost tubing junction as well as sealing the

tubing string inside the tubing spool. Additionally, it helps with carrying out

chemical injections and hanging other downhole equipment that is inserted into the

borehole through tubing or casing.Tubing hangers are used on drilling rigs on a

wellhead platform, whether they are on land or in the water. They are designed to

handle the weight of production tubing and ensure a tight seal inside the tubing spool.

According to API 6A requirements, alloys or solid stainless steel are utilized to

manufacture tube hangers. These hangers have a nominal diameter range of 7 1/6

inches to 11 inches and can withstand pressure ratings of 20,000 psi. after being hung

on the tube hangers, string.

10. Well

In offshore oil and gas operations, the word "completion" is used twice. The process

of turning a single borehole into a functioning system for the controlled recovery of

subterranean hydrocarbon resources is known as a well completion. The last well

casings are installed, which isolate fluid migrations over the borehole length.

Perforated portions are also established where necessary to collect the hydrocarbons

from the geologic reservoir into the production casing.

11. Wellhead

The internal diameter (ID) landing shoulder of the subsea wellhead is situated close

to the bottom of the wellhead body. Future casing hangers will rest on the first one

that was placed. After being suspended from each casing-hanger top, casing gathers

in the principal landing shoulder, which is located in the ID of the subsea wellhead.

Each casing hanger is sealed off against the ID of the wellhead housing and the
hanger's own outer diameter (OD) using a seal assembly that features a genuine

metal-to-metal seal. The seal assembly serves as a pressure barrier between the 1834-

in. wellhead-mounted casing strings that are suspended within them.The sub-sea

wellhead system is located on the ocean floor, and must be installed remotely with

running tools and drill-pipe.

12. XT( Christmas Tree)

A Christmas tree is a piece of machinery that regulates flow on an oil or gas well.

Christmas trees are a vertical arrangement of valves with gauges, chokes, and

injection ports that permit both flow control changes and injections that stimulate

production. A collection of objects can be imagined to resemble a Christmas tree,

hence the name of the tree. The valves that make up some of the Christmas tree

decorations are opened when the oil or gas well is prepared to produce and the

processing and storage facilities are prepared to receive. Tools for pressure relief,

monitoring, and chemical injection are additional ornaments.

13. Umbilical Termination Head/Assembly

UTHs are umbilical termination heads. a straightforward method of attaching subsea

umbilicals to subsea architecture that does not require hydraulic flying leads or

umbilical termination assemblies (UTAs) (HFLs). UTHs come with both standard and

modular components and can be tailored to fit project-specific needs. UTHs offer a

dependable and affordable substitute to UTAs and flying lead systems by removing

one point of connection from the system and linking umbilical functions directly to

subsea equipment.

14. Sub-sea Umbilical Risers & Flow-line (SURF)

SURF enables the connection of surface systems with subsea production systems

(sub-sea umbilicals, risers, and flow-lines). Umbilicals act as a vital link between the

sub-sea production system, processing system, and the surface despite having no

direct contact with the produced fluids. Unprocessed fluid from the subsea well is

transferred from the riser to the flow-line and then to the surface processing system.

C. Types of drawings

1. Shop Drawings

A shop drawing is a drawing or collection of drawings created by the fabricator,

manufacturer, supplier, subcontractor, or contractor. Typically, prefabricated

components need shop drawings. Elevators, structural steel, trusses, precast concrete,

windows, appliances, cabinets, air handling systems, and millwork are a few

examples of these. Installation and coordination shop drawings for MEP trades

including sheet metal ductwork, piping, plumbing, fire protection, and electrical are

also very important. Under the terms of their agreement with the owner, suppliers and

contractors provide shop drawings. The manufacturer's or contractor's drawn

rendition of the information displayed in the building documentation is known as a

shop drawing. Typically, the shop drawing has more information than the

construction documentation. The fabrication and/or installation of the items are

described in the drawing for the manufacturer's production team or the contractor's

installation crews. The shop drawing typically has a completely distinct style from

the architect's drawing. The main focus of the shop drawing is the specific product or

installation; other items and installations are not noted, unless interaction with the

subject product is required.

2. Weld Maps
The welding map is a diagram of the equipment that shows the locations of the

welding seams and the welding procedure specification (WPS) that must be followed

for each individual welding seam. The manufacturer submits the customer's

permission for the welding procedure specifications (WPS). The customer is given

the welding processes together with the vessel or equipment designs and design

calculations.

3. Lifting Plans

Due to the presence of numerous huge pieces of equipment and high weights, lifting

operations are frequently dangerous procedures. Since lives are on the line during

such high-risk operations, it is crucial that the lifting crew is clear and familiar with

the stages in the lifting plan, and that the lifting supervisors are comfortable enough

to oversee it. When creating a lifting plan, there are a few steps to take into account.

4. Built Drawing

A contractor is said to have prepared and submitted an as-built drawing after the

project was finished. The contractor makes essential revisions to the original

blueprints as a result of some specific, unavoidable problems that arise throughout

the construction process. As-built drawings are representations of the project that

include all minor and significant alterations made to the original drawing by the
contractor. Following the project's initial phase, as-built drawings must be created

and used.

5. 3D Fabrication Sketches

The term "fabrication drawing" refers to specific plans that specify the locations and

sizes of all the steel that will be utilized in a project. Extended definition: The process

used in computer graphics to create 3D digital representations of any surface or

object. Design is improved by 3D thanks to the tool's increased precision, higher

quality, decreased need for rework, and flexibility with regard to the design goal. The

overall quality of the work is improved while the scrap is decreased. Engineers can

now quickly produce a promising sheet metal model. Additionally, they can quickly

and readily spot bottlenecks. The engineer team is now better able to explain the

design intent to non-technical employees.This will improve the quality of the final

product. A business can quickly acquire customer contracts by using 3D models for

fabrication drawings. To make sure that everyone is clear on the expectations, they

can send a 3Dmodel together with the quote to their client.

6. Load out arrangement drawing

General Arrangement (G/A) drawings outline the general layout of a piece of

machinery, a building, or a facility. General arrangement (G/A) drawings are

essential for understanding a mechanical unit's overall configuration (e.g building,

skid, plant, etc.) They also show a summary of the main structural components of a

piece of machinery, a structure, or an assembly. G/As may need a variety of

projections, including sections, plans, and elevations, depending on how complicated

the object is. Additionally, they might be dispersed among numerous distinct

drawings. When the following are necessary, G/As are generated.

 Assembly drawings of process equipment (e.g. vessels, piping, valves, and

instrumentation). 

 Plan drawings (foundation, floor, deck layout and anchor bolt plans). 

 Multiple views of one drawing, counting the entire model or a part of it. 

 Erection elevation drawings. 

 Information from model views, including 3D views.

7. PID P&ID

PIDs, or piping and instrumentation diagrams, show how chemical processes are

carried out. A "simple" diagram is capable of displaying a lot of data. The piping's

specifications, as well as its size, construction material, insulation, and other details,

are shown.

To make the layout simple to grasp and recognize, the locations of valves, pumps,

check valves, filters, strainers, and hoses are easily displayed. Standardized symbols

and labeling that represent the process-sensing and -control elements are used to

display instrumentation. Instrumentation consists of:

 Temperature Elements (T/Cs, RTD, Thermister) 

 Flow Meters and Flow Transmitters 

 Pressure Gages and Pressure Transmitters 

 Level Gages and Level Transmitters 

 Analyzers (pH, gas, LEL, etc.) 

 Weight Instruments (scales, load cells)

D. Fabrication

1. SMAW, FCAW, TIG Welding Machines 

SMAW

The manual arc welding process known as shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),

also known as manual metal arc welding, uses a consumable and protected electrode.

Along with the electrode itself, an electrode cover that protects it from oxygen and

other ambient gases also melts. Without the use of sophisticated nondestructive

testing procedures, the porosity is generally not visible with this process, and this fault

typically has a substantial detrimental effect on the weld's strength and quality.All of

the materials that can be welded include carbon steel, low alloy steel, high alloy steel,

stainless steel, cast iron, and ductile iron. Deep weld penetration is made possible in

this procedure by the rutile-coated electrodes, however most of the time PWHT is

required to reduce the risk of cracking.

FCAW

The technique was initially developed in the 1950s to replace stick welding, also

known as manual metal arc (MMA) welding. Several MMA restrictions are lifted by

FCAW's constantly fed wire electrode.

Although flux core arc welding frequently uses a shielding gas similar to that used in

MAG welding, it is not necessary. More than just MAG welding is produced. Electric

arc heat is used in flux cored arc welding to melt base metal at the weld junction. A

welding junction is created when an arc is created between the metallic workpiece and
the constantly fed tubular cored consumable filler wire, melting both of them

together.In contrast to MAG welding, which employs a solid metal electrode, FCAW

welding uses a hollow, tubular electrode filled with flux.

TIG Welding Machines

TIG welding is a different type of welding that also uses electricity to melt and join

metal. TIG welding was developed in the 1940s to address the issue of welding

magnesium and aluminum in the Californian aerospace industry. Since then, its

popularity has exploded. Its versatility, cleanliness, and absence of finishing

requirements all contribute to this. Moreover, it can weld a wide range of metals.

A subset of gas metal arc welding is gas tungsten arc welding, also referred to as

GTAW (GMAW). The basics of TIG welding have not changed over time, despite

changes to the equipment's specifications.

2. Pipe Racks

In petrochemical, chemical, and power plants, structural steel pipe racks often support

pipes, power cables, and instrument cable trays. On rare occasions, pipe racks may

also be used to support mechanical devices, tanks, and platforms for accessing valves.

Typically, main pipe racks move materials from machines to storage or utility

locations. Even though they hold lengths of pipe, storage racks found in warehouses

are not pipe racks. The main vein of a process unit is a pipe rack. Process and utility

piping, instrument and cable trays, and equipment installed over all of these may be

carried by pipe racks, which also carry piping. Pipe racks are made out of a string of

transverse beams that are uniformly spaced apart, usually every 20 feet or so along the

length of the pipe system.The transverse beams are normally moment frames to
facilitate access for maintenance underneath the pipe rack. Longitudinal struts are

often used to join transverse beams. The pipe rack has a variety of pipes. Steam,

cooling water, extinguishing water, fuel oil, and other utility pipes are examples.

When there are two levels, these pipes are typically found on the top level or in the

middle of a one-level pipe rack. The process pipes are another. These pipes transport a

byproduct of the chemical reaction. When there are numerous levels, these are put on

the bottom level or outside of the utility pipes (particularly if they are heavy). Finally,

relief and flare pipes that achieve an objective in terms of safety.They always stand

outside the rack to safeguard the installation from excessive pressure.

3. Pipe Profiler

Pipe cutting, or pipe profiling, is a mechanized industrial process that removes

material from pipe or tube to create a desired profile. Typical profiles include straight

cuts, mitres, saddles and midsection holes. These complex cuts are usually required to

allow a tight fit between two parts that are to be joined via arc welding.

Hot cutting

Hot cutting is performed by means of a thermal torch (plasma or oxyfuel) and is

mounted to the last axis of a multi-axis machine. The axes of the multi-axis machine

are powered by electric motors and are synchronized to create a path for the torch and

pipe that yield a desired profile. The synchronization of axes is accomplished either

mechanically, via cams, levers and gears, or electronically, via microprocessors and

controllers.

Cold cutting
Where the high temperatures and sources of ignition required by hot cutting are not

desirable, air- or hydraulically-powered pipe cutting machines are used. These

comprise a clamshell or chain-mounted

cutting head holding a tool steel and feed mechanism which advances the tool a set

amount per revolution round the pipe. Tools may be styled to cut and/or prepare the

bevel for welding in a single or multiple passes. Popular in offshore, pipe processing,

ship building, pressure vessel, structural and mechanical contracting manufacturing

because of the complex cuts and profiles typical required in their respective

industries. Some common pipe cutting applications are: pipe work, offshore jackets,

industrial steel structures, stadiums, cranes, nozzles, and pipe laying stingers.

4. Gantry Crane

An overhead crane called a gantry uses its legs to support the bridge, trolley, and

hoist. On wheels or rails embedded in the ground, these legs move along the surface

of the earth. In outdoor applications or for lifting capacity below current overhead

bridge crane systems, gantry cranes are frequently used. Gantry cranes are frequently

employed in steel mills, shipyards, scrap yards, railyards, special building sites, and

other settings. A gantry crane does not require attachment to the skeletal framework

of a building, unlike a bridge crane. The requirement for runway beams and support

columns is removed with this design. Larger gantry systems can move along rail or

track that is buried in the ground; these systems often run straight or cover a large area

of space. Smaller gantry systems can be moved about a facility for small fabrication

or maintenance work and are propelled by wheels or casters.

5. PreFabrication Area

Prior to sending finished assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site where

the structure will be installed, prefabrication is the process of assembling individual

structural parts in a factory or other manufacturing location. The word is used to

distinguish this approach from the more customary building procedure, which entails

transporting the raw components to the construction site before assembling them

there. The production of objects other than structures at a fixed place is referred to as

prefabrication. It is frequently employed when the production of a machine or other

movable structural piece is transferred from the primary manufacturing site to another

location and the section is delivered assembled and ready to fit.

6. Submerge Arc Machine

Submerged arc welding is a common arc welding technique (SAW). The first SAW

patent was acquired in 1935. The procedure requires a consumable solid or tubular
(metal cored) electrode that is continuously fed. To shield them from ambient

pollution, the molten weld and the arc zone are "submerged" under a layer of granular

fusible flux comprised of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and other

materials. As the flux melts and becomes conductive, it establishes a conduit for

current flow between the electrode and the work. Using a thick layer of flux to

completely cover the molten metal during the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

process prevents sparks and splatter while also stifling intense UV radiation and

fumes.There are, however, semi-automatic (hand-held) SAW cannons that deliver

flux under pressure or by gravity. The typical mode of operation for SAW is

automatic or mechanical. Typically, only flat or horizontal-fillet locations are allowed

for the welding technique (although horizontal groove position welds have been done

with a special arrangement to support the flux). Deposition rates as high as 45 kg/h

(100 lb/h) have been recorded, exceeding the 5 kg/h (10 lb/h) maximum deposition

rate for shielded metal arc welding. Despite the fact that currents of 300 to 2000 A are

typically used, currents of up to 5000 A have also been employed (multiple arcs).

7. Rolling Machine
A plate rolling machine can form several types of sheet metal into a conical or

rounded shape. It may alternatively be referred to as a "rolling machine," "plate

bending machine," or "bending machine." To roll the metal plate, many technologies

are used. Four-roller machines have a top roll, a pinching roll, and two side rolls. The

machine receives the flat metal plate and "pre-bends" one side of it on each side. The

bending is accomplished via the side rolls. The plate is secured by the pinching roll.

One pressing top roll and two pressing side rolls are used in three-roller machines

(also known as variable pitch or variable geometry). All three rolls can move and tilt,

which is how the three-roll variable pitch operates.The side rolls move on the

horizontal plane while the top roll travels on the vertical plane. The metal plate

between the two side rolls is compressed during rolling by the top roll. The ability to

roll cylinders of various thicknesses and diameters is a benefit of having a variable

three roll. For instance, the mechanical advantage is produced by the side-rolls. One

has the greatest mechanical advantage when one has the side rolls fully open. The

least mechanical advantage you have is when the side rolls are fully in. Therefore,

even when a task is just 1/2 inch thick, a machine has the mechanical advantage to

roll 2-inch thick material.Reduce the mechanical advantage and one has a machine

that can roll from 1/2 to 2 inches thick.

Plate rollers can be powered and controlled in multiple ways. Older plate mills are

driven by electric motors and newer ones are directed by programs that are loaded

into the CNC controller. When thinking about plate roll acquisition, industrial

machinery companies like Provetco Technology will ask about the working length of

the roller, the maximum thickness of the material, top roll diameter size as well as the

minimum thickness of the material. Furthermore, the material yield is another critical

component to disclose to machinery companies when looking for a plate roller

8. CNC Cutting Machine

A computer numerical control (CNC) router is a computer-controlled cutting device

used to cut a variety of materials, including wood, composites, metals, plastics, glass,

and foams. Typically mounted on the spindle of a CNC router is a hand-held router.

Many tools used in carpentry shops, such the panel saw, the spindle moulder, and the

boring machine, can be replaced by CNC routers. They are also capable of cutting

joinery like mortises and tenons. The idea behind a CNC router and a CNC milling

machine is fairly similar. Tool routes are managed by computer numerical control

rather than manual routing. One of the various tool types that have CNC variations is

the router. Computers are used to operate CNC routers.Coordinates are uploaded into

the machine controller from a separate program. CNC router are often used with two

software applications—one to make designs (CAD) and another to translate those

designs into a G-code or M-code program of instructions for the machine (CAM) in

vertical, horizontal and perpendicular coordinates. As with CNC milling machines,

CNC routers can be controlled directly by manual programming, but CAD/CAM

allows wider possibilities for contouring, speeding up the programming process and in

some cases creating programs whose manual programming would be impractical. On

some controllers the G-code can be loaded as a vector file on the router control panel.

A drawing (CAD) program can be used to convert a picture file into a vector format.

The machine tool, speed, cut depth, and tool path are all chosen by the human

operator (for example, a 14-inch (6-MM) v-bit or a 34-inch core box bit). Most

machines allow you to trace the vectors, cut outside the vectors, or cut inside the

vectors when choosing a cut path. The operator finds the part's center point, clamps it

to the table, and then positions the bit directly above the designated center and
downward to the part's face, marking this location as the starting point. The operator

selects the run G-code function and shifts the bit up a few inches. The design is

carved out by the machine.

9. Blasting and Painting

The most thorough approach for removing mill scale and rust from steel surfaces is

abrasive blast cleaning. The technique uses centrifugal impellers or a jet stream of

compressed air to 'blast' clean the steel surface with high-velocity abrasive particles.

E. Structures

1) Jacket Leg

A jacket structure is a space frame made of welded tubular steel with battered or

vertical legs that are supported by a lateral bracing system. The jacket's duties include

supporting the topside structures, giving risers, conductors, and other appurtenances

support, and acting as a model for the foundation system. An introduction to the

design and analysis of jacket structures was provided by Graff (1981) and Dawson

(1983), who also covered foundation modeling, finite element analysis, dynamic

response, and stress acceptance criteria. A launch barge can be used to launch into
the water jacket structures that are too heavy to be lifted. A launch barge is a flat-top

cargo barge that has an appropriate ballasting system, launch winches, skid beams,

and a rocker arm. Jackets can either be upended by themselves or with the aid of a

crane vessel. Launched jackets must have enough reserve buoyancy to keep floating

once the launch operation is complete. Rubber diaphragms at their bottom ends and

steel caps at their tops are used to buoy the jacket legs. In order to obtain the

necessary degree of reserve buoyancy or to guarantee that the jacket will upend itself

at the conclusion of the launch sequence, additional buoyancy that is suitably situated

may occasionally be needed.

2) Wellhead Platform

A wellhead platform is a type of oil platform that typically houses workers and

equipment used to extract oil and natural gas from wells drilled into the ocean floor.

An integrated deck, wellhead systems, utility systems, helideck, and drilling facilities

can all be found on a wellhead platform (WHP). It may occasionally be connected to

central production platforms or floating, production, storage, and offloading (FPSO)

vessels. Typically, WHPs are unmanned. They are made to be controlled remotely

and visited for regular maintenance and inspection tasks. WHPs are typically four-

legged platforms with four decks. The decks would be the heli-deck, main deck,
cellar deck, and spider deck.It may have 3 to 32 well, depending on the size of

WHPs. These wells are usually drilled by jack-up rigs that docks with the WHPs.

3) FPSO Module

Today, many offshore oil and gas producing regions across the world use FPSO

(Floating Production Storage and Offloading) and FSO (Floating Storage and

Offloading) systems as their main approach. A floating production system, or FPSO,

takes fluids (including crude oil, water, and a variety of other substances) from a

subsea reservoir by risers. Topside production equipment onboard then sort the fluids

into crude oil, natural gas, water, and contaminants. Crude oil that has been stored in

the FPSO's storage tanks is discharged onto shuttle tankers to be sold or refined

further on land. The majority of FPSOs/FSOs have a shiplike design and can be

moored to the ocean floor using a number of mooring technologies, the selection of

which is based on the environment.They can be built with the ability to remain in

place for continuous operations for 20 years or longer and are suited for a variety of

water depths and environmental conditions.

4) Deck( Mezzanine, lower, Upper deck)

Deck

A deck is a permanent covering over a compartment or a hull[1] of a ship. On a boat

or ship, the primary or upper deck is the horizontal structure that forms the "roof" of

the hull, strengthening it and serving as the primary working surface. Vessels often

have more than one level both within the hull and in the superstructure above the

primary deck, similar to the floors of a multi-storey building, that are also referred to

as decks, as are certain compartments and decks built over specific areas of the

superstructure. Decks for some purposes have specific names.

Mezzanine

A mezzanine is an intermediate level or levels between the floor and ceiling of any

story in accordance with Section 505 of the International Building Code. Mezzanine

meaning derives from the Italian word mezza which means "half" or "middle." Types

of mezzanine floor applications Types of mezzanine floors applications include

warehousing, storage, office, manufacturing, and production spaces. Mezzanines can

be used to increase the usable floor space in a building without needing to add onto

the building itself. They can be made of steel, wood, concrete, or other materials. A

mezzanine space helps increase the efficiency of the space within a building. A

Mezzanine floor can be a large structural steel mezzanine system, an elongated

equipment or work platform, or a small storage platform. However, mezzanines

should not be confused with equipment platforms. The difference between a

mezzanine vs equipment platform can have important implications for construction

and building code requirements.

Upper Deck
The main purpose of the upper or primary deck is structural, and only secondarily to

provide weather-tightness and support people and equipment. The deck serves as the

lid to the complex box girder which can be identified as the hull. It resists tension,

compression, and racking forces. The deck's scantling is usually the same as the

topsides, or might be heavier if the deck is expected to carry heavier loads (for

example a container ship). The deck will be reinforced around deck fittings such as

the capstan, cleats, or bollards.

5) Flare Bridge &Tower

A flare is a device used to safely dispose of unwanted or excess gases and liquids

from normal, unplanned or upset conditions during process operations in CPI sites.

Flaring is done by burning off the gas or liquid into the atmosphere. The gases or

liquids to be combusted are usually rich in heat content, enabling them to self-sustain

the combustion without the need for additional external combustion gas.

A typical flare consists of a gas inlet connected to a flare header. Combustion is

achieved through an ignition device located at the ground level and a pilot burner tip

located at the top of the flare header. The gas to the pilot is usually provided from a

utility source. A water seal or purge-gas arrangement is used to prevent any flashback

into the process stream. A flare usually generates water vapor and CO 2, which are

discharged into the atmosphere.

Flare Bridge

Process platforms and flare platforms are connected by the offshore flare bridge,

which serves as a connecting bridge. The bridge is used to move people, goods, and

unfinished crude oil. Because of the harsher environment and the greater weights

involved in building and installing buildings to suit the offshore environment,

offshore design is a little more difficult. These constructions are examined by in-

place, lift, and load-out analyses. The bulk of offshore structures are made of steel

tubular construction because of the shape's round cross section, which attracts

significantly fewer wind loads.

Flare Tower

A flare stack is the name for the tall, slender structure with flames or steam emerging

from the top. It is an industrial gas combustion device used to burn off trash or other

undesired gases. Several common reasons for controlled burning, which occurs in a

flare stack, include the following: 1) during the testing process to maintain pressure

and flow from a well 2) controlling waste gas that cannot be caught or processed 3)

relieving pressure in safety or emergency situations. Refineries, chemical and

petrochemical factories, natural gas processing facilities, offshore exploration

platforms, well heads, and landfills are the most common locations for flare stacks.

6) Mud mat

Mud mats provide a foundation for subsea equipment. According to the soil’s

untrained shear strength and the supported equipment’s loading conditions, a mud

mat may vary in overall size and skirt depth to prove the bearing capacity,

overturning and sliding & torsion capability of subsea equipment. Mud Mats can be

used for construction site access, agriculture, golf courses, parks, and other soft or

sensitive ground condition areas where vehicle access is required. They can be

unrolled on any muddy or swampy ground and driven over without rutting, getting

stuck or tracking mud off-site. Mud Mats consist of pocketed, double-wall, high-

strength fabric with high tensile reinforcing ribs confined within each sleeve which
allows for easy deployment and structural stability. Ground pressure from vehicle

tires is reduced up to 40 times, causing minimal ground disturbance.

7) Pressure Vessels

A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure

substantially different from the ambient pressure. Construction methods and

materials may be chosen to suit the pressure application, and will depend on the size

of the vessel, the contents, working pressure, mass constraints, and the number of

items required. Pressure vessels can be dangerous, and fatal accidents have occurred

in the history of their development and operation. Consequently, pressure vessel

design, manufacture, and operation are regulated by engineering authorities backed

by legislation. For these reasons, the definition of a pressure vessel varies from

country to country. Design involves parameters such as maximum safe operating

pressure and temperature, safety factor, corrosion allowance and minimum design

temperature (for brittle fracture). Construction is tested using nondestructive testing,

such as ultrasonic testing, radiography, and pressure tests. Hydrostatic pressure tests

usually use water, but pneumatic tests use air or another gas. Hydrostatic testing is

preferred, because it is a safer method, as much less energy is released if a fracture

occurs during the test (water does not greatly increase its volume when rapid

depressurization occurs, unlike gases, which expand explosively). Mass or batch

production products will often have a representative sample tested to destruction in

controlled conditions for quality assurance. Pressure relief devices may be fitted if

the overall safety of the system is sufficiently.

8) I-tube and I-Riser

I-Tube

The I Tube Series curtain wall system comes in double glazed or silicone. The

double glazed system has an exterior gasket and a thermal I-strut for high

performance. The I Tube Series features a thin profile ideal for design purposes, yet

still maintains structural integrity and performance. Tubing is the normal flow

conduit used to transport produced fluids to the surface or fluids to the formation. Its

use in wells is normally considered a good operating practice.The use of tubing

permits better well control because circulating fluids can kill the well; thus,

workovers are simplified and their results enhanced. Flow efficiency typically is

improved with the use of tubing. Furthermore, tubing is required for most artificial

lift installations. Tubing with the use of a packer allows isolation of the casing from

well fluids and deters corrosion damage of the casing. Multicompletions require

tubing to permit individual zone production and operation.

I-Riser

Riser is defined as the vertical or near-vertical segment of pipe connecting the

facilities above water to the subsea pipeline. The riser portion extends (as a
minimum) from the first above-water valve or isolation flange to a point five pipe

diameters beyond the bottom elbow, based on codes. The design engineer must select

the exact limits on a case-by-case basis. This may often extend the riser beyond the

five diameters limit or above the isolation flange. Many operators prefer a length of

200 feet from the elbow to protect against dropped objects (i.e., heavier wall pipe).

The riser design usually considers adjoining pipework segments, clamps, supports,

guides, and expansion absorbing devices.

REFERENCE

What is a mezzanine floor? definition, construction & uses. Lapeyre Stair Blog.

(n.d.). Retrieved December 12, 2022, from https://blog.lapeyrestair.com/what-is-a-

mezzanine-floor

FPSO/FSO | Floating Production Systems. (n.d.-a). MODEC.

https://www.modec.com/business/floater/fpso/

LinkedIn. (n.d.). https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/quick-guide-wellhead-platforms-

chandrasegaran-p-eng-ceng-mimec+he