Cell wall: Plant cells have a thick wall made of inert material outside the cell membrane, called

cell wall.
It is composed of cellulose. Animal cells do not have this type of wall. The cell envelope is made up of
the plasma membrane. The main function of the cell wall is to protect the living parts of the cell and to
mark the boundaries of the cell. The cell wall of a plant cell has three layers: primary wall, secondary
wall, tertiary wall. The main chemical component of the cell wall is cellulose which is a polymer of
glucose. Primary cell wall consists of pectic material and secondary cell wall consists of lignin, suberin
etc. The cell wall also contains hemicellulose, proteins, lipids and a lot of water. Two adjacent cell walls
are connected by a membrane. The middle membrane is composed of pectic acid, pectin and propectin.
Many types of plant cells contain a large central vacuole known as the tonoplast.

Just below the cell wall, there is a living membrane that surrounds all the protoplasm. This membrane is
called the cell membrane. It is also called plasma membrane, plasmalemma, cytomembrane. But now
many people want to call it biomembrane. The membrane can have folds in places. Each fold is called a
microvillus. Microvilli that are more intracellular are called pinocytic vesicles.

Cytoplasm

The jelly-like portion of the cell's protoplasm without a nucleus is called the cytoplasm. Organisms with
various biological functions of cells located inside the cytoplasm are collectively called cytoplasmic
organelles.
Concentric cells have membranous structures that are collectively called the endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic reticulum is a type of reticular organelle located in the cytoplasm of cells. They consist of
numerous fine tubules surrounded by a single membrane and interconnecting to form a plexus.

The cell nucleus is surrounded by a multi-layered bilayer membrane called the nuclear membrane,
through which various cellular components can move in and out of the nucleus. Various flattened and
tubular segments from this membrane form the endoplasmic reticulum, which helps transport proteins
within the cell. Organelles called ribosomes attach to the endoplasmic reticulum to make proteins. The
protein produced enters the endoplasmic reticulum and is transported through vesicles or small vesicles
to accumulate and reorganize in flat sac-shaped organelles called Golgi bodies.

Different types of vesicles perform different functions. For example, enzymes located in lysosomes help
break down proteins into simpler molecules. Vesicles called peroxisomes break down peroxides that are
harmful to cells. Some protozoan cells contain contractile vesicles called extrudosomes that help expel
excess water from the cell. Most of the cell volume of higher plants is filled with a large vacuole or air
sac that helps maintain the osmotic pressure of the cell.

Leucoplast: It contains no pigment. Sunlight does not reach it. Can transform into chloroplast when
exposed to light. Their main function is to store food and make starchy food from carbohydrates.

Chromoplasts are found in fruits, flowers, roots, and stressed and senescent leaves, and chromoplasts
are responsible for their distinctive color. It is always associated with the presence and growth of
carotenoid pigments.

Normally chromoplasts are found in mature tissues and are derived from pre-existing mature plastids.
While fruits and flowers are the most common structures for the biosynthesis of carotenoids, other
reactions occur, including the synthesis of sugars, starches, lipids, aromatic compounds, vitamins and
hormones. DNA is identical in chloroplasts and chromoplasts. A subtle difference in DNA was found after
liquid chromatography analysis of tomato chromoplasts which reveals increased cytosine methylation.

chloroplast

A very important organelle in plant cells is the plastid. Photosynthesis takes place in these green colored
plastids. Their green color is due to the presence of chlorophyll molecules in their stroma. Chloroplasts
are covered by a bilayered membrane. The outer layer is called the outer layer and the inner layer is
called the inner layer. The chloroplast contains a layered organelle called the granum (plural grana) disc.
A chloroplast usually contains 40-80 grana and these grana are arranged one after the other to form 5-
25 granum cycles or discs. The grana located in the chloroplast are connected to each other by tubules
called granum lamellae.
Plastid' is a membrane-bound organelle. It is found in plant cells and also in some eukaryotic organisms.
They are considered as endosymbiotic cyanobacteria Membranous compartments inside concentric
cells.

• Nucleus

• Mitochondria

• Endoplasmic reticulum

• Golgi body

Nucleus

Nucleus is the densest, enveloped and almost spherical part of the protoplasm. It controls all the
biological functions of the cell and is called the nucleus. Its shape is round, oval and cylindrical.
Scythocytes and red blood cells do not have a nucleus. In the nucleus lies the hereditary characteristics.
It controls all the reactions including metabolic functions that take place in the cell.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria is a type of cell organelle found in centrosome cells. Its main function is to participate in
respiration. The four steps of respiration are glycolysis, acetyl CoA formation, Krebs cycle and electron
flow system. The first step does not occur in the mitochondria. However, the second and most
important reaction takes place in the mitochondria. Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of the cell
as most of the energy is produced in the Krebs cycle. Mitochondria are found in all plant and animal cells
with few exceptions.

Ribosome

Ribosomes are tiny particles made up of ribonucleoproteins located in living cells. Ribosomes mainly
help in protein synthesis. The synthesis of polypeptide chains of proteins takes place in these ribosomes.
In addition, ribosomes provide the necessary enzymes for this work. The function of this enzyme is to
increase the speed of biochemical reactions.

Golgi object

Golgi apparatus is a complex organelle composed of several densely packed wide cisternae, sac-like
vacuoles and small vesicles located near the nucleus. Golgi apparatus is called the packaging center of
the cell. Golgi apparatus is mainly found in animal cell.

Ribosomes, and the cytoskeleton are not membrane-bound, so they are not properly called organelles.