Applied Physics - I Book With Watermark

GOVERNMENT OF KERALA
DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
APPLIED PHYSICS – I
FOR
DIPLOMA IN ENGINEERING
(Revision 2021)
Published by
STATE INSTITUTE OF TECHNICAL TEACHERS

TRAINING & RESEARCH, KALAMASSERY
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.sitttrkerala.ac.in
i
COURSE MATERIAL DEVELOPMENTCOMMITTEE
APPLIED PHYSICS–I FOR DIPLOMA IN ENGINEERING (SemesterI)
Academic Co-ordinator: A.S. Chandrakanta, DeputyDirector, SITTTR Kalamassery
Technical Co-ordinator: Swapna K.K., Project Officer, SITTTR Kalamassery
Authors:
Dr. Jayachandran K.,
Assistant professor of Physics, Government Polytechnic College, Cherthala
Dr. Radhakrishnan A.N.,
Assistant professor of Physics, Government Polytechnic College, Kaduthuruthy
Vinod N.,
Professorin Physics, NSS Polytechnic College, Pandalam
Prasanth Narayanan,
Assistant professor of Physics, Government Polytechnic College, Kumily
Abhilash A.,
Assistant professor of Physics, Government Polytechnic College, Adoor
Advisory Board:
Tony E.J.,
Joint Director, SITTTR
Remesh K.M.,
Former Joint Director, SITTTR
Chandrakantha A.S.,
Deputy Director, SITTTR
Dr. Ajitha S.,
Project Officer, SITTTR
Swapna K.K.,
Project Officer, SITTTR
Dr. Wilson K.C. (Subject Expert),
Assistant Professor of Physics, Maharajas College, Ernakulam
Layout and Design

Ajimon N.G.,
Demonstrator, Government Polytechnic College, Kaduthuruthy
ii
Preface
This book, drafted as per the revised syllabus and evaluation criteria of the Department of
Technical Education, Government of Kerala, is designed and prepared in compliance with the
State Institute of Technical Teachers' Training & Research (SITTTR). Outcome-Based
Education (OBE) adopted in technical education suggests the need for developing the abilities in
students that would enable them to grasp the concepts on their own rather than learn by heart the
complicated terms and definitions. Outcome-Based Education (OBE) also recommends that the
students should be able to apply the basic knowledge to solve engineering problems. In
preparing the book, great care has been taken to present the subject matter in a clear and simple
way keeping in mind the new approach to learning Physics as contemplated by Outcome Based
Education (OBE).
The book is divided into four chapters corresponding to four modules in the revised
syllabus. In each chapter, a considerable amount of conceptual learning sections, analytical
problems, and questions are included, to equip the students to face the newly introduced OBE-
based internal evaluation as well as end semester examination. Small and simple sentences have
been used throughout the book to get rid of the hurdles of the English language. The diagrams
are neatly rendered and the mathematical steps are simplified. The revised syllabus and a model
question paper are also added at the end of the book. The content hopes to meet all the
requirements of science such as concepts, attitudes, creativity, and applications, and to make the
teaching and learning process interesting, understandable, and enjoyable for young minds. Much
pain has been taken to explain the difficult points in a manner that an average student can easily
grasp even the tough topics. The main strength of the book lies in the subject matter and the
experience that a student will get in solving problems of Physics. The conceptual learning
sections included will transcend the boundaries of the syllabus and hopes to enhance the
scientific aptitude of students.
Suggestions and positive criticism for the improvement of this book from any quarter
would be thankfully accepted and will be applied in the next revised edition. This book will
fulfill the requirements of students and teachers of technical education. We hope that this book
will definitely deepen the interest of students.
Authors
iii
Acknowledgments
We express our sincere gratitude to Sri. Tony E J, Joint Director, SITTTR and Sri. K M
Ramesh, former Joint Director, SITTTR. We express special gratitude to Smt. Chandrakantha A
S, Deputy Director, SITTTR who encouraged us in this venture. We are thankful to Smt. Swapna
K K, Project Officer, SITTTR for supporting us. We are also thankful to Dr. Wilson K C,
Assistant Professor of Physics, Maharajas College, Ernakulam for reviewing our book and
suggesting improvements to the contents of the book. We thankfully recognize all those who
inspired and helped us in this endeavor.
Authors
iv
Table of Contents
Page
Preface iii
Acknowledgment iv
Table of Contents v
Chapter 1: Measurements and Force 1

1.1 Measurements and Unit systems 1
1.1.1 Physical quantities 1
1.1.2 Unit of a physical quantity 2
1.1.3 Fundamental quantities and derived quantities 2
1.1.4 Unit systems 3
1.1.5 CGS system 3
1.1.6 MKS system 3
1.1.7 System International (SI) 3
1.2 Errors in Measurements 6
1.2.1 Systematic errors 6
1.2.2 Random errors 7
1.2.3 Least count error 7
1.2.4 Absolute error 7
1.2.5 Relative error 8
1.2.6 Percentage error 8
1.3 Basic Introduction to Vectors 10
1.3.1 Graphical representation of vectors 10
1.3.2 Collinear vectors 11
1.3.3 Equal vectors 11
1.3.4 Negative of a vector 11
1.3.5 Unit vector 11
1.3.6 addition of vectors 11
1.3.7 Graphical methods of vector addition 13
1.3.8 Analytical method for vector addition 14
1.3.9 Subtraction of vectors 16
1.3.10 Resolution of a vector 16
v
1.4 Kinematics 20
1.4.1 Distance travelled and displacement 20
1.4.2 Speed 21
1.4.3 Velocity 21
1.4.4 Acceleration 21
1.4.5 Motion in one motion 21
1.4.6 Equations of motion 22
1.5 Dynamics 22
1.5.1 Newton’s first law of motion 23
1.5.2 Inertia 23
1.5.3 Momentum 24
1.5.4 Newton’s second law of motion 25
1.5.5 Newton’s third law of motion 26
1.5.6 Law of conservation of momentum 28
1.5.7 Recoil of gun 29
1.5.8 Rocket propulsion 30
1.5.9 Impulse 31
Chapter 2: Rotational Motion 36
2.1 Basic types of motion 36
2.2 Circular motion 37
2.2.1 Angular displacement 38
2.2.2 Linear velocity 38
2.2.3 Angular velocity 38
2.2.4 Linear acceleration 39
2.2.5 Angular acceleration 39
2.2.6 Relation between linear velocity and angular velocity 39
2.2.7 Relation between linear acceleration and angular acceleration 40
2.2.8 Period 40
2.2.9 Centripetal acceleration 42
2.2.10 Centripetal force 43
2.2.11 Banking of roads 44
2.2.12 Expression for angle of banking 45
2.2.13 Banking of railway tracks 45
2.3 Rotational motion of rigid bodies 47
2.3.1 Moment of inertia 48
2.3.2 Moment of inertia of a particle 48
2.3.3 Moment of inertia of a rigid body 49
vi
2.3.4 Radius of gyration 50
2.3.5 Theorems on moment of inertia 52
2.3.6 Moment of inertia of continuous mass distributions 52
2.3.7 Torque 54
2.3.8 Angular momentum 56
2.3.9 Conservation of angular momentum 57
Chapter 3: Work, Energy, and Power 60
3.1 Work 60
3.1.1 Work in physics 61
3.1.2 Types of work 61
3.2 Energy 62
3.2.1 Types of energy 62
3.2.2 Different forms of energy 63
3.2.3 Solar energy 66
3.2.4 Transformation of energy 66
3.2.5 Law of conservation of energy 68
3.3 Power 70
3.4 Friction 73
3.4.1 Causes of friction 74
3.4.2 Types of friction 74
3.4.3 Laws of friction 76
3.4.4 Advantages of friction 76
3.4.5 Disadvantages of friction 77
3.4.6 Methods to reduce friction 77
3.5 Heat 78
3.5.1 What is temperature? 79
3.5.2 Temperature scales 79
3.5.3 Conversion between temperature scales 81
3.5.4 Thermometer 81
3.5.5 Classification of thermometers 81
3.5.6 Mercury thermometer 82
3.5.7 Pyrometers 82
3.5.8 Methods of heat transfer 85
3.5.9 Specific heat capacity of a substance 89
vii
Chapter 4: Properties of Matter 94
4.1 Elasticity 94
4.1.1 Stress 95
4.1.2 Strain 96
4.1.3 Elastic limit 96
4.1.4 Hooke’s law 96
4.1.5 Young’s Modulus: Elasticity of length 96
4.1.6 Rigidity modulus: Elasticity of shape 98
4.1.7 Bulk modulus: Volume elasticity 99
4.2 Pressure 104
4.2.1 Pressure inside a fluid (hydrostatic pressure) 105
4.2.2 Atmospheric pressure 106
4.2.3Gauge pressure and absolute pressure 106
4.3 Surface Tension 108
4.3.1 Surface energy of the liquid 110
4.3.2 Cohesion and adhesion 110
4.3.3 Angle of contact 111
4.3.4 Capillarity 112
4.3.5 Ascent formula 112
4.3.6 Applications of surface tension 113
4.3.7 Effect of temperature and impurities on surface tension 114
4.4 Fluid dynamics 114
4.4.1 Streamline flow and turbulent flow 114
4.4.2 Reynold’s number 116
4.4.3 Continuity equation in fluid dynamics 116
4.4.4 Energies of a flowing fluid 121
4.4.5 Bernoulli’s theorem 122
4.4.6 Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem 123
4.5 Viscosity 126
4.5.1 Coefficient of viscosity 126
4.5.2 Terminal velocity 127
4.5.3 Stoke’s law 128
Bibliography 132
Revised Syllabus 133
Model question paper 139
viii
CHAPTER 1
MEASUREMENTS AND FORCE
1.1 MEASUREMENTS AND UNIT SYSTEMS
Conceptual Learning 1.1
Find the values of the following quantities in proper units
1. Your height
2. Your mass
3. Distance from home to college
4. How long do you study per day?
Three students were asked to measure the length of a table. The students reported the
measured values as 3, 91.44, and 36. It may look wrong. Actually, the three students used different
units for the measurement. The correct values are 3 ft, 91.44 cm, and 36 inches. Without units, the
value of a measurement is meaningless. All values of measurements should be represented with a
proper unit. In the following section, we discuss measurable quantities and what the unit of a
quantity means.
1.1.1 Physical quantities
What do we mean by a physical quantity? Why length, mass, and time are physical
quantities, and taste and smell are not? It is possible to measure length, mass, and time using
instruments such as meter scale, physical balance, stopwatch, etc. But taste and smell cannot be
1
measured using any instruments. Physical property related to a substance or phenomenon which
can be quantified by measurement is called a physical quantity. The measured value of a physical
quantity is expressed as the combination of a number and a unit.
1.1.2 Unit of a physical quantity

Physics describes the laws of nature. This description is quantitative and involves the
measurement of physical quantities. How do you measure the length of a table? We compare the
length of the table to a standard value of length and find out how many times the standard value
has been repeated. In general, to measure a physical quantity its value has to be compared with a
standard value of that quantity. The standard used for the measurement of a physical quantity is
called its unit. The standard corresponds to exactly one unit of that quantity. The measured value
of the physical quantity is expressed in terms of the unit of that quantity. The measured value of a
quantity is expressed in two parts. The first part gives how many times the given unit has been
repeated and the second part gives the name of the unit.
Table 1.1 Examples of some physical quantities in suitable units

Quantity Multiple of
Unit used Measured value
measured unit
Length of table m 2.5 2.5 m
Speed of a car km/hr 60 60 km/hr
Volume of milk litre 2 2 litres
Voltage of a battery volt 1.5 1.5 volt
Body temperature fahrenheit 97. 6 97.6 fahrenheit
1.1.3 Fundamental quantities and derived quantities

There are a large number of physical quantities and each physical quantity requires a
separate unit for its specification. However, most of them are interrelated. For example, if a unit
of length is defined, a unit of area is automatically obtained. There are only a few independent
quantities. Physical quantities which are defined by the process of measurement and independent
of other quantities are called fundamental quantities. All other quantities can be expressed in terms
2
of these fundamental quantities. Quantities derived from fundamental quantities are called derived
quantities. The unit of fundamental quantities are called fundamental or base units and those of
derived quantities are called derived units. Examples of fundamental and derived quantities along
with their units are given in the table below:
Table 1.2 Examples of fundamental and derived quantities along with their units
Fundamental
Unit Derived quantity Unit
quantity
Area m2
Length meter (m)
Volume m3
Velocity m/s
Time second (s)
Acceleration m/s2
Density kg/m3
Mass kilogram (kg)
Momentum kg m/s
1.1.4 Unit systems

The complete set of units of all physical quantities forms a unit system. There are several unit
systems in use over the world and each unit system is based on a different set of fundamental
quantities. CGS system, MKS system, and SI system are examples of unit systems.
1.1.5 CGS system

CGS system is a unit system based on three fundamental quantities namely length, mass,
and time. In the CGS system, centimeter (cm), gram (g), and second (s) are the units of length,
mass, and time respectively.
1.1.6 MKS system

MKS unit system has meter (m), kilogram (kg), and second (s) as base units respectively for
the three fundamental quantities - length, mass, and time.
1.1.7 System International (SI)

In 1971, General Conference on Weight and Measures (CGPM) held its meeting and decided
on a system of units by international agreement. This system is known as System International and
is abbreviated as SI. The SI system is based on seven fundamental quantities and its units. Units
3
of all derived quantities can be obtained by multiplying and dividing seven base units, with no
numerical factors involved.
Table 1.3 Fundamental quantities and their units in SI unit system
Fundamental quantity Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
Units of all derived quantities can be obtained from the seven fundamental units given in table
1.3. SI unit system classified plane angle and solid angle as supplementary quantities. The SI unit
of plane angle is radian (rad) and that of solid angle is steradian (sr). But the notion of
supplementary quantities was abandoned in 1995 and classified them also as derived quantities.
1. A commonly used unit of length is foot. One foot is equal to 12 inches. Measure the
length and breadth of any room of your house in the unit of meters and convert it into
feet. Hence calculate the area of the room in the units of metre2 and feet2 (sq. ft).
2. The volume of liquids is usually represented in litres. A water tank has dimensions of
2m length, 1 m breadth, and 1m height. Calculate the capacity of the tank in litres.
4
It is convenient to represent large and small quantities in the SI system in terms of multiple
and sub-multiple of 10. Standard prefixes are used for certain powers of 10 as shown in table 1.4.
Table 1.4 Prefixes used for multiples and submultiples in SI unit system
Prefix Multiple Symbol Prefix Sub- multiple Symbol

deca 101 da deci 10-1 d
hecto 102 h centi 10-2 c
kilo 103 k milli 10-3 m
mega 106 M micro 10-6 µ
giga 109 G nano 10-9 n
tera 1012 T pico 10-12 p
peta 1015 P femto 10-15 f
exa 1018 E atto 10-18 a

Express the following in given units
1) 2.43 cm = 2.43 x 10-2 m

2) 14.3 cm = …………… m
3) 7.00 cm = …………… m
4) 5 mm = …………… m
5) 24.5 mm2 = …………… m2
6) 18.4 cm3 = ……………. m3
7) 22 mm3 = …………… m3
8) 12 cm2 = …………… m2
9) 50g = …………… kg
10) 150 g/cm3 = …………… kg/m3
11) 36 km/hr =……………… m/s
12) 8 litres =……………… m3
13) 2.48cm2 = ……………… m2
5
1.2 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
Measurement of various physical quantities is fundamental to the study of science and
engineering. The value of every measurement contains some uncertainty. This uncertainty is called
error. The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is known as the
error of measurement. Errors in measurements can be classified into two categories. They are
systematic errors and random errors.
1.2.1 Systematic Errors

Systematic errors in measurements can be due to instrumental errors, incorrect
experimental techniques, and personal errors.
a) Instrumental errors: These errors arise from the imperfect design or calibration of
instruments, zero error of instruments, etc. Zero error in vernier calipers or screw gauge
and error due to measurement of length using a scale broken at one end are examples
of instrumental errors.
b) Error due to incorrect experimental technique: These kinds of errors occur due to
inaccurate experimental procedures as well as external factors like pressure,
temperature, humidity, wind, etc. For example, measurement of body temperature by
placing a thermometer under the armpit results in a lower temperature value than the
actual value.
c) Personal errors: Such errors arise due to personal bias, lack of proper setting of the
apparatus, or individual’s carelessness in taking observations. These types of errors are
also known as observational errors. For example, when an observer holds his head
towards the right (by habit) while reading the position of a needle on the scale, he
introduces an error due to parallax.
The systematic errors tend to be in one direction, either positive direction or negative
direction with respect to the true value. This type of error can be minimized by using better
instruments, improving experimental techniques, and avoiding personal bias.
6
1.2.2 Random Errors
Random errors come from unpredictable changes in experimental conditions. The
magnitude and direction of these errors vary randomly with each measurement. Random errors are
present in all experiments and are unpredictable. The random errors can be reduced by taking a
greater number of measurements. These errors are also called statistical errors and can be removed
by statistical methods like averaging. For example, unpredictable temperature changes can affect
the electrical properties of instruments in an experiment involving electrical instruments.
1.2.3 Least Count Error
The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument and it can
be considered both as systematic and random errors. The smallest value that can be measured by
a measuring instrument is called its least count. All readings or values are good only up to this
value. For example, a vernier caliper has the least count of 0.01 cm and a screw gauge has a least
count of 0.001 cm. Using instruments of higher precision, improving experimental techniques,
etc., we can reduce the least count error. Repeating the observations several times and taking the
arithmetic mean of all the observations, the mean value would be very close to the true value of
the measured quantity.
1.2.4 Absolute error
Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , . . . . . . . . . , 𝑎𝑛 be the values obtained for a physical quantity ‘a’ in an

experiment repeated ‘n’ times. The arithmetic mean of the values is taken as the true value. The
arithmetic mean is
a1+ a2+ ……….+ an
𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
n
The absolute error of a measurement is the difference between the individual measurement
and the true value of that quantity. It is denoted as |∆𝑎| which is the modulus of the of the
quantity ∆𝑎. Then errors in individual measurements are
∆𝑎1 = 𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
∆𝑎2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
…… …… …..
…… …… …..
7
∆𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
∆𝑎 calculated may be positive or negative, but absolute error |∆𝑎| is always positive. The
arithmetic mean of all absolute errors of all the measurements is taken as the mean absolute error
of the physical quantity ‘a’. It is denoted as ∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 .
∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = ( |∆𝑎1 | + |∆𝑎2 | + |∆𝑎3 | … … … . + |∆𝑎𝑛 | )/𝑛
The value of the physical quantity ‘a’ can be written as
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 ± ∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
1.2.5 Relative error

The ratio of mean absolute error, ∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 to the mean value, 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 of the physical
quantity measured is called the relative error.
∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
Relative error =
𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
1.2.6 Percentage error

The relative error of a physical quantity expressed in percentage is called percentage
error.
∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
Percentage error = × 100 %
𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
Measure the length and breadth of your study table and calculate its area. Repeat these
measurements five times and calculate the area in each case. (Use the scale available in your
instrument box for measurements)
i) Find out the absolute error, relative error, and percentage error in length, breadth,
and area of the table.
ii) Can you relate relative errors in the area of the table with relative errors in the length
and breadth of the table?
8
Example 1.1
The measurement of length gives values of 2.54 cm, 2.51 cm, 2.48 cm, 2.55 cm, and 2.52 cm.
Find the absolute error, relative error, and percentage error.
Solution:
2.54+2.51+2.48+2.55+2.52
Mean length = = 2.52 cm
5
Absolute errors:
|Δa1| = |2.54 - 2.52| = 0.02
|Δa2| = |2.51 - 2.52| = 0.01
|Δa3| = |2.48 - 2.52| = 0.04
|Δa4| = |2.55 - 2.52| = 0.03
|Δa5| = |2.52 - 2.52| = 0
|∆a1 |+ |∆a2 |+ ………….+ |∆an |

Mean absolute error = n
= (0.02+0.01+0.04+0.03+0)/5
= 0.02
∆amean 0.02
Relative error = = = 0.008
amean 2.52
∆amean
Percentage error = × 100 % = 0.8 %
amean
Example 1.2
The mean absolute error of a set of measurements is 0.85 and the mean value is 12.6. Find the
relative error and percentage error.
Solution:
Mean absolute error, ∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 0.85

Mean value, amean = 12.6
∆amean 0.85
Relative error = = = 0.07
amean 12.6
∆amean
Percentage error = × 100 = 0.07 × 100 = 7 %
amean
9
1.3 BASIC INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS
Physical quantities can be classified into two categories. Some quantities can be completely
described by its magnitude alone. Quantities having only magnitude are called scalar quantities.
Mass, time, temperature, and potential energy are examples of scalar quantities. Quantities having
both magnitude and direction are called vector quantities. A vector quantity requires both
magnitude and direction to describe it completely. Force is an example. What happens when a
force of 10N acts on a body lying on a surface can be answered only if the direction of application
of the force is known. A force acting in the downward direction produces no effect on the body,
whereas a horizontal force produces an acceleration.
A vector quantity is denoted either using bold letters (v, F) or putting a small arrow (→ , →)
𝑣 𝐹
on the top of the symbol used for the representation of the quantity. The magnitude of a vector
quantity, say F, is denoted by |F | or F.

1. Name any five vector quantities and five scalar quantities
2. State whether the result of the following operation is a vector or a scalar
a) Multiplication of two scalars
b) Multiplication of a vector with a scalar
1.3.1 Graphical representation of a vector

A vector quantity is represented
graphically by a straight line with an
arrowhead as shown in Fig. 1.1. The length
of the straight line represents the magnitude
of the vector and the arrowhead gives the
direction of the vector. The end having the
arrow mark is called the head and the other Fig. 1.1 Geometric representation of a vector
end is called the tail of the vector.
10
A vector can be displaced parallel to itself. Moving a vector parallel to itself does not change
the magnitude and direction of the vector.
1.3.2 Collinear vectors

Two or more vectors lying on the same line are called collinear vectors. They can have the
same or different magnitude and the direction can be either the same or opposite.
1.3.3 Equal vectors

Two vectors of the same magnitude and direction are called equal vectors.
1.3.4 Negative of a vector

The negative of a vector is defined as another vector having the same magnitude but opposite
in direction to the given vector.
1.3.5 Unit vector

A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and points in a particular direction. It is used just to
specify a direction and hence it is also called a direction vector. A unit vector is denoted by a cap
or hat symbol above a letter. A vector divided by its magnitude gives the unit vector in the direction
of the given vector. Unit vector, 𝑎̂ in the direction vector, 𝐴⃗ is given by
𝐴⃗
𝑎̂ =
|𝐴⃗|
̂ 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂ which indicates X, Y, and Z directions
The commonly used unit vectors are 𝑖,
respectively.
1.3.6 Addition of vectors

Consider two boys pushing a table with equal forces (say 10 N) in the same direction as
shown in Fig. 1.2 (a). The table easily moves in the direction of the pushing force. Now, consider
the forces are applied in the opposite direction as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b), the table doesn’t move. In
the first case, the two forces added up since they are in the same direction, and in the second case,
the two forces cancel each other. Again, if the two forces are applied at the two adjacent sides of
the table, the motion of the table can be found by adding the two forces mathematically.
11
Fig. 1.2 (a) Two boys pushing a table in the same direction
(b) Two boys pushing a table in the opposite direction

Force is a vector quantity. Add following pairs of forces which are either parallel or
antiparallel.
1. 16 N + 6N =
2. 5N + 5N =
3. 5N + 3N =
4. 4 N + 2N =
The addition of two scalar quantities can be done using the rules of ordinary algebra. Sum of
two masses, which is a scalar quantity, say 10 kg and 10 kg always give 20 kg. But in the case of
vector quantities, we have to take care of direction also. The result of the addition of two or more
12
vector quantities is called vector sum or resultant. The addition of two vectors can be done
mathematically by using graphical methods or analytical methods.
1.3.7 Graphical methods for vector addition

In the graphical method, we use the graphical representation of vectors to find the resultant of
two vectors. The resultant of two non-parallel vectors can be obtained graphically by two methods;
triangle method and parallelogram method.
(a) Triangle method of vector addiction
The triangle method is based on the triangular law of vector addition. The triangular law of
vector addition states that if two vectors are represented by the two sides of a triangle taken in
order, then the resultant vector is represented both in magnitude and direction by the third side of
the triangle taken in the reverse order.
Fig. 1.3 Addition of two vectors by triangular method
Let 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ are two non-parallel vectors. To find the vector sum using the triangle method,
place the vectors such that the tail of one vector coincides with the head of the other vector as
shown in Fig. 1.3. Complete the triangle by drawing the third side. The third side gives the resultant
vector 𝑅⃗⃗ .
(b) Parallelogram method of vector addition

This method is based on the parallelogram law of vector addition. The parallelogram law
of vector addition states that if two vectors are represented both in magnitude and direction by the
13
adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then the resultant vector is represented both
in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through the point.
Fig. 1.4 Addition of two vectors by parallelogram method
In this method, the two vectors are placed such that their tails coincide as shown in Fig.1.4.
A parallelogram is formed by drawing two lines parallel to the given vectors. The diagonal of the
parallelogram passing through the common point of the two vectors is the resultant vector.
1.3.8 Analytical method for vector addition

The graphical method provides a
good visual understanding of the process
of vector addition. But it is time-
consuming and has less accuracy.
Alternately the resultant vector can be
found using the analytical method.
Consider two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗. Let θ be the
angle between the two vectors. The
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗, of the two vectors can be
resultant, 𝑅
obtained by the parallelogram method as Fig. 1.5 Resultant of two vectors acting at an angle 
shown in Fig. 1.5.
The magnitude of the resultant vector R is given by the expression
R = √A2 + B2 + 2ABcosθ
14
The direction of the resultant vector is specified by the angle α with respect to the vector 𝐴⃗.
The angle α is given by the expression
𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Special cases:
a) If two vectors are in the same direction, then θ = 0 and hence, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1
The magnitude of the resultant, R = √A2 + B2 + 2ABcosθ
R = √A2 + B2 + 2AB
R = √(A + B)2
R=𝐴+𝐵
The magnitude of the resultant is the sum of the magnitudes of the two vectors.
b) If two vectors are in opposite direction, then θ = 180o and hence, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −1
The magnitude of the resultant, R = √A2 + B2 + 2ABcosθ
R = √A2 + B2 − 2AB
R = √(A − B)2
R=𝐴−𝐵
The magnitude of the resultant is the difference of the magnitudes of the two vectors.

Consider two vectors, 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ of magnitudes 4 units and 2 units. The angle between the vectors
is 60o. Find out the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the two vectors by
i) Triangular method
ii) Parallelogram method
iii) Analytical method
15
1.3.9 Subtraction of vectors
⃗⃗ from 𝐴⃗ first, take the
Subtraction of two vectors also involves addition. To subtract 𝐵
⃗⃗ and then add it to 𝐴⃗. Hence, subtraction of two vectors is the same as the addition of
negative of 𝐵
a vector with the negative of the second vector.
𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + (−𝐵
⃗⃗)
Fig. 1.6 Subtraction of two vectors
1.3.10 Resolution of a vector

Two or more vectors can be combined to form a single vector through addition. Similarly,
a given vector can be represented as the sum of two or more vectors acting along different
directions. The process of splitting a given vector into two or more vectors along different
directions is called the resolution of a vector. The vectors obtained by the resolution of the given
vector are called component vectors.
Consider a vector lying in the northwest direction as Fig. 1.7 (a). It can be
considered to have two components – a northward component and a westward component.
Similarly, an upward and rightward vector has an upward component and a rightward component
as Fig. 1.7 (b).
16
Fig. 1.7 (a) Components of a northwest vector
(b) Components of an upward and rightward vector
A vector lying in a plane is usually

resolved along two mutually perpendicular
directions. The resolution of a vector along
mutually perpendicular directions is called
rectangular resolution. The two
perpendicular components are called
rectangular components. The rectangular
components are taken along the X-axis and Y-
axis. Consider a vector 𝐴⃗ making an angle θ
with the X-axis. Draw perpendiculars from
the head of the vector 𝐴⃗ to X-axis and Y-axis Fig. 1.8 Rectangular resolution of a vector
17
to meet at the points P and Q respectively. Then, if OP and OQ are taken as two vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑥 and
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑦 respectively, then by parallelogram law of vector addition, 𝐴⃗ is the resultant vector.
𝐴⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑥 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑦
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Thus and 𝐴 𝐴𝑦 are vector components of 𝐴⃗. Magnitudes of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑥 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑦 are called
scalar components. 𝐴𝑥 and 𝐴𝑦 are called x-component and y-component respectively. Using
simple trigonometric relations, x-component and y-component of vector 𝐴⃗ is given by

𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Now let us examine two real-life examples of the resolution of vectors.

a) Walking: While walking, a person applies a force on the ground and the reaction force by
the ground on the man enables him to move forward. The force applied by the man is
directed at an angle with the horizontal. The reaction force by the ground is opposite in
direction to the applied force. The reaction force R can be resolved along horizontal and
vertical components as shown in Fig. 1.9. The horizontal component pushes him forward.
Fig. 1.9 Resolution of reaction force exerted by the ground on a walking man
b) Pulling a cart: Consider a man pulling a cart. The force is directed at an angle with the
horizontal. Here the force can be resolved into two components – vertical and horizontal
18
components as shown in Fig. 1.10. The horizontal component is responsible for the motion
of the cart.
Fig. 1.10 Resolution of pulling force applied on a cart

Resolve the given forces along x-direction and y-direction.
1.
12 N (a) x- component = ------- N
30o (b) y-component = -------- N
2.
20 N
(a) x- component = ------- N
60o (b) y-component = -------- N
3.
8N
(a) x- component = ------- N
45o
(b) y-component = -------- N
19
1.4 KINEMATICS
The motion of objects can be found everywhere around us. The study of motion is basic to
physics. When do we say that a body is at rest or in motion? An object is at rest if its position does
not change with time. An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time. But when
do we say that an object is changing its position? Consider a book in the hand of a boy sitting in a
moving bus. The book is at rest with respect to an observer on the bus, whereas with respect to an
observer on the road, the book is in motion. The concept of rest and motion are relative to the
observer. There is no absolute motion or absolute rest.
Mechanics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of the motion of bodies, its
causes, and effects. Kinematics is a branch of mechanics that describes the motion of objects
without considering the causes of motion. In kinematics, motion is mathematically described in
terms of distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration, and time.
1.4.1 Distance travelled and Displacement

Consider a particle initially
at position A, it travels and reaches
point B through the path ACB.
Distance is defined as the total
length of the path travelled by a
particle. Here the length ACB
gives the distance travelled.
Distance is a scalar quantity and its
unit is meter. We are more Fig. 1.11 Distance and displacement of a moving particle
interested in the change in position
of the particle, which is specified by the term displacement. Displacement is defined as the shortest
path length between the final position and the initial position of the particle. The straight-line path
from A to B gives the displacement. Displacement is a vector quantity having both magnitude and
direction. The length of the straight line gives the magnitude of the displacement and the direction
is from the initial position to final position. The SI unit of displacement is also meter.
20
1.4.2 Speed
The speed of a particle is related to the distance travelled. Speed is the distance travelled by a
body in unit time.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Speed is a scalar quantity and its unit is m/s
1.4.3 Velocity (v)
The velocity of a particle denotes how fast it is changing its position. The displacement of a
body in unit time is called velocity.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑠
𝑣=
𝑡
Velocity is a vector quantity and its unit is m/s.
1.4.4 Acceleration (a)

The rate of change of velocity of a body is called acceleration. Since velocity is a vector
quantity, a change in its magnitude or direction or both gives accelerated motion.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
where u is the initial velocity and v is the final velocity of the body. Acceleration is a vector
quantity and its unit is m/s2.
1.4.5 Motion in one dimension
The motion of an object along a straight-line path is called motion in one dimension. A particle
in one-dimensional motion has only two directions of motion (either left or right, upward or
downward, east or west, etc.). To specify the directions of the vector quantities displacement,
velocity, and acceleration we use the signs + and - to denote the two directions.
21
If the velocity of the body remains a constant in one-dimensional motion, then it is called
uniform motion. In uniform motion, the magnitude and direction of velocity remain constant and
hence its acceleration is zero. The motion of a car along a straight road, a ball thrown vertically
upwards, a freely falling body are some of the examples of motion in one dimension. A uniformly
accelerated motion is one in which the acceleration of the particle remains constant.
1.4.6 Equations of motion
Consider the motion of a particle with initial velocity ‘u’ and uniform acceleration ‘a’. Let the
displacement and velocity of the particle after a time ‘t’ second is ‘s’ and ‘v’ respectively. The
motion of the particle along a straight-line path with uniform acceleration can be analyzed using
the three equations of motion.
v = u + at
1
s = ut + at 2
2
v 2 = u2 + 2as
1.5 DYNAMICS
Dynamics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the study of forces and its effect on the
motion of bodies. In dynamics, Newton's laws of motion are three laws that describe the
relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it.

Consider a cricket ball placed at one end of a very long horizontal straight-line track. A force
is applied just to start the motion of the ball along the track. Now answer the following questions
based on your experience and check whether our common experience contradicts Newton’s first
law of motion.
1. Do we need to apply force all the time to keep the ball in motion?
2. Will the ball stop after some time? Does this observation contradict Newton’s first law
of motion?
3. Is there any external force acting on the body to stop it?
22
Imagine that you are going to drive a car which is at rest. From Newton’s first law, we know
that an external force is required to change the state of the rest of a body. The rotating force
acting on the wheels of the car is provided by the engine and it is an internal force. Does the
motion of the car contradict Newton’s first law of motion? Explain your answer.
1.5.1 Newton’s first law of motion

Newton’s first law of motion states that every body continues in its state of rest or of
uniform motion along a straight line unless compelled by some external force to change that state.
Newton’s first law only provides a mere definition of the force, but it doesn’t provide any means
to measure the force acting on a body. Force can be defined as any agency which can change the
state of rest or uniform motion of a body. The first law of motion also implies that the state of rest
and the state of uniform motion are the same. In both the state the acceleration of the body is zero.
A force is needed to produce an acceleration of a body. A body in uniform motion continues its
motion with constant velocity if no force acts on it. A body in motion doesn’t mean that a force is
acting on it. Only accelerated motions require a force. In most situations, more than one force acts
on a body and still, its acceleration may be zero. It is the net force that decides the state of the
body. If the net force is zero, the body should be either in rest or in uniform motion.
1.5.2 Inertia
Inertia is the resistance of a body to any change in its state of rest or uniform motion along
a straight line. In the absence of a net external force, a body at rest continues to remain at rest and
a body in motion continues to move with constant velocity. Newton’s first law of motion is also
known as the law of inertia. Inertia is an inherent property of all bodies. Nobody can change its
state of motion by itself and only an external force can change its state of motion.
As we know from experience, some objects have more inertia than others. For example, it
is obviously more difficult to change the motion of a large almirah than that of a basketball. The
higher the mass, the higher will be the inertia. The inertia of an object is measured by its mass.
The tendency of a body to remain in its existing state of rest is called inertia of rest. The tendency
23
of a body to remain in its existing state of motion with constant velocity is called inertia of motion.
A few real-life examples of inertia of rest and inertia of motion are given below.
a) A person standing in a stationary bus falls backward when the bus starts suddenly. This
is because the lower part of his body moves forward with the bus, but the upper part of
his body remains at rest due to inertia of rest, which results in the backward fall.
b) A person trying to get down from a moving bus, falls forward. The lower part suddenly
comes to rest on touching the ground, but the upper part of his body remains in motion
due to inertia of motion and the person falls forward.
c) Fruits from a tree fall due to inertia of rest when the tree is shaken. Both the fruits and
branches are at rest, but when shaken branches start moving whereas fruits remain in its
state of rest and are separated from the branches.
1.5.3 Momentum (p)
Momentum is the quantity of motion of a body. The momentum of a body is defined as the
product of mass and velocity. It is a vector quantity and its unit is kg m/s. If a body of mass ‘m’
moving with a velocity ‘v’, then its momentum is given by
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
The momentum of a body at rest is zero. Consider a cricket ball and tennis ball which is lighter
in mass compared to a cricket ball moving with the same velocity. The momentum of the cricket
ball is higher due to its large mass. It is easier to catch the tennis ball than the cricket ball. A
cricket ball requires more force to stop than a tennis ball. Thus, force is related to momentum or
more specifically change in momentum. Newton’s second law gives the relation between force
and momentum.

Identify the body having the highest momentum
1. A car of mass 800 kg moving with velocity 30 m/s
2. A truck of mass 2000 kg moving with velocity 10 m/s
3. A motorcycle of mass 150 kg moving with velocity 40 m/s
24
1.5.4 Newton’s second law of motion
Newton’s second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction of the force.
force ∝ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
It can be easily proved that the rate of change of momentum of a moving body is equal to the
product of mass and acceleration of the body. Thus, force is proportional to the product of mass
and acceleration.
𝐹 ∝ 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 = 𝑘 𝑚𝑎
where k is the constant of proportionality. By suitably defining the SI unit of force, we can take k
as 1. Thus,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
One unit of force is defined as that which causes an acceleration of 1 m/s2 in a body of
mass 1kg. This unit is known as newton (N).
1 𝑁 = 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
If ‘p’ is the momentum of the body, then Newton’s second law can be expressed in differential
form as
dp
F=
dt
The second law implies that if Force F = 0, then acceleration, a = 0, which means the body
is either at rest or in uniform motion. Thus, Newton’s first law can be derived from the second
law. Newton’s first law gives a qualitative idea of force and the second law gives a mathematical
expression for force.

Consider an apple falling from a tree. The earth exerts an attractive gravitational force on the
apple due to which the apple falls towards the earth. In fact, the apple exerts the same magnitude
of the force on the earth. But the earth is not moving towards the apple. Why?
25
1.5.5 Newton’s third law of motion
Newton’s third law of motion states that to every action, there is always an equal and
opposite reaction.
If a body B exerts a force, 𝐹𝐴𝐵 on a body A, then the body A exerts an equal and opposite
force, 𝐹𝐵𝐴 on body B.
𝐹𝐴𝐵 = − 𝐹𝐵𝐴
Newton's third law of motion describes the nature of forces created as a result of mutual
and simultaneous interaction between two objects. The correct meaning of the third law can be
understood if the terms action and reaction are replaced by the term force. Then, Newton’s third
law motion can be restated that to every force, there is always an equal and opposite force. The
main properties of action and reaction forces are:
a) Action and reaction are the simultaneously occurring pair of forces acting between two
objects.
b) Forces always occur in pairs and a single force doesn’t exist in the universe. This is an
important property of forces.
c) Action and reaction are always equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. If one force
is 10 N in the east direction, the other force will be 10 N in the west direction.
d) There is no cause-effect relation implied in the third law. Both action and reaction occur
at the same time. So, any of the two forces can be called action and the other reaction.
e) The action and reaction forces, though equal and opposite, never adds up to get zero. Action
and reaction do not cancel each other since they act on different objects.
Examples of Newton's third law of motion are abundant in everyday life. Two examples
are cited below:
a) When a man jumps off a boat to the shore, he exerts a force on the boat. The boat exerts an
equal and opposite force on the man which makes the jump possible. The boat moves
backward due to the force exerted by the man.
26
Fig. 1.12 Action -reaction pair produced when a man jumps off a boat to the shore
b) A runner exerts a force on the ground and the reaction force of the ground on the runner
pushes him forward.
Fig. 1.13 Action -reaction pair produced when a man is running

Identify action-reaction pairs in the following cases:
1. A man jumping
2. A man swimming
3. A bird flying
4. Striking a ball with a bat
5. A book placed on a table
27
1.5.6 Law of conservation of momentum
From Newton’s second law of motion, the net force acting a system of particles is given
by
change in momentum
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 =
time
If the net force acting on the system is zero, then the change in momentum also becomes zero.
Therefore,
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
Thus, the law of conservation of momentum states that if the net external force acting on a
system is zero, its linear momentum remains constant.
As an example, we are going to prove the law of conservation of linear momentum in the case
of collision of two masses using Newton’s second law and third law. Consider two bodies of
masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 moving along a straight line with velocities 𝑢1 and 𝑢2 respectively. Let the
bodies collide for a time t seconds. After the collision, the velocities become 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 respectively
for masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 along the same direction as shown in Fig. 1.14.
Fig. 1.14 One dimensional collision of two masses
Since there is no external force acting on the system of two colliding bodies, the bodies apply
internal forces on each other during the collision. Let the force acting on the mass 𝑚1 (applied
by 𝑚2 ) be 𝐹12 and the force acting on the mass 𝑚2 (applied by 𝑚1 ) be 𝐹21 . From Newton’s second
law of motion,
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
28
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚1
∴ 𝐹12 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
(𝑚1 𝑣1 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 )
𝐹12 =
𝑡
Similarly,
(𝑚2 𝑣2 − 𝑚2 𝑢2 )
𝐹21 =
𝑡
Since 𝐹12 and 𝐹21 are action-reaction pairs produced during the collision, applying Newton’s third
law of motion, we have
𝐹12 = − 𝐹21
(𝑚1 𝑣1 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 ) − (𝑚2 𝑣2 − 𝑚2 𝑢2 )
=
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚1 𝑣1 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 = − 𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑚2 𝑢2
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
In the case of collision of two masses, the momentum of the system is conserved, if the
external force acting on the system is zero.

Consider an explosive lying on a surface. It explodes into (a) two pieces and (b) many pieces.
Discuss the nature of the motion of the pieces in both cases.
1.5.7 Recoil of gun

The gun carried by a soldier normally has a mass of 10 kg. On firing, the gun moves backward
such that if not handled carefully, it can hurt the person using it. The backward motion of a gun
when a bullet is fired from it is called the recoil of the gun. It can be explained using the principle
of conservation of linear momentum. The total momentum of the gun and bullet before firing is
zero. Since no external force acts on the gun and the bullet, its momentum should be conserved.
After firing the bullet moves with a velocity producing momentum in the forward direction. To
balance the momentum change, the gun moves backward with a velocity, such that the total
momentum is zero.
29
Let 𝑀𝑔 and 𝑚𝑏 are masses
of the gun and bullet respectively.
Suppose, a bullet is fired from the
gun with a velocity 𝑣𝑏 and the gun
recoils with a velocity 𝑉𝑔 .
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
=0
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
= 𝑀𝑔 𝑉𝑔 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑣𝑏
Fig. 1.15 Recoil of a gun when it is fired
By the law of conservation of momentum, the total momenta after firing must be equal to the
total momenta before firing.
𝑀𝑔 𝑉𝑔 + 𝑚𝑏 𝑣𝑏 = 0
𝑀𝑔 𝑉𝑔 = − 𝑚𝑏 𝑣𝑏
𝑚𝑏 𝑣𝑏
𝑉𝑔 = −
𝑀𝑔
The negative sign shows that the direction recoil velocity of the gun is opposite to the direction
of the velocity of the bullet.
1.5.8 Rocket propulsion

Rockets are used to launch artificial satellites and space shuttles, deliver explosive warheads
to their targets, and also for human space flight and scientific exploration of outer space. The
principle behind rocket propulsion is the law of conservation of momentum (external force on
rocket is zero and effect of gravity is neglected). The linear momentum of the rocket including its
fuel is conserved throughout the motion. The initial total momentum of the rocket on its launching
pad is zero. After the rocket is launched, the fuel is continuously burned and hot gases are ejected
out in the downward direction with high velocity. This creates a momentum change in the
downward direction. To balance it, the remaining mass of the rocket moves in the upward
direction.
30
Newton’s third law of motion
can also be used to explain the
principle of rocket propulsion.
Rocket is a variable mass system
because its mass decreases over
time, as a result of its fuel
(propellant) burning off. As the
rocket moves up, its mass
decreases, and hence its velocity
increases. The velocity of the
rockets can be further increased
by using multistage rockets Fig. 1.16 Momentum of the rocket before and after firing
instead of single-stage rockets. A
multistage rocket has two or more rocket stages, each stage has its engine and propellant. If one
stage burns completely, it will fall off from the rocket. Hence, the mass of the rocket decreases,
and its velocity increases considerably.
1.5.9 Impulse
Consider a boy striking a ball with a bat. He hits the ball with the bat such that the force
exerted by the bat is only for a very small time interval. In such cases, it is difficult to measure the
force and time separately. A large force acting for a short interval of time is called an impulsive
force. We use the term impulse to measure the effect of an impulsive force on a body. Impulse (I)
is defined as the product of force and time for which the force acts.
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐼 =𝐹 ×𝑡
From Newton’s second law of motion, we have
(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑡
(𝑣 − 𝑢)
∴ 𝐼= 𝑚 ×𝑡
𝑡
𝐼 = 𝑚 (𝑣 − 𝑢)
31
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
Impulse is measured as the change in momentum of the body produced by the action of
impulsive force. Examples of impulsive forces are given below:
• Kicking a football: A footballer exerts a large force on the ball, but only for a very short
interval of time.
• Striking a nail with a hammer: For fixing a nail, a hammer is used to exert a large force
for a small time.
• Striking a ball with a bat: The momentary force exerted by the bat changes the direction
of the ball in a small interval.
Example 1.3
A force of 12 N acts on an object of mass 6 kg. Find the magnitude of the acceleration produced.
Solution:
Given F = 12 N ; m = 6 kg
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 12
𝑎= = = 2 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
𝑚 6
Example 1.4
Calculate the force needed to speed up a car at the rate of 5 m/s2 if the mass of the car is 1000 kg.
Solution:
Given a = 5m/s2 and m = 1000 kg
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 1000 × 5 = 5000 𝑁
Example 1.5
A mass of 5 kg is initially at rest. A force of 20 N is applied to it for 10 seconds. What is the
velocity at the end of 10 s.?
Solution:
Given m = 5 kg ; F = 20 N ; u = 0 ; t = 10 s
32
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 20
𝑎= = = 4 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
𝑚 5
Using the equation 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 = 0 + 4 × 10 = 40 𝑚⁄𝑠
Example 1.6
A car moving at 36 km/hr is stopped by applying brakes in 2 s. If the mass of the car is 800 kg,
find the braking force.
Solution:
Given 𝑢 = 36 𝑘𝑚⁄ℎ𝑟 = 36 × 1000⁄3600 = 10 𝑚⁄𝑠
v=0 ; m = 800 kg
Using the equation 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
0 = 10 + 2𝑎
−10
𝑎= = −5 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
2
Braking force, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 800 × (−5) = −4000 𝑁
Example 1.7
A force F acting on a body changes its velocity from 24 m/s to 12 m/s in 4s. If mass of the body is
2 kg, find the force F.
Solution:
Given u = 24 m/s ; v = 12 m/s ; t=4s; m = 2 kg
Using the equation 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

12 = 24 + 4𝑎
4𝑎 = 12 − 24 = −12
−12
𝑎= = −3 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
4
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 2 × (−3) = −6 𝑁
Example 1.8
A body is acted upon by two forces 10 N and 6 N in opposite directions. If the mass of the body
is 2 kg, find the acceleration.
33
Solution:
Given F1 = 10 N ; F2 = 6 N ; m = 2 kg
Since the two forces acting on the body are in opposite directions, the net force on
the body is given by
𝐹 = 𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 10 − 6 = 4 𝑁
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 4
𝑎= = = 2 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
𝑚 2
Example 1.9
A bullet of mass 40 g is fired from a 5 kg gun with a velocity of 250 m/s. Find the recoil velocity
of the gun.
Solution:
Given 𝑚𝑏 = 40 𝑔 = 40 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 ; 𝑣𝑏 = 250 𝑚⁄𝑠 ; 𝑀𝑔 = 5 𝑘𝑔 ;
Recoil velocity of the gun is given by
𝑚𝑏 𝑣𝑏 40 × 10−3 × 250
𝑉𝑔 = − = − = −2 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑀𝑔 5
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. The readings of an experiment involving measurement of time give 2.78 s, 2.90 s, 2.92 s, and
2.85 s. Find the mean absolute error, relative error, and percentage error. [Ans: 0.047, 0.016,
1.6 %]
2. Find the percentage error for the following measured values – 23.5, 24.4, 23.9, 23.0, and 24.3.
[Ans: 1.9 %]
3. A force of 20 N acts on a body of mass 4 kg. Find the acceleration produced. [Ans: 5 m/s2]
4. A body at rest is acted upon by a force so that it reaches a velocity of 20 m/s in 4 s. If the mass
of the body is 3 kg, find the force. [Ans: 15 N]
5. A car of mass 1000 kg moving at 20 m/s is brought to rest over a distance of 40 m. Find the
braking force. [Ans: 5000 N]
34
6. An object of mass 2 kg is moving at 40 m/s. A force of 10 N is applied opposite to its direction
of motion. Find the time taken by the object to come to rest. [Ans: 8 s]
7. The momentum of a body changes from 40 kgm/s to 10 kgm/s in 5 s in the same direction by
the application of a force. Find the force applied. [Ans: 6 N]
8. A body of mass 1 kg is acted upon by two perpendicular forces 3 N and 4 N. Find the magnitude
of the acceleration of the body. [Ans: 5 m/s2]
9. A gun of mass 8 kg fires a bullet of mass 80 g with a velocity of 300 m/s. Find the recoil
velocity of the gun. [Ans: 3 m/s]
10. A shell of mass 0.02 kg is fired from a gun of mass 200 kg with a velocity of 100 m/s. Find the
recoil velocity of the gun. [Ans: 0.01 m/s]
QUESTIONS
1. Define the unit of a physical quantity.

2. Differentiate between fundamental quantity and derived quantity.
3. What are the seven fundamental quantities and their units in the SI system?
4. Explain different types of errors in measurements.
5. Distinguish between absolute error, relative error, and percentage error.
6. State and explain the triangular law of vector addition.
7. State and explain the parallelogram law of vector addition.
8. Explain the term resolution of a vector.
9. State Newton’s first law of motion and explain inertia
10. Define force from the first law of motion.
11. State and explain Newton’s second law of motion.
12. With the help of an example explain Newton’s third law of motion.
13. Explain the recoil of a gun. Derive an expression for the recoil velocity of the gun.
14. Explain the propulsion of a rocket using the law of conservation of momentum.
15. What is impulse? Show that change impulse is equal to change in momentum.
35
CHAPTER 2
ROTATIONAL MOTION

Classify the motion of bodies given below into different categories.
1. A train moving on a straight rail track
2. A spinning wheel
3. The earth revolving around the sun
4. Swinging of pendulum
5. The motion of the string of a guitar
2.1 BASIC TYPES OF MOTION

Everything in the universe is moving and evolving. There are basically four different types of
motion namely translational motion, rotational motion, oscillatory motion, and random motion.
a) Translational motion
Translational motion is a motion in which the location of the object changes with time.
Translational motion can again be classified into two types – rectilinear motion and curvilinear
motion. In rectilinear motion, the object moves along a straight line whereas, in curvilinear motion,
the object moves along a curved path. Circular motion is a special type of curvilinear motion in
which an object moves along a circular path. In translational motion, all objects are considered as
point masses.
Examples: The motion of elevators in buildings (rectilinear motion)
The motion of a basketball into the basket (curvilinear motion)
The motion of satellites around the earth (circular motion).
36
b) Rotational motion
Rotational motion is a motion in which the objects spin around an axis and the location of the
object do not change with time. Rotational motion is always associated with rigid extended bodies.
During rotational motion, each particle constituting the rigid body undergoes circular motion.
Hence circular motion and rotational motion are closely related.
Example: Motion of blades of the ceiling fan
c) Oscillatory motion
Oscillatory motion is the to and fro motion of an object about a fixed point. It is a special type
of periodic motion – a motion that repeats itself in a regular interval of time.
Example: Oscillations of a pendulum
d) Random motion
Random motion is a motion in which the particle moves in a zig-zag manner and the direction
of motion changes continuously. This kind of motion is unpredictable in practice.
Example: Motion of honey bee

1. Find out at least two examples for each type of motion.
2. What are the different types of motion associated with different parts of a bicycle in motion?
2.2 CIRCULAR MOTION

The motion of a body along the circumference of a circle is called circular motion. In a circular
motion, the direction of motion changes continuously. When a particle moves uniformly along a
circle, the direction of its velocity changes constantly, but its magnitude remains constant. A
circular motion is said to be uniform when a particle moves along a circular path with a constant
speed. The following parameters are required for the understanding of circular motion.
37
2.2.1 Angular displacement (θ)
Consider a particle moving

along the circumference of a circle
of radius r with centre O. When the
body moves from A to B in time t
seconds and covers a distance s,
angular displacement, θ is the angle
subtended at centre O.
𝑠
𝜃=
𝑟 Fig. 2.1 Angular displacement in circular motion
The angle described by a body moving along a circular path in a given time is known as
angular displacement. The SI unit of angular displacement is radian.
Angular displacement can be expressed in degrees or radians or revolutions. One revolution
corresponds to 360 0or 2π radians.
3600
1 radian = = 57.30
2𝜋
2.2.2 Linear velocity (v)
The distance travelled by a body moving along a circular path in unit time is called its linear
velocity. Let v be the linear velocity of the particle and s be the linear displacement in time t
seconds.
Linear displacement
Linear velocity = time
s
𝑣=
t
The unit of linear velocity is m/s.
2.2.3 Angular velocity (𝝎)
The angular displacement per unit time is called angular velocity. It is denoted by the
symbol 𝜔. The SI unit of angular velocity is radian/second (rad/s).
angular displacemet
Angular velocity = time
𝜃
𝜔= 𝑡
38
2.2.4 Linear acceleration (a)
Linear acceleration is the rate of change of linear velocity of a body moving along a
circular path or it is the change in linear velocity of a body in unit time. If the linear velocity of a
body changes from 𝑣1 to 𝑣2 in t seconds,
𝑣2 − 𝑣1
Linear acceleration, a =
𝑡
The unit of linear acceleration is m/s2.
2.2.5 Angular acceleration (α)
Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity. If the angular velocity of a
body changes from 𝜔1 to 𝜔2 in t seconds, the angular acceleration α is given by
𝜔2 − 𝜔1
α=
𝑡
The unit of angular acceleration is rad/𝑠 2 .
2.2.6 Relation between linear velocity and angular velocity
Consider a particle moving along the circumference of a circle of radius r with a linear velocity
v. When the body moves from A to B in time t seconds and covers a distance, s, the angular
displacement, θ is given by
𝑠
𝜃=
𝑟
𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃
The linear velocity of the particle is given by
𝑠 𝑟𝜃
𝑣= =
𝑡 𝑡
𝜃
Since angular velocity, 𝜔 = 𝑡
,
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
39
2.2.7 Relation between linear acceleration and angular acceleration
Consider a particle moving along the circumference of a circle of radius r. If the linear
velocity of a body changes from 𝑣1 to 𝑣2 in t seconds,
𝑣2 − 𝑣1
Linear acceleration, 𝑎 = 𝑡
If the angular velocity of the body changes from 𝜔1 to 𝜔2 during the time t seconds, then from
the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity,
𝑣1 = 𝑟 𝜔1
𝑣2 = 𝑟 𝜔2
𝑟𝜔2 − 𝑟𝜔1
∴ 𝑎=
𝑡
𝑟 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )
∴ 𝑎=
𝑡
(𝜔2 −𝜔1 )
Since angular acceleration, 𝛼= 𝑡
,
𝑎=𝑟𝛼
The relations between various linear quantities and angular quantities can be summarized in table
2.1.
Table 2.1 Relation between linear and angular quantities
linear quantity = radius x angular quantity
displacement = radius x angular displacement s=r
velocity = radius x angular velocity v=rω
acceleration = radius x angular acceleration a=rα
2.2.8 Period (T)

The time required to complete one revolution is called period (T). When one revolution is
completed, angular displacement is of 2π radians. Then angular velocity is given by
40
2π
𝜔=
𝑇
2π
∴ 𝑇=
𝜔

Compare the angular velocity of the hour hand of a watch and the angular velocity of the earth’s
rotation.
Example 2.1.
A stone at the end of a string 0.5 m long makes 12 revolutions in 3 seconds. Find (1) angular
velocity (2) linear velocity (3) distance travelled in 5 seconds.
Solution:
3
Since the body makes 12 revolutions in 3 seconds, T = 12 = 0.25 s
2π 2× 3.14
(1) Angular velocity, ω = = = 25.12 rad/s
𝑇 0.25
(2) Linear velocity, v = r 𝜔 = 0.5 x 25.12 = 12.56 m/s
(3) Distance travelled in 5 seconds, 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 = 12.56 × 5 = 62.8 m
Example 2.2
Determine the angular acceleration of a wheel that starts from rest and attains a speed of 600 rpm
in one minute.
Solution:
Initial angular velocity, ω1 = 0
2𝜋 2 × 3.14
Final angular velocity, ω2 = = = 62.8 rad/s
𝑇 0.1
𝜔2 − 𝜔1 62.8− 0
Angular acceleration, α = = = 1.046 rad/s2
𝑡 60
41
Example 2.3
The angular velocity of a particle moving along the circumference of a circle changes from 30 to
60 revolutions per second within 20 seconds. If the radius of the circle is 2 m, calculate its linear
acceleration and angular acceleration.
Solution:
Radius, r = 2m
1
Initial period, T1 = 30 = 0.033s
1
Period after 20 seconds, T2 = = 60 = 0.0166s
2𝜋
Initial angular velocity, ω1 = 𝑇 = 190.30 rad/s
1
2𝜋
Angular velocity after 20 seconds, ω2 = 𝑇 = 378.31 rad/s
2
𝜔2 − 𝜔1
Angular acceleration, α = = 9.4 rad/ s2
𝑡
Linear acceleration, a = r α = 2 x 9.4 =18.8 m/s2.
2.2.9 Centripetal acceleration (ac)

A cyclist while going around a
curve on a horizontal track has to
bend himself a little from his vertical
position to avoid overturning. We
know something must be “pulling”
the cycle from its straight-line
tendency into a circular path. What
happens if the cyclist increases the
speed of the cycle?
If a particle moves along the
circumference of a circle with
constant speed, its direction Fig. 2.2 Centripetal acceleration in circular motion
changes continuously. A force is
necessary to change the direction of the body. This force keeps the body in a circular path by
continuously changing its direction and the particle undergoes acceleration. The acceleration of a
particle moving along a circular path with uniform speed is always directed towards the centre of
the circle. This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration. The word centripetal means
42
‘directed towards the centre’. If v is the speed and r the radius of the circle, the centripetal
acceleration is given by
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟
2.2.10 Centripetal force (Fc)
The force which, acting along the

radius towards the centre of the
circular path, causes the body to move
in a circle with constant speed is called
centripetal force. If m is the mass of the
body moving along a circle of radius r,
centripetal force
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟
Fig. 2.3 Centripetal force in circular motion
Centripetal force is used to refer to the force experienced by an object traveling along a circular
path. For example, if a body is attached at one end of a string and whirled round, the string
transmits a centripetal force from the muscles of the hand and arm, causing the ball to move in a
circular path. The centripetal force causes centripetal accelerations. In the case of the Earth's
circular motion around the Sun, the centripetal force causing the motion is the result of the
gravitational attraction between them.
Centripetal force must be continuously supplied to keep a body moving along a circular path
with uniform velocity. The centripetal force is provided differently for different bodies and a few
examples are given below:
a) If a body is attached at one end of a string and whirled round, the tension provides the
centripetal force.
b) In the case of planets revolving around the sun, the necessary centripetal force is
provided by the gravitational attraction between them.
c) When an electron moves around the nucleus of an atom, the centripetal force is provided
by the electrostatic force of attraction between electron and proton.
43
d) When a vehicle moves along a curved path, the centripetal force is provided by the
frictional force between the tyres and the road.

Find out three real-life examples of centripetal force.
2.2.11 Banking of roads

When a vehicle goes around a curve, it travels along a nearly circular path. Centripetal force
is required to keep an object in a circular path. In a horizontal unbanked curve, the weight of the
vehicle is balanced by the normal reaction whereas the necessary centripetal force is provided by
the friction between the wheels (tyres) and the surface of the road. If the friction is inadequate, the
vehicle skid off the road. To avoid skidding, the outer edge of the road is raised above the level of
the inner edge at the curves. This is known as the banking of roads. The banking of roads avoids
skidding and reduces wear and tear of the tyres. In a banked road, the horizontal component of
normal reaction will also contribute to centripetal force in addition to frictional force.
Fig. 2.4 (a) Centripetal force for circular motion of a car in a horizontal curve
(b) Centripetal force for circular motion of a car in a banked curve
44
2.2.12 Expression for the angle of banking (θ)
The angle of banking is the angle made by the elevated path with the horizontal. Let AB and
AC represent the horizontal and banked paths respectively as shown in Fig 2.4 (b). Let θ be the
angle of banking. Consider a vehicle of mass m takes a curved path of radius r with a speed v. The
weight of the vehicle mg acts vertically downwards. The normal reaction N of the road on the
vehicle will be perpendicular to the AC. The normal reaction can be resolved into vertical and
horizontal components.
The vertical component is equal to the weight of the body.

𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
The horizontal component provides the centripetal force
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑟
Dividing the second equation by the first gives
𝑣2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑟𝑔
−1
𝑣2
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 { }
𝑟𝑔
The angle of banking depends on the radius of the curve of the road and the speed of the vehicle.
2.2.13 Banking of railway tracks

In the case of a train moving through a curved track, centripetal force is required towards the
centre of the circular track. This force is provided by the thrust exerted by the side of the outer rail
against the flange of the outer wheel. When a fast-moving train takes a curved path, it tends to
move away tangentially off the track. To avoid this, the outer rail is raised above the level of the
inner rail. This is known as the banking of railway tracks. The banking of railway tracks avoids
skidding and reduces the wear and tear of the wheels.
In the case of a curved railway track, the level of the outer rail is higher than that of the inner
one. The height of the outer rail above the inner rail in the banked rail track is called superelevation
(S). If d is the distance between the rails (the gauge of the rail) and θ be the angle of superelevation
45
𝑆
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑑
or
𝑆 = 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Since 𝜃 is usually small for banked rail

tracks, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is approximately equal to
tan𝜃
Fig. 2.5 Superelevation of rail tracks at curves
𝑆
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑑
But the equation for the angle of banking is given by
𝑣2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑟𝑔
𝑆 𝑣2
=
𝑑 𝑟𝑔
𝑣2𝑑
𝑆=
𝑟𝑔
Why does a bike rider lean inwards while negotiating a curve?
Example 2.4
A mass of 10 kg at the end of a string is being whirled in a circle of radius 2m with a constant
speed of 5 m/s. Find (1) centripetal acceleration (2) centripetal force.
46
Solution:
𝒗𝟐 𝟓𝟐
(1) Centripetal acceleration, a = = = 12.5 m/s2
𝒓 𝟐
𝑚𝑣 2 10 𝑋 52
(2) Centripetal force, F = = = 125 N
𝑟 2
Example 2.5
What is the angle of banking for a curved track of radius 100 m suitable for a maximum speed of
72 km/hr?
Solution:
Radius of the curve, r = 100 m
72 × 5
Speed, v = = 20 m/s
18
Since θ be the angle of banking
𝑣2 202
tan𝜃 = = = 0.4081
𝑟𝑔 100 × 9.8
𝑣2
𝜃 = tan-1( 𝑟𝑔) = tan-1(0.4081) = 22.20
Example 2.6
A train is moving with a speed of 36 km/hr on a curved path of radius, 100 m. If the distance
between the rails is 1.5 m, find the height of the outer rail over the inner rail.
Solution:
36 × 5
Speed of the train, v = = 10 m/s
18
Radius of the path, r =100 m
Distance between the rails, d = 1.5 m
𝑣 2𝑑 102 ×1.5
S= = = 0.153 m
𝑟𝑔 100 × 9.8
2.3 ROTATIONAL MOTION OF RIGID BODIES
A rigid body is a body that does not change its size or shape under the action of external forces.
When an external force acts on a rigid body, the distance between the two points on the body does
not change. In reality, no body is a rigid body and there will be some forces under which the body
will change its shape. For example, a bridge will not change its shape under the weight of a single
person, it might change shape under the weight of a truck, even though the change will be small.
The motion of a rigid body in which all particles of the body move in a circular path about a fixed-
47
line with common angular velocity is called rotational motion. The fixed line about which rotation
takes place is called the rotational axis. The linear velocity of each particle of the rigid body will
be different since particles are located at a different distance from the axis of rotation.
Examples: Rotation of Earth, A top spinning about its axis, Rotation of a fan

Find out three real-life examples of rotational motion.
2.3.1 Moment of inertia (Rotational inertia)
According to Newton’s first law, an object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object in motion
tends to remain in motion. Just like that, an object rotating about an axis tends to remain rotating
about the same axis while a non-rotating object tends to remain non-rotating. The property of an
object to resist any change in its state of rotational motion is called rotational inertia or moment of
inertia. When a body is rotating about a fixed axis, the opposition to its motion depends on the
mass and distribution of mass about the axis of rotation (shape of the body). The greater the
moment of inertia of the object, the harder it is to change the rotational state of that object.
The moment of inertia is the measure of an object’s resistance to change its direction of
rotation. It is a parameter of how difficult it is to change the rotational velocity of an object about
a particular rotational axis. The moment of inertia depends not only on the mass of the object but
also on how that mass is distributed relative to the rotational axis. The moment of inertia of a
system tends to be bigger if more mass is located farther away from the rotational axis. This means
that it becomes more difficult to alter the rotational velocity of a system if the object is kept far
away from the center of the axis.
2.3.2 Moment of inertia of a particle
The moment of inertia of a particle about a given axis is defined as the product of the
mass of the particle and the square of the distance of the particle from the axis.
48
Consider a particle of mass m capable of
rotation about an axis AB. Let r be the
perpendicular distance of the particle from AB.
The moment of inertia about the axis AB, I =
mr2
The SI unit of moment of inertia is kgm2. The
moment of inertia of a particle depends on
1. Mass of the particle
2. Distance of the particle from the axis of
rotation.
Fig. 2.6 Moment of inertia of a particle

Consider a ring and a circular disc of the same mass and radius rotating about an axis passing
through its centre and perpendicular to its plane. Which has more moment of inertia?
2.3.3 Moment of inertia of a rigid body
Consider a rigid body capable of rotation

about an axis AB. Let us consider particles of
masses m1, m2, m3, etc. of the body at distances
r1, r2, r3, etc. respectively from the axis AB.
The moment of inertia is the sum of the
Moment of inertia of the individual particles
of the body about the axis of rotation.
Fig. 2.7 Moment of inertia of a rigid body
49
Moment of inertia of m1 about AB = 𝑚1 𝑟1 2
…………………………………………….
Moment of inertia of mn about AB = 𝑚𝑛 𝑟𝑛 2
Therefore, the total moment of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation AB,
I = 𝑚1 𝑟1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 2 + 𝑚3 𝑟3 2 + …… + 𝑚𝑛 𝑟𝑛 2
I = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚1 𝑟12
2.3.4 Radius of gyration (K)
Consider a rigid body of mass M and moment of inertia I about the given axis as shown in the
figure. We can assume that the entire mass of the body is concentrated at a point and this point is
placed at a distance K from the axis of rotation with the condition that the moment of inertia of the
point mass will be equal to the moment of inertia of the rigid body. This imaginary distance K is
called the radius of gyration. The radius of gyration (K) is the distance from the axis of rotation to
the point at which the entire mass of the body is assumed to be concentrated so that the moment
of inertia will be equal to the moment of inertia of the actual body. The radius of gyration is of a
body about an axis of rotation represents the effective distance of the particles of the body from
the axis of rotation.
Fig. 2.8 Radius of gyration of a rigid body about the given axis
50
If M is the total mass of the body and K is the radius of gyration of the body about the axis of
rotation, then the moment of inertia is given by
I = M K2
𝐼
𝐾= √
𝑀
The SI unit of the radius of gyration is meter. The radius of gyration depends on
1. The distribution of mass from the axis of rotation.
2. The position and direction of the axis of rotation.
2.3.5 Theorems on Moment of Inertia
a) Parallel axes theorem

Parallel axes theorem states that the moment of inertia of any rigid body about a given axis is
equal to the sum of its moment of inertia about a parallel axis passing through the centre of gravity
and the product of the mass of the body and the square of the distance between the axes.
Let I be the moment of inertia of a

body about an axis AB. Let IG be the
moment of inertia about another axis CD
which is parallel to AB and passing
through the centre of gravity G of the
body. Let M be the mass and a be the
distance between the two axes. Then
according to the parallel axes theorem,
I = IG + Ma2
Fig. 2.9 Parallel axes theorem for a rigid body
51
b) Perpendicular axes theorem
Perpendicular axes theorem states that the sum of the moments of inertia of a plane lamina
about two mutually perpendicular axes in its plane is equal to its moment of inertia about a
perpendicular axis passing through the point of intersection of the first two axes.
Let OX and OY be two mutually
perpendicular axes in the plane of the
lamina intersecting each other at point O.
The axis OZ is perpendicular to both OX
and OY. If IX, IY, and IZ are the moment of
inertia about the axes OX, OY, and OZ
respectively, then by perpendicular axes
theorem
IX + IY = IZ
Fig. 2.10 Parallel axes theorem for a plane lamina
2.3.6 Moment of inertia of continuous mass distributions
If the body is continuous, its moment of inertia about a given axis can be obtained using the
technique of integration. Consider a small element of the body of mass dm at perpendicular
distance r from the axis of rotation.
The moment of inertia of the element
about the given axis is
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑚
The moment of inertia of the rigid
body about the given axis is obtained
by integrating the above equation over
appropriate limits to cover the whole
body. Thus,
Fig. 2.11 Moment of inertia of a continuous body
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑚
52
Fig. 2.12 Moment of inertia of (a) a thin road (b) a ring (c) a circular disc
(d) solid sphere and (e) hollow sphere about the given axis
a) Moment of inertia of a thin uniform rod, about an axis through its centre and
perpendicular to its length.
Consider a thin uniform rod of length l and mass M as shown in Fig. 2.12 (a). Its moment of
inertia about an axis through its centre and perpendicular to its length is given by
1
𝐼= 𝑀𝑙 2
12
b) Moment of inertia of a ring, about an axis through the centre and perpendicular to its
plane.
Consider a circular ring of radius R and mass M as shown in Fig. 2.12 (b). Its moment of inertia
about an axis through the centre and perpendicular to its plane is given by
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅 2
53
c) Moment of inertia of a thin uniform circular disc, about an axis through the centre and
perpendicular to its plane.
Consider a uniform circular disc of radius R and mass M as shown in Fig. 2.12 (c). Its moment
of inertia about an axis through the centre and perpendicular to its plane is given by
1
𝐼= 𝑀𝑅 2
2
d) Moment of inertia of a solid sphere, about any diameter.
Consider a solid sphere of radius R and mass M as shown in Fig. 2.12 (d). Its moment of inertia
about any diameter is given by
2
𝐼= 𝑀𝑅 2
5
e) Moment of inertia of a hollow sphere, about any diameter.
Consider a hollow sphere of radius R and mass M. Its moment of inertia about any diameter is
given by
2
𝐼= 𝑀𝑅 2
3

We know that the moment of inertia of a circular disc about a perpendicular axis through its
1
centre is 2 𝑀𝑅 2 where M is mass and R is the radius of the disc. Find out the moment of inertia
of the disc (i) about a diameter of the disc and (ii) about a tangent in the plane of the disc by
applying parallel axes theorem or perpendicular axes theorem.
2.3.7 Torque (τ)
Hold a meter scale horizontally in your hand.

Hang a weight on the scale. Slide the weight to the
other end. Your hand will experience a twist. Farther
the weight from the hand larger the twist
experienced. The twist experienced on the hand is
Fig. 2.13 Weight hanging on a scale
known as torque.
54
Anyone who has ever opened a door has an understanding of torque. We know that door opens
slowly if we push too close to its hinges. We can easily open a door if force is applied at a point
that is farthest from the hinges. Furthermore, we know that the more massive the door, the more
slowly it opens.
In the case of linear motion, force is required to produce linear acceleration to a body. Similarly
in rotational motion torque is required to produce angular acceleration. Force tends to change the
motion of things. Torque tends to twist or change the state of rotation of things. Force should be
applied to move a stationary object while torque is applied to rotate a stationary object. Hence,
torque is the rotating effect of the force on a body.
Consider a rigid body that is free to rotate

about an axis. A force is applied to the rigid
body at a perpendicular distance r from the axis
of rotation as shown in the figure. The rotating
effect of force on the rigid body about the axis
of rotation depends on the magnitude of the
force applied and the perpendicular distance of
the point of application of the force from the
axis of rotation.
Torque is defined as the product of the
force and the perpendicular distance between
the line of action of the force and the axis of Fig. 2.14 Torque acting on a rigid body
rotation.
𝜏 = 𝐹𝑟
The SI unit of torque is newton meter (Nm).
Torque also depends on the angle between the force and the line joining the point of application
of the force and the axis of rotation. If the angle between r and F is θ, the perpendicular distance
between the line of action of the force and axis of rotation becomes 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Therefore,
𝜏 = 𝐹𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
The torque is maximum when θ = 90o or 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1 and 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐹𝑟.
Torque is minimum when θ = 0o or 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0 and 𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.
55
Torque is the rotational equivalent of force. We can relate the torque on a rigid body to the
angular acceleration.
𝜏 = 𝐹𝑟
From Newton’s second law of motion,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
∴ 𝜏 = 𝑚𝑎𝑟
The relation between linear acceleration and angular acceleration is given by
𝑎 = 𝑟𝛼
∴ 𝜏 = 𝑚 𝑟𝛼𝑟
𝜏 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝛼
Since the moment of inertia, 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼

Evaluate the statement and give an explanation based on the concept of torque
1. If the force is applied parallel to the surface of the door, it will not open.
2. If the force is applied perpendicular to the plane of the door it will open.
3. To unscrew a nut using a spanner, the force is applied at the other end of the
spanner.
4. A wheel capable of rotation about its axis can rotate easily if a force is applied at
the rim rather than at a point near the axis of rotation.
2.3.8 Angular momentum(L)

The angular momentum of a
rotating body is the product of the moment
of inertia about the axis of rotation and the
angular velocity.
𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔
Fig. 2.15 Angular momentum of a rigid body
56
The angular momentum of a rotating body plays the same role as the momentum in linear
motion. The SI unit of angular momentum is Js or kg m2 s-1
2.3.9 Conservation of angular momentum
The principle of conservation of angular momentum states that, if no external torque acts on
a system, the total angular momentum of the system remains constant. The angular momentum of
the system will be conserved if the net external torque on the system is zero. If I be the moment
of inertia of a body about a given axis of rotation and ω be its angular velocity, then L = I ω =
constant.
Fig. 2.16 Man holding weights standing on a turntable
When a man with outstretched arms and holding weights in each hand, stands on a turntable that is
revolving, he has certain angular momentum. If he pulls the weights towards his body, suddenly the
angular velocity increases. This happens because when he pulls the weight inwards, the moment of
inertia of the man decreases.
Conservation of angular momentum demands that the decrease in moment of inertia must be
accompanied by an increase in angular velocity so that the angular momentum remains constant. For a
rigid body, the moment of inertia and angular velocity remains constant during the motion. If the
moment of inertia changes from I1 to I2, then in the absence of external torque, the angular velocity of
the body changes from ω1 to ω2. This can be mathematically written as I1ω1 = I2ω2, if τ = 0.
57
1. If the ice on the polar caps of the earth melts, how will it affect the duration of the day?
2. If the earth were suddenly shrunk to half of its radius, what happens to the duration of the
day?
3. When a diver jumps into water from a height, he does not keep his body straight but pulls
in his arms and legs towards the centre of the body. Why?
Table 2.2 Comparison between linear motion and rotational motion
Linear motion Rotational motion

Linear displacement (s) Angular displacement (θ)
Linear velocity (v) Angular velocity (ω)
Linear acceleration (a) Angular acceleration(α)
Mass (m) Moment of inertia (I) [I = mr2]
Linear momentum (p) [p = mv] Angular momentum (L) [ L = I ω]
Force (F) [F = ma] Torque (τ) [ τ = Iα]
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the angular velocity of the second hand of a watch. [0.104 rad/s]
2. A stone of mass 5 kg is tied to a string 2 m long and whirled in a horizontal circle making
60 revolutions per minute. Find the tension in the string. [ Ans: 394.3 N]
3. To what angle must a circular track of radius of curvature 250m be banked to be suitable
for a maximum speed of 90 km/hr. [ Ans:14.30o]
4. A car is racing on a circular track of 100 m radius and banking angle 300. To avoid
skidding, what should be the speed of the car? [ Ans: 23.77 m/s]
58
5. Find the centripetal force required to revolve a body of mass 4.9 kg along a circular path
of radius 1 m and making 300 revolutions per minute. [ Ans: 4831.2 N]
6. A train is moving with a speed of 36 km/hr on a curved path of radius, 200 m.
If the distance between the rails is 1.5 m, find the height of the outer rail over the inner
rail. [Ans: 0.076 m]
QUESTIONS
1. A bar that has weights attached to its ends is more difficult to rotate than one with weights
attached close to the centre of the bar. Why?
2. Why do tightrope walkers carry a long pole?
3. Door handles are usually fitted at the edge of the plank of the door. Why?
4. Given a hard-boiled egg and a raw egg, how will you differentiate between them by
spinning on a tabletop?
5. Explain the term banking of roads. Derive an expression for the angle of banking.
6. Define the moment of inertia of a body.
7. State and explain parallel axes theorem.
8. A solid cylinder and hollow cylinder having the same mass and the same diameter are
released simultaneously from the top of an inclined plane. Which will reach the bottom
first? Explain.
9. What furnishes the required centripetal force in each of the following:
a) the earth revolving around the sun
b) a car negotiating a curve
c) an electron revolving around the nucleus.
10. Derive the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity of a body moving
in a circular path.
11. Define the term torque.
12. State the law of conservation of angular momentum.
59
CHAPTER 3
WORK, ENERGY, AND POWER
3.1 WORK
In everyday life, any physical or mental activity may be regarded as ’work’. For example, a
teacher taking a class is doing work or students learning while sitting on the benches are doing
work. However, all such activities do not fall under the category of work. In Physics, work is said
to be done only when the applied force causes some displacement of a body in its direction.
Consider a body of mass M1 pushed from position A to position B through a distance x.

Let a force F is required to move the body M1 through distance x, and work done by the force
is taken as W.
Now imagine another body of mass M2, which is heavier than M1, pushed from position
A to B.
1. Evaluate the following statements:

a) The force required to move M2 through a distance x is F
b) Work required to move M2 through a distance x is W
2. What about force and work if M1 moved from A to C through a distance of 2x?
60
3.1.1 Work in Physics
We can say that the work done by a body depends upon the force applied as well as the
displacement of a body. Force applied on the body increases; the work done also increases. If a
constant force is applied to a body in different directions, the work done depends on the
displacement of the body in the direction of the force. Hence, Work in Physics is defined as the
product of force and displacement in the direction of the force. If F is the applied force, S is the
displacement in the direction of applied force, and work done W is given by
Work done = Force x Displacement in the direction of force
𝑊=𝐹𝑆
Work is a scalar quantity. In the SI system, the unit of work is Nm or joule (J). One joule defined
as the amount of work done by a force 1 N on body to displace it through 1 m in the direction of
the force.
1 J = 1 N x 1 m = 1 kg m/s2 x 1 m = 1 kgm2s-2

If you push a wall, it does not displace from its position whereas if you push a table, it gets
displaced. If the force applied in both cases is the same, find out the difference between the two
cases in the context of work done.
3.1.2 Types of work
a) Positive work
The work done on an object is said to be positive work when force and displacement are in
the same direction. Work done by the gravitational force on a freely falling body is an example of
positive work.
b) Negative work
The work done is said to be negative work when force and displacement are in opposite
directions. When a body is thrown upwards, the work done by the gravitational force and
displacement are opposite and hence, it is an example of negative work.
61
c) Zero work
The work done is said to be zero when force and displacement are perpendicular to each
other or when either force or displacement is zero. Work done by gravity when a person walks
horizontally with some load on his head is an example of zero work.

Find out more examples of positive, negative, and zero work.
3.2 ENERGY
All living beings perform certain basic activities in order to survive. For performing these
activities, they need energy, which comes from the food which they consume. The word energy is
commonly used in our daily life. Science has given it a definite and precise meaning. Let us
consider few examples:
1. When a raised hammer hits a nail placed on a piece of wood, it drives the nail into the wood.
2. When the striker hits the stationary carom coin, it sets the carom coin into motion.
In the above examples, a hammer or striker has the capacity to do work on another object.
The object which does work loses energy. At the same time, the object on which work is done
gains energy. The capacity (or ability) of a body to do work is called energy. Energy and work
are equivalent concepts. The SI unit of energy is also joule (J).
3.2.1 Types of Energy
Energy can exist in many forms, but it can be broadly classified into two categories – kinetic
energy and potential energy.
a) Kinetic Energy
The energy possessed by a body due to its motion is called kinetic energy. A moving vehicle,
Earth revolving around the sun, and molecules moving in space all have kinetic energy. The kinetic
62
energy of a moving object is directly proportional to the mass of the object and the square of its
velocity. If m is the mass of the body and v is its velocity, then kinetic energy is given by
1
𝐾= 𝑚𝑣 2
2
b) Potential Energy
The energy possessed by a body by its position or configuration is called potential energy.
For example, if we carry a brick to the top of the building, we do some amount of work against the
force of gravity. The amount of energy is stored in the brick, in the form of potential energy.
Consider a bow and arrow. Pull the string along with the arrow in the backward direction by
applying force. In doing so you change the configuration (shape) of the bow. The energy is used
up in changing the shape of the bow and it is stored in the bow in the form of potential energy.
Water stored in a tank, a stretched rubber chord, etc. have potential energy.
The potential energy of a body depends on the type of force acting on the body. Consider a mass
m held at a height h above ground level in the gravitational field of Earth. If g is the acceleration
due to gravity on the surface of the Earth, the potential energy of the body is given by
𝑉 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
In the cases of other forces like electric forces or magnetic forces, potential energy is defined
in terms of work done on the object. Work done on a body is usually stored as potential energy. If
a body is raised against gravitational force, a certain amount of work is required and it will be
stored in the body as potential energy. When the body is released, the potential energy is converted
into kinetic energy. In a way, the total amount of work done by a body is numerically equal to its
energy. If 100 J of work is done in raising a body above the ground level, the energy of the body
is 100 J.
3.2.2 Different Forms of Energy

Two basic types of energy namely kinetic energy and potential energy are sufficient to
describe all forms of energy. But it is convenient to refer to a particular combination of kinetic
energy and potential energy as its form. The major forms of energy include mechanical energy,
heat energy, light energy, sound energy electrical energy, magnetic energy, chemical energy, and
nuclear energy.
63
a) Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy is the energy of a system due to its motion, position, or configuration. It is
the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of a system. A system can do work by utilizing its
mechanical energy. For example, machines use mechanical energy to do work.
b) Heat Energy
An object possesses heat energy (thermal energy) due to the motion of molecules in it. The
energy released when we burn wood, coal, oil, or gas is called heat energy. Steam possesses heat
energy which is capable of doing work. If you cook food in a pressure cooker by placing it over a
gas stove, the heat energy changes water into steam. The steam lifts the weight on the top of the
lid and whistles. This lifting of weight suggests that heat is a form of energy that is capable of
doing work. In 1765, James Watt, a young scientist, noted this phenomenon which led to the
invention of the steam engine in which heat energy was used to do work.
In thermal power stations, it is the heat energy of burning coal that is used to generate
steam. The steam, in turn, runs the turbines of the generator and produces electric energy. All
automobiles use heat energy by burning petrol, diesel, or CNG for doing work. The food which
we consume burns slowly in our cells to produce heat energy.
c) Light energy
Light energy is a form of electromagnetic radiation. When an excited electron in an atom

or a molecule undergoes a transition from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, the
difference in energy between the levels is sometimes emitted in the form of light. Light travels as
waves and it is capable of travelling through vacuum. The plants absorb light energy and convert
it into chemical energy (food) through a process called photosynthesis.
d) Sound energy
Sound energy is produced when an object vibrates. A sound wave needs a medium to travel
through such as air, water, wood, or metal. When sound waves fall on the ear membrane, they
make it vibrate and we can hear the sound. When a supersonic plane breaks the sound barrier
(speed of sound in air), the sound waves produced by it, shake the buildings. Similarly, the thunder
of the cloud also shakes buildings. This shows that sound energy can also do work.
64
e) Electrical energy
The energy produced by the movement of electrons is called electric energy. When electric
energy passed through an electric motor, it sets its axle in a circular motion. This circular motion
is utilized in running ceiling fans, juicers, grinders, etc. It is used for running electric moped,
vehicles. It is used in factories for running heavy machines. It is also used in heating devices such
as heaters, geysers, electric stoves, etc. It is also used in lighting bulbs.
f) Magnetic energy
Magnetism is described by magnetic fields which are produced either by magnetic
materials (permanent magnets) or by electric currents. Energy stored in a magnetic field is called
magnetic energy. A magnet is capable of causing motion in magnetic substances. Iron cobalt,
nickel are examples of magnetic substances. Magnetic energy is used in electromagnets, electric
motors, electric generators, microphones, television tubes, telephones, etc. The cranes which lift
heavy loads of iron or separate iron scrap from waste materials use electromagnets.
g) Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is defined as the energy stored in the bonds between atoms or molecules
in a compound. When this compound undergoes a chemical reaction, the chemical energy stored
in the bonds will be released in the form of heat. The energy possessed by the fuels like coal, oil,
gas, etc. is chemical energy. The chemical energy of diesel, petrol, or CNG is capable of moving
vehicles. The food that we consume, possesses chemical energy which is utilized by our body to
do work.
h) Nuclear energy
The binding energy of nucleons (neutrons and protons) in the nucleus is called nuclear
energy. The nucleus in an atom has an enormous amount of energy which holds the proton and
neutrons together. When a heavy nucleus splits into light nuclei or two light nuclei combine to
form one nucleus, it releases energy. Nuclear fission or fusion releases nuclear energy in the form
of heat and light energy. In nuclear power stations, nuclear energy is used to generate electric
energy. In the case of an atom bomb or hydrogen bomb, nuclear energy is used for destructive
purposes.
65
3.2.3 Solar Energy
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun. Solar energy is created by nuclear
fusion that takes place in the sun. The primary source of all kinds of energy on Earth is solar
energy. Solar energy provides wind energy, tidal energy, and energy of sea waves. Solar energy
causes the evaporation of water, which in turn leads to the water cycle. The phenomenon of
photosynthesis is not possible without solar energy. It is necessary for life on Earth and can be
harvested for human use in many ways. Solar cells absorb sunlight and convert solar energy into
electrical energy. Solar cooker, Solar water heater, etc. utilizes heat energy present in the solar
radiation.
3.2.4 Transformation of Energy
Energy transformation is the process of converting one form of energy into another form.
There are various types of energy all around us and these energy sources can be converted from
one form to another as explained below:
• Conversion of Potential energy into kinetic energy and vice versa

• Conversion of Light energy into heat energy.
• Conversion of Electrical energy into mechanical energy, light energy, heat energy, etc.
• Conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.
• Conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy, sound energy, etc.
• Conversion of Nuclear energy into light energy and heat energy.
• Conversion of Solar energy into heat energy, chemical energy, and electrical energy.
Some examples of energy transformation are given below:
a) When hands are rubbed, the mechanical energy is converted into heat energy.
b) When we wind a watch, the mechanical energy of the hand changes into the potential
energy of spring and which in turn changes to kinetic energy and drives the hands of
the clock.
c) The potential energy of water in hydel dams is ultimately converted into electrical
energy.
66
d) When a torch is switched on, the chemical energy of the cells changes into electrical
energy.
e) In thermal power stations, the chemical energy changes into electric energy.
f) In lighting devices, such as filament bulbs, CFL, the electric energy is converted into
light energy.
g) When varying electric impulses are passed through the speaker of the audio system, it
changes into sound energy.
h) During the charging of lead-acid batteries, the electric energy is converted into
chemical energy.
i) During the oscillations of a simple pendulum, potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy and vice versa.
j) When a laser beam is used to cut metal, light energy is converted into heat energy

i. Find more examples of conversion of mechanical energy into heat energy.
ii. Find more examples of conversion of mechanical energy into sound energy.
iii. Explain all the forms of energy conversion when we stretch an ‘arrow’.
iv. Write the possible energy transformations in the hydroelectric project.
v. Is there any heat generation, when chemical energy is converted into electric
energy? Give example.
vi. Find an example for the conversion of electric energy into magnetic energy.
vii. Write the energy conversion in photovoltaic cells.
viii. Is it possible to convert sound energy into electric energy?
ix. Give an example of the conversion of chemical energy into mechanical energy.
x. What energy transformation happens in photosynthesis
xi. Can you explain what kind of energy is available in fossil fuels and biogas?
67
3.2.5 Law Conservation of Energy
The Law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed, but can be converted from one form to another. In other words, the total energy of an
isolated system remains constant. A simple example involves a stationary car at the top of a hill.
As the car moves down the hill, it moves faster and so its kinetic energy increases and its potential
energy decreases. On the way back up the hill, the car converts kinetic energy to potential energy.
In the absence of friction, the car should end up at the same height as it started. Hence the total
energy which is the sum of kinetic energy
and potential energy remains constant.
Now, we are going to prove the law of
conservation of energy in the case of a
freely falling body.
Consider a body of mass m, initially

placed at height h above the ground level as
shown in Fig. 3.1. Let the body is allowed
to fall freely from its initial position A. In
the case of a freely falling body, the total
energy is the sum of its kinetic energy and
potential energy. As the body moves under
gravity, its velocity and hence, kinetic
energy increases. But at the same time, the
Fig. 3.1 Total energy of a body freely falling
height of the body from the ground
from a height above the ground level
decreases, and hence, the potential energy
decreases.
At Point A
Velocity at point A, 𝑣𝐴 = 0
1
Kinetic energy at point A, 𝐾𝐴 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝐴 2 = 0
The potential energy at point A, 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

Total energy at point A, 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾𝐴 + 𝑉𝐴
68
𝐸𝐴 = 0 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑔ℎ ------------ (1)
At Point B
Let B be a point at a distance x from point A. The velocity at point B, 𝑣𝐵 can be

calculated using the equation, 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠.
𝑣 = 𝑣𝐵 ; 𝑢 = 𝑣𝐴 = 0; 𝑎 = 𝑔; 𝑠 = 𝑥;
𝑣𝐵 2 = 2𝑔𝑥
1 1
Kinetic energy at point B, 𝐾𝐵 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝐵 2 = 𝑚 × 2𝑔𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥
2
The potential energy at point B, 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ − 𝑥)

Total energy at point B, 𝐸𝐵 = 𝐾𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵
𝐸𝐵 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥 + 𝑚𝑔(ℎ − 𝑥) = 𝑚𝑔ℎ ---------- (2)
At point C
Let C be a point on the ground. The velocity at point C, 𝑣𝐶 can be calculated using the
equation, 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠.
𝑣 = 𝑣𝐶 ; 𝑢 = 𝑣𝐴 = 0; 𝑎 = 𝑔; 𝑠 = ℎ;
𝑣𝐶 2 = 2𝑔ℎ
1 1
Kinetic energy at point C, 𝐾𝐶 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝐶 2 = 𝑚 × 2𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2
The potential energy at point C, 𝑉𝐶 = 0

Total energy at point C, 𝐸𝐶 = 𝐾𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶
𝐸𝐶 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 0 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ ---------- (3)
It is clear from equations (1), (2), and (3) that 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝐵 = 𝐸𝐶 . Hence total energy of the
freely falling body remains constant at every point on its path.

Imagine two pumps (motor) with power 1 HP and 2 HP and two tanks with the same volume
situated at the same height. Each motor pumps the tanks simultaneously. What do you
observe? Give reason. What is your inference? Can you define power?
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3.3 POWER
The word "power" is often used to describe someone in authority like a king or a dictator.
It's also used to describe someone or something very strong. We sometimes refer to electricity as
power in our daily life. We might also talk about the power of water pumps, vehicles, electrical
appliances, etc.
Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. In other words, power is the work done
in unit time. If W is the work done in a time t, the average power is given by
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑊
𝑃=
𝑡
But work done is defined as the product of force and displacement.
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑆
𝐹𝑆
∴ 𝑃=
𝑡
But the velocity of the body is given by
𝑆
𝑣=
𝑡
∴ 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Power can also be defined as the energy converted or transferred in unit time.
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Power is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of power is joule/second or watt (W).
1 watt = 1 joule/second.
Other commonly used units are
1 kilowatt (kW) = 103 watt
1 megawatt (MW) = 106 watt
1 Horsepower (hp) = 746 watt
The energy consumption of electrical devices is expressed in kilowatt-hour (kWh). Kilo
watt-hour is not the unit of power, but it is a practical unit of electrical energy.
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Example 3.1
Calculate the work done in lifting a mass 5 Kg vertically through 8m.

Solution:
Given m = 5 Kg, h = 8 m
Work, 𝑊 = force × vertical displacement = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 5 × 9.8 × 8 = 392 J
Example 3.2
A body of mass 5 kg initially at rest is subjected to a force of 20 N. What is the kinetic energy
acquired by the body at the end of 10 s?
Solution:
Given, m = 5 kg, F = 20 N, t = 10 s, u = 0
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 20
𝑎= = = 4 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
𝑚 5
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 = 0 + 4 × 10 = 40 𝑚⁄𝑠
1 1
𝐾= 𝑚𝑣 2 = × 5 × 402 = 4000 J
2 2
Example 3.3
A work 900 J is done when a force of 30 N is applied to a body. Calculate the distance through
which the body moves.
Solution:
Work done (W) = 900 J
Force (F) = 30 N
𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑆
𝑊 900
Distance covered, 𝑆 = = = 30 𝑚
𝐹 30
Example 3.4
The momentum of a body of mass 10 kg is 30 SI units. Calculate its kinetic energy.

Solution:
Momentum, p = mv = 30 kg m/s.
Mass m = 10 kg
Velocity = p/m = 3 m/s
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Kinetic energy K = ½ mv 2 = ½ x 10 x 32 = 45 J
The relation E = p2/ 2m can also be used to get the result.
Example 3.5
An engine develops 10 kW of power. How much time will it take to lift a mass of 200 kg to a
height of 40 m?
Solution:
Force acting on a body of mass 200 kg, F = mg = 200 x 9.8 = 1960 N
Work done W = F.S = 1960 x 40 = 78400 J
Power = 10 kW = 10000 W.
Power = work/time
Time taken = work/power = 78400/10000 = 7.84 s
Example 3.6
An electric motor raises 200 kg of water to a tank at a height 30 m above ground level in a time of
3 minutes. If the efficiency of the pump is 87 %, what is the power of the motor (designed by the
company/ manufacturer)?
Solution:
Output energy of the pump = mgh = 200 x 9.8 x 30 = 58,800 J
Time = 3 min = 3 x 60 = 180 s
Output power of the pump = energy /time = 58800/180 = 326.67 W
Efficiency = output power /input power = 87 % = 87/100 = 0.87
Input power = output power /0.87 = 326.67/0.87 = 375.48 W
Power of the motor = 375.48 W
Example 3.7
A cricket ball of mass 0.3 kg is thrown vertically up with a velocity of 14.7 𝑚⁄𝑠. Calculate the
K.E and P.E of the ball after one second.
Solution:
Mass of the ball m = 0.3 kg
Initial velocity u = 14.7 m/s
a = g = 9.8 m/s2; t = 1 s
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The velocity after 1 s, v = u +at = 14.7-9.8 x 1= 4.9 m/s
1 1
K.E after 1 s is K = mv 2 = 2 x 0.3 x (4.9) 2 = 3.6 J
2
Vertical displacement of the ball after 1 second is

1 1
h = ut- 2 gt 2 = 14.7 x 1- 9.8 x 1 = 9.8 m
2
P.E after 1 s = mgh = 0.3 x 9.8 x 9.8 = 28.81 J
Example 3.8
An elephant lifts a body of mass 1000 kg through a vertical height of 3 m in 10 s. What is power?
Solution:
Work done = mgh= 1000 x 9.8 x 3 =29400 J
Power = work /time = 2940 W

Learn the problem given in example 3.6 and evaluate the following
i. 375.48 W motor pumps only 200 kg of water in 3 minutes and shows output power
of 326.67 W. If the motor has an efficiency of 100% what would be the input power?
ii. Power of a motor pump is commonly expressed in horse power (hp). Convert the
power of the motor obtained in watts into horse power.
iii. Why the motor has an efficiency of 87% instead of 100 %.
iv. List the factors which reduce the efficiency of a motor.
v. If the motor has 100 % efficiency, calculate the pumping rate.
vi. If the efficiency of a motor is 60%, 70%, etc. comment your observations.
vii. How much time will be taken by a half hp motor to pump water into a 100-litre tank
placed at a height of 10 m? The efficiency of the motor is 50%.
3.4 FRICTION
It is a common experience that, a rolling ball comes to rest after moving a finite distance.
It is clear that in order to stop a body, an external force is required. Did you think about the external
force? The opposing force for the movement of the ball is supplied by the surface and is called
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frictional force. Ordinarily, when one body slides over another, there is some opposition to the
relative motion. This is referred to as friction. Friction is a force between solid surfaces in contact.
Friction is tangential to the surface and points opposite to the direction of motion (or intended
motion). The property by which an opposing force is generated between two surfaces in contact
with bodies in relative motion is called friction.
3.4.1 Causes of friction
Friction is a force which resists motion of an object when in contact with another object.
This resistive force is caused by the surface roughness of the contact area of the materials,
molecular attraction or adhesion between materials, and deformations in the materials. Most
friction results because the surfaces of materials being rubbed together are not completely smooth.
If you looked at what seems to be a smooth surface under a powerful microscope, you would see
bumps, hills, and valleys that could interfere with a sliding motion.
The friction appears because of the interaction between the charged particles of the two
bodies near the surfaces of contact. Molecular attraction or adhesion between the material surfaces
leading to a resistive force between surfaces in relative motion. When two bodies come into
contact, due to the irregularities of the surfaces, the area of contact is less than the actual area of
the surfaces. This causes very high pressure at the point of contact. The high pressure causes
deformation of the surface of the material and eventually increases the resistance to motion.
3.4.2 Types of friction

Friction is generally classified into two main categories namely static friction and kinetic
friction.
a) Static friction
The frictional force comes into play when one body tends to move over the surface of
another, but the actual motion that has yet not started is called static friction. For example,
suppose you are trying to push a heavy almirah on the floor to take it out of a room. It does not
slide until the force applied is greater than a minimum value. As long as almirah is at rest, the force
of static friction (fs) is equal and opposite to the applied force (f). As the applied force increases,
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the force of static friction also increases. This means that the magnitude of static friction adjusts
its value according to the applied force. Thus, static friction is a self-adjustable force.
However, the frictional force
cannot go beyond a maximum value.
When the applied force exceeds this
value, the body starts moving over the
surface. The maximum value of static
friction before the body starts moving
over a surface is called limiting friction.
The limiting friction, 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 is directly
proportional to the normal force
Fig. 3.2 Friction opposes the relative motion
between the two bodies.
between the sliding body and the surface
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ 𝑁
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
The constant of proportionality 𝜇𝑠 is called the coefficient of static friction and its value depends
on the material and nature of the two surfaces in contact. The static friction 𝑓𝑠 is always less than
or equal to the limiting friction 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
𝑓𝑠 ≤ 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
b) Kinetic or dynamic friction
Kinetic or dynamic friction is the opposing force that comes into play when one body is
moving over the surface of another body. The magnitude of kinetic friction, 𝑓𝑘 is directly
proportional to the normal force acting between the two bodies.
𝑓𝑘 ∝ 𝑁
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁
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The constant of proportionality 𝜇𝑘 is called the coefficient of kinetic friction and its value
also depends on the material and nature of the two surfaces in contact. If the surfaces are smooth
𝜇𝑘 will be small and if surfaces are rough 𝜇𝑘 will be large.
Kinetic friction is classified into two types – sliding friction and rolling friction.
a) Sliding friction: The frictional force that comes into play when one body is actually
sliding over the surface of the other body is called sliding friction.
b) Rolling friction: The frictional force that plays when one body is actually rolling over
the surface of the other body is called rolling friction. Rolling friction is less than
sliding friction.
3.4.3 Laws of friction

Experimental observations regarding the nature of the force of friction between the surfaces
can be summarized into a small number of laws called laws of friction.
1. The Force of friction depends on the nature of surfaces in contact.

2. Friction is independent of the area of contact as long as the normal force is the same.
3. The maximum force of static friction is directly proportional to the normal force acting
between the two bodies in contact.
4. Kinetic friction is directly proportional to the normal force acting between the two bodies
in relative motion.
5. The direction of kinetic friction on a body is opposite to the velocity of the body.
6. The magnitude of kinetic friction is independent of the velocity of motion of the body.
7. The coefficient of kinetic friction is always less than the coefficient of static friction for
the same pair of surfaces.
3.4.4 Advantages of friction

i. It is the friction between the ground and the feet that help us to walk
ii. It helps us to hold things.
iii. The friction between tyres and the road helps us to stop the vehicle when the brake is
applied.
iv. Nails and screws join two surfaces due to the force of friction.
v. Without friction, it is impossible to climb a tree or fix a nail on the wall.
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3.4.5 Disadvantages of friction
i. Friction slows down the motion of moving objects.
ii. Friction produces unnecessary heat leading to the wastage of energy.
iii. It decreases the efficiency of the machines.
iv. It causes wear and tear for the moving parts of the machines.
v. Friction sometimes creates fire accidents like forest fires
3.4.6 Methods to reduce friction

Friction is a necessary evil. Friction is useful while we walk, write, play, run, etc., but it
can also be harmful to us like fire accidents, wear, and tear. It is sometimes necessary to reduce
friction to avoid the wear and tear of machines. Let us discuss some methods to reduce friction.
a) Lubrication
When the gap between two surfaces is filled with oil or grease, irregularities become filled
with this and the friction reduces. This process is called lubrication and the substance used for this
are called lubricants. The lubricants are selected based on the nature of the machines. A modern
lubricant is a mixture of mineral oil, vegetable oil, and colloidal thin oil. For light machinery, oils
are used while for heavy machines grease is used. For light machinery like watches, sewing
machines, etc., thin oil is used. In very heavy machinery, solid lubricants like graphite are used.
b) Polishing of rough surfaces
A hard substance is used to grind and remove the irregularity on the soft surface. Examples
including polishing of wooden surfaces, tiles, marbles, etc. Sandpaper is also used for polishing to
a fine level. Harsh chemical treatments are sometimes done to reduce irregularities on surfaces.
When the surface becomes smooth, the contact pressure decreases, and hence friction reduces.
c) Use of ball bearings in moving parts

From our experience, we know that it is easier to role a body than to slide it along the
ground. This is the principle in which ball bearings work. Hard steel balls place between the
moving parts like coaxial cylinders. The balls rotate as the cylinders turn relative to each other.
This considerably reduces friction.
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3.5 HEAT

i. Dip your hand in some cold water and hot water. What do you feel?
ii. We use the words like very cold, warm, very warm, burning hot, etc. in daily life. Did you
think about how do you feel, the body is cold, hot warm, etc.
iii. What is the direction of heat flow, if we touch a hot body? Justify your answer.
iv. Is possible to transfer heat from a cold body to a hot body?
When we rub our hands for some time, they become warm. When a block slides over a
rough surface, it becomes warm. Where does the mechanical energy go? It goes into the internal
energy of the body. The internal energy of a body is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy
of constituent atoms or molecules. A cold body absorbs energy to become hot. A hot body has
more internal energy than the otherwise identical cold body.
When a hot body is kept in contact with a cold body, the cold body warms up and the hot
body cools down. Energy is transferred from the hot body to the cold body when they are placed
in contact. This transfer of energy is a non-mechanical process. The energy transferred from one
body to another without any mechanical work involved is called heat. If no transfer of heat takes
place between two bodies in contact, then they are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
Heat is an invisible energy that causes the sensation of hotness or coldness. An object will
appear cold only if the heat from our body flows into it. In the CGS system, the unit of heat is
calorie. The SI unit of heat is Joule. One calorie is equal to 4.2 J. The effects of heat energy are:
a) Heat energy brings about change in temperature
b) Heat energy brings about change in dimension.
c) Heat energy brings about change in the state.
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3.5.1 What is Temperature?
The temperature of a substance is the degree of hotness or coldness on some chosen scale.
Heat energy and temperature are different. When heat energy is given to a substance its
temperature may increase and when heat energy is taken from the substance its temperature may
fall. All bodies in thermal equilibrium are assigned the same temperature. A hotter body is assigned
a higher temperature than a colder body. Thus, the temperature of two bodies decides the direction
of heat flow when two bodies are put in contact. Heat flows from the body at a higher temperature
to a body at a lower temperature.

1. Prepare a chart showing examples for the effects of heat energy
2. Do you think that heat energy brings about chemical change? Write a brief note on
it.
3. The sun is a source of heat energy. Find out the other sources of heat energy.
3.5.2 Temperature scales
A temperature scale is a way to indicate or measure temperature relative to a starting point

and a unit of measurement. The temperature scale chosen must be precise, consistent, and accurate.
All temperature scales make use of some physical property that changes with temperature. The
major temperature scales used are the Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin scales. Most temperature
scales have two fixed points: lower fixed point and upper fixed point.
a) Celsius Scale
Celsius or centigrade scale is a temperature scale based on the freezing point of water and
the boiling point of water. The temperature corresponding to the freezing point of water is taken
as the lower fixed point and it is taken as 0 0C. The boiling point of water is taken as upper fixed
pint and is given a value of 100 0C. The interval between these two temperatures is divided into
100 equal parts and one division is called one degree Celsius (1 0C).
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b) Fahrenheit scale
In the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is taken as 32 0F, and the boiling point
of water is 212 0F. The interval is divided into 180 equal parts. Each division is called one degree
Fahrenheit (10 F).
c) Kelvin scale
Kelvin scale is a temperature scale based on absolute zero of temperature. Absolute zero,
or 0 K, is the lowest possible temperature for any substance and it corresponds to a temperature of
−273.15° on the Celsius scale. In the Kelvin scale, the freezing point of water is taken as 273 K
and the boiling point of water is 373 K. Magnitude of a degree in the Kelvin scale and Celsius
scale are equal. Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature.
Fig. 3.3 Comparison of Celsius scale, Fahrenheit scale and Kelvin scale
80
3.5.3 Conversion between temperature scales
The relation connecting Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin scales is given by the following
formula where C stands for temperature in Celsius, F stands for temperature in Fahrenheit and K
stands for temperature in Kelvin scale.
𝐶−0 𝐹 − 32 𝐾 − 273
= =
100 180 100
𝐶 𝐹 − 32 𝐾 − 273
= =
5 9 5
The equation to convert between Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales is given by
𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273
The equation to convert between Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales is given by
𝐹 = 1.8 𝐶 + 32
3.5.4 Thermometers
A thermometer is a device used to measure temperature. The science of measuring

temperature is known as thermometry. Any physical property that depends on temperature, and
whose response to temperature is reproducible, can be used as the basis of a thermometer. The
properties usually chosen for the purpose are:
i. Change in length, volume, or pressure.

ii. Electrical changes such as a change in resistance and thermoelectric effect
iii. Change of state, colour, etc.
3.5.5 Classification of thermometers
According to its measurement principles, thermometers are classified into different

categories as listed below:
1. The liquid in the glass thermometer (Mercury thermometer, alcohol thermometer,

etc.)
2. Constant volume gas thermometer
3. Constant pressure gas thermometer
4. Resistance thermometer
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5. Thermoelectric thermometer or Thermocouple
6. Pyrometers
7. Silicon diode thermometer
8. Bimetallic thermometer
3.5.6 Mercury Thermometer

It is the common thermometer used in laboratories and the medical field. It works on the
principle of thermal expansion of liquids. The thermometer consists of a very fine glass tube having
a very small bore (capillary tube) as shown in Fig. 3.4. The capillary tube consists of a thin glass
bulb at one end. The bulb is filled with mercury. The other end of the capillary tube is sealed. The
capillary tube is protected by a thick glass tube called the stem. Markings are made on the stem.
These markings are called graduations or degrees.
As the glass bulb and

the liquid are heated, the
volume of both the glass tube
and mercury increase with
temperature. The mercury
expands more than glass.
Hence, the liquid level rises
with the increase in
temperature and falls when
the temperature is lowered.
Fig. 3.4 Mercury thermometer
The practical range of
mercury thermometers is -30 0C to 250 0C.
3.5.7 Pyrometers
The name pyrometer is given to those thermometers which are used for measuring
temperatures above 500 0C. The familiar pyrometers are total radiation pyrometers and optical
pyrometers. A pyrometer, also known as an infrared thermometer or radiation thermometer or non-
contact thermometer is used to detect the surface temperature of an object. The radiation (infrared
or visible) emitted from a hot body is a function of its surface temperature. Pyrometers act as
82
photodetectors because of the property of absorbing energy and measuring electromagnetic wave
intensity at any wavelength. A pyrometer is useful for measuring the temperature of moving,
extremely hot, or hard-to-reach objects.
The basic principle of the pyrometer is that it measures the object’s temperature by sensing
the heat radiation emitted from the object without making contact with the object. It records the
temperature level depending upon the intensity of radiation emitted. The pyrometer has two basic
components like optical systems and detectors that are used to measure the surface temperature of
the object. The optical lens captures and focusses the thermal radiation from the source to the black
body detector. The thermoelectric measuring device converts heat energy into electrical signals.
Fig. 3.5 Schematic diagram of a pyrometer
Infrared pyrometers are made up of pyroelectric materials like polyvinylidene fluoride

(PVDF), triglycine sulfate (TGS), and lithium tantalate (LiTaO3). Pyroelectricity is the ability of
certain materials to generate an electrical potential when they are heated. The advantages of
pyrometer are:
a) It can measure the temperature of the object without any contact with the object. This is
called non-contact measurement.
b) It has a fast response time.
c) Good stability while measuring the temperature of the object.
d) It can measure the temperature of different types of objects at variable distances.
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Pyrometers are used in different applications such as:
a) To measure the temperature of moving objects or constant objects from a greater distance.
b) In metallurgy industries
c) In smelting industries
d) Hot air balloons to measure the heat at the top of the balloon
e) Steam boilers to measure steam temperature
f) To measure the temperature of liquid metals and highly heated materials.
g) To measure furnace temperature.
Example 3.9
Perform the appropriate temperature conversions to fill in the blanks in the table below.
Celsius (°) Fahrenheit (°F) Kelvin (K)

a. 0
b. 212
c. 0
d. 78
e. 12
Solution:
𝐶 𝐹−32 𝐾−273
Use the relation = = for temperature conversion.
5 9 5
Celsius (°C) Fahrenheit (°F) Kelvin (K)

a. 0 32 273
b. 100 212 373
c. -273 -459 0
d. 26 78 299
e. -11 12 262
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Example 3.10
The normal human body temperature is 98.6 0F. Convert the temperature in 0C and Kelvin
Solution:
Given, F = 98.6 0F
5 5
In Celsius scale, C = 9 (98.6 − 32) = 9 x 66.6 = 37 0C
In Kelvin scale, T = 273+ 37 = 310 K
3.5.8 Modes of heat transfer
Heat may be transferred from one point to another in three different ways namely
conduction, convection, and radiation.
(a) Conduction
If one end of a metal rod is heated, the temperature of the other end gradually increases.
Heat is transferred from one end of the rod to the other end. This transfer takes place due to
molecular collisions and there is no movement of particles. Transfer of heat from one place to
another or one end (hot end) to the other end (cold end) of the substance, without the actual
movement of particles, is called conduction. Conduction is the slowest mode of heat transfer.
Conduction is most significant in solids and less in liquids and gases, due to the space between
molecules. Substances that conduct heat are called good conductors and which do not conduct are
called poor conductors or insulators. Metals are good conductors whereas gases and non-metals
are poor conductors. Aluminium, gold, copper, silver are examples of conductors. Silver is the
best conductor of heat. Asbestos, rubber, glass paper, etc. are examples of insulators. The ability
of a material to conduct heat is measured by a quantity called thermal conductivity of the material.
Fig. 3.6 Conduction of heat through a metallic rod
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Consider a metallic rod of the area of cross-section A. Suppose one end of the rod is heated
and an amount of heat Q is conducted from the hot end to the cold end of the rod. Consider a small
element of the rod of length dx and a temperature difference of dT exists between its ends. The
quantity of heat flowing through the rod depends on its area of cross-section, temperature gradient
𝑑𝑇
( ) and time (t) for which heat flows. It can be mathematically expressed as
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇
𝑄∝ A t
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇
𝑄=𝜆A t
𝑑𝑥
Here the constant of proportionality λ is called the thermal conductivity of the material.
𝑄
𝜆 =
𝑑𝑇
𝐴 𝑡
𝑑𝑥
The SI unit of λ is Js-1m-1K-1 or Wm-1K-1. Metals have a high value of thermal conductivity due
to the presence of a large number of free electrons. The thermal conductivities of some metals
are given in the table below.
Table 3.1: Thermal conductivities of some metals
Material Thermal Conductivity

 (Wm-1K-1)
Iron 67
Aluminium 200
Copper 385
Gold 397
Silver 414
Practical applications of thermal conductivity are:

i. Cooking utensils are made of metals and their handles are made of wood. This is
because metals are good conductors of heat, while wood is a bad conductor of heat.
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ii. When we take a metal ice tray and a package of frozen food from the freezer of the
refrigerator, the metal tray feels colder than the package. This is because metal is a
good conductor of heat and it removes heat from our hands much faster.
iii. Houses made of hollow brick walls are cooler than concrete walls.
iv. During winter birds swell their feathers. In doing so the air trapped between the feathers
prevent the loss of heat from their body. This is because air is a poor conductor of heat.
v. Ice is packed in sawdust or gunny bags. This is because air trapped in them prevents
loss of heat and so ice does not melt. Air is a poor conductor of heat.

Give an appropriate explanation to the following cases based on conduction.
1. In cold countries, double glass window panes are used.
2. Two thin woollen blankets are warmer than a thick woollen blanket.
(b) Convection
Convection is the phenomenon in which heat is transferred from one place to another by
the actual movement of the particles of a heated substance. The convection process is faster than
conduction. Transfer of heat by convection mode takes place in liquids and gases. If we boil a
kettle of water, the hot water molecules become less dense and move to the top surface. At the
same time dense water molecules at the top move to the bottom. Thus, a convection current gets
established and the entire water gets heated.
The same process is taking place in air movement also. As dense cool air enters a room
through doors and windows, the less dense hot air gets exhausted through the ventilators in the
room. The reason for convectional current is due to the unequal heating of the fluid. This is the
basic principle for the formation of winds. Summer and winter monsoons on the earth are due to
the transfer of heat by convection and radiation, rotation of the earth, and the earth’s gravity.
Convection is classified as natural convection and forced convection. Natural convection
is a process in which fluid motion is generated due to differences in densities and temperature
gradient. Forced convection is a convection process in which fluid motion is generated by an
external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.). The main mechanism of heat transfer inside
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a human body is forced convection. The heart serves as the pump and blood as the circulating
fluid. The heat from our body is lost to the atmosphere through all three processes – conduction,
convection, and radiation. But our blood circulation system transports just the required amount of
heat to maintain a constant body temperature.
(c) Radiation
Radiation is the fastest mode of heat transfer which does not require a material medium.
All bodies radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. The energy transferred in this
mode is often called thermal radiation. The type of radiation associated with the transfer of heat
energy from one location to another location is often known as infrared radiation. This is because
the wavelength range of thermal radiation is from 800 nm to 400 µm, which belongs to the infrared
region. Some basic properties of thermal radiations are given below.
a) They travel in straight lines with the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s)
b) A material medium is not necessary for propagation.
c) They do not heat the medium through which they are travelling.
d) They can be reflected and refracted just as light.
e) They also exhibit the phenomena like interference, diffraction, and polarization.
f) Thermal radiations have longer wavelengths than visible light.
In the radiation process, a hot body emits thermal radiation in all directions. Emitted
radiation travels through space and falls on another body. The body absorbs thermal radiation and
gets heated up. The heat from the sun reaches the earth by radiation.

The same amount of milk and water are kept in two beakers and heated over two gas burners
by supplying an equal amount of heat. But it is observed that the rise in temperature of the milk
is more than that of water. Can you give the reason for this?
88
3.5.9 Specific heat capacity of a substance
When heat is supplied to a body, its temperature increases. Temperature is a direct measure
of the kinetic energy of molecules in the body. The kinetic energy of molecules increases with the
absorption of more and more heat energy and as a result, its temperature increases. Gain or loss
of heat energy by a body is measured in terms of temperature rise or fall. Now, the question is by
how much will the temperature of an object increase or decrease by the gain or loss of heat energy?
The amount of thermal energy absorbed or given out by a body cannot be measured directly
by an instrument. Quantities of heat must be measured by the effect they produce. The heat
capacity of a body is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the body by one
kelvin. If you see two materials, one of which absorbs heat faster than the other, then it is because
of the difference in their heat capacities. So, different materials when supplied by the same amount
of heat would increase in temperatures by different magnitudes. The amount of heat (Q) absorbed
by a body depends on the mass of the body (m), change in temperature (∆𝑇), and nature of the
material. Hence,
𝑄 ∝ 𝑚∆𝑇
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑚∆𝑇
where the constant C is called the specific heat capacity of the substance. The specific heat capacity
of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the unit mass
of a substance through one kelvin.
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑚∆𝑇
The SI unit of specific heat capacity is s Jkg-1K-1. Consider an example to understand

specific heat capacity better. The specific heat capacity of water is about 4200 Jkg-1K-1. This means
that it will take 4200 J of energy to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 degree kelvin or
degree Celsius. Suppose now you want to boil 2 kg of water in a kettle from room temperature of
20 ∘C to100 ∘C. This will require Q = mCΔT = 2×4200×80 = 672 kJ of energy. Suppose the kettle
has a power rating of 2KW. Then the time taken to boil 2 kg of water will be 336 s or 5.6 mins.
89
Table 3.2: Specific heat capacity of some substances
Substance Specific heat

capacity
(Jkg-1K-1)
Water 4200
Aluminium 924
Iron 448
Copper 378
Silver 234
Take one kg of water and one kg of milk in separate jars and the same amount of heat is
supplied to both jars. Measure the temperature rise in both the jar, obviously the temperature of
milk will rise quickly than water. For the same amount of heat and the same amount of material,
milk shows a higher temperature than water. This is due to the specific heat capacity of milk (C =
3.93 kJkg-1K-1) is lower than that of water (C = 4.18 kJkg-1K-1).

1. The same amount of milk and water at the same temperature is allowed to cool. Which will
cool faster? Why?
2. Specific heat capacities of some substances are given in table 3.2. Based on this table, answer
the following question:
i. Write the difference between temperature and heat.
ii. Compare the heat-absorbing ability of metals: Aluminium and Copper
iii. If the same amount of water is taken in a copper vessel and iron vessel and give it
the same amount of heat. Which will boil first?
iv. The same amount of recently prepared food is taken in Aluminium, vessel, and
Copper vessel. Which will be fresher after 4 hours?
90
Application of specific heat capacity in daily life are:
a) Substances having a small specific heat capacity can be quickly heated up to a higher
temperature even though only a small amount of heat is supplied. Such materials are very
useful in making cookware such as frying pans, pots, kettles, etc.
b) Sensitive thermometers also must be made from materials with small specific heat capacity
so that they can detect and show a change in temperature quickly.
c) Substances that have a high specific heat capacity are suitable as a material for
constructing kettle handlers, insulators, and oven covers because a high amount of heat will
cause only a small change in temperature and the material won't get hot too fast.
d) Heat storage instruments are usually made of substances with a high specific heat capacity.
e) Water acts as an excellent cooling agent in engines due to its high specific heat capacity.
f) Water is also used in houses in cold climate countries because as it is heated up (boiled), it
tends to retain heat and warm the house due to its high specific heat capacity.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. A man catches a ball of mass 1kg moving with a velocity of 20 m/s. Find the work done.
[Ans: 200 J]
2. Calculate the kinetic energy of a body of mass 2 kg and momentum 100 kg m/s. [Ans: 2500
J]
3. An engine pumps 100 kg of water through a height of 10 m in 5 s. If the efficiency of the
engine is 60%, what is the power of the engine? [Ans: 3267 W]
4. A stone of mass 0.5 kg is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity120 m/s. Calculate its
kinetic energy at the end of 3 s. [Ans: 2052 J]
5. Two bodies of mass 1 kg and 4 kg have equal linear momenta. What is the ratio of their kinetic
energies? [Ans: 4:1]
6. A vehicle of mass 15 quintal climbs up a hill 230 m high. It then moves on a level road with
a speed of 30 m/s. Calculate the potential energy gained by it and its total mechanical energy
while running on the top of the hill. [Ans: 3.38 x106 J, 4.056 x 106 J]
91
7. Show that the temperature -40 0C is unique in numerical value on both Celsius and Fahrenheit
scales of temperatures.
8. On the Fahrenheit scale, what is the value of absolute zero? [Ans: -459.67o F]
9. A patient’s temperature changed between 96.8 0F and 105.8 0F during a course of illness. Find
the temperature range recorded on the Celsius scale. [Ans: 36 oC, 41 oC]
10. If the change of temperature of a body is 20 0C, Find the change of temperature of the body
in the Fahrenheit scale. [Ans: a change of 36 0F]
QUESTIONS
1. What is work?
2. Define energy.
3. Write different forms of energy.
4. What is energy transformation?
5. What is mechanical energy?
6. State law of conservation of energy.
7. Define the unit of work.
8. State mathematical expression of work.
9. Write two examples where the force acting on a body does no work?
10. Explain why the work and energy have the same unit.
11. Match the statements in column A, with those in column B
Column A Column B
1. Ability to do work a) Solar cells
2. Unit of energy b) Energy
3. Transformation of energy c) Mechanical energy
4. Kinetic energy d) Calorie
12. Two bodies of mass m1 and m2 have the same linear momentum. What is the ratio of their
kinetic energies? (Ans: K1/K2 = m2/m1)
92
13. If the kinetic energies of two bodies of mass m1 and m2 are the same, what is the ratio of their
𝑚
momenta? (Ans: √𝑚1 )
2
Column A Column B
Photosynthesis Electric energy to sound energy
Loudspeaker Muscular energy to potential energy
Lighting of bulb Light energy to chemical energy
Wind a watch Electric energy to heat energy
15. Describe how the sun is the ultimate source of energy.

16. Differentiate the process of conduction, convection, and radiation.
17. Differentiate heat and temperature.
18. Briefly explain the working of a pyrometer.
19. Explain different temperature scales.
20. What do you mean by specific heat capacity?
Column A Column B
1. Winds a) Measure temperature
without touching the body
2. Good conductor b) Liquid thermometer
3. Pyrometer c) Convection
4. Mercury thermometer d) Silver
22. The temperature of the body gets considerably lowered when one puts on wet clothes. Why?
23. Thermometer A is more sensitive than thermometer B. Comment on the statement.
24. A thermometer bulb should have a high heat capacity. Is the statement true? Justify your
answer.
93
CHAPTER 4
PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Classify the following materials into groups having common properties. List out the common
properties of each group.
a) Aluminium
b) Water
c) Gold
d) Coir
e) Twine
f) Oxygen
g) Air
h) Rubber
i) Kerosene
j) Coconut oil
k) Carbon dioxide
The universe consists of matter and energy. Generally, the matter is defined as the thing
which needs volume to occupy. Consider an ice cube, a cup of water, and water vapor. At the
molecular level each one is the same (H2O), but at different states of matter, they have specific
properties. Then we must learn the different properties of matter so that we can find applications
of materials to make our life easier. In this chapter, we are going to deal with some of the properties
of matter such as elasticity, viscosity, surface tension, etc.
4.1 ELASTICITY
We know that the stable states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. In this section, we are
going to discuss elasticity which is a property of solids. Elasticity is an important property of
materials in our day-to-day life as the world emerging with material science. Starting from the
94
nanomaterial to the construction of bridges and buildings, continuously moving mechanical parts
of machine or engine – knowing the elasticity property of solids used is salient and vital.
Take a rubber band with a known length, stretch it longitudinally by applying a (moderate)
force with both of your hands. The rubber band will undergo elongation. After removing the
applied force, the rubber band retains its original dimension. The force we applied to deform the
material is called deforming force. What we see is, some solid materials undergo deformation
under applied force and retain its original shape after removing the applied force. The property of
solids to retain its original size or shape after the removal of deforming force is called elasticity.
The materials with the elastic property are called elastic materials. Quartz, Phosphor bronze (an
alloy of phosphor and bronze), steel, glass, ivory, are perfectly elastic bodies.
Some materials remain in the deformed state without showing any tendency to regain its
original size or shape when the applied force is removed. The property of a material to undergo
permanent deformation under applied force is called plasticity. Materials showing plastic
behaviour are called plastic materials. Clay, mud, plaster of Paris, etc. are examples of plastic
materials.
If we keep the rubber band in a stretched state for some time, we feel some pain in our
hands. That is there is a counterforce against the applied force developed internally in our rubber
material to retain its original dimension. So, elasticity can otherwise understand as the ability of
some solid material to generate internal force against the deformation force applied externally.
The internal reaction force developed inside an elastic material to resist any change in its size or
shape is called restoring force. To study the elasticity of solids, we need to define two terms stress
and strain.
4.1.1 Stress
Stress is defined as the internal restoring force developed per unit area in a body when
deforming forces are applied to it. For an elastic body, restoring force is always equal to the applied
force. Hence, stress can also be defined as the force per unit area applied to a material.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
The SI unit of stress is N/m2 or pascal.
95
4.1.2 Strain
Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension of a body. It is
a measure of deformation produced in a body under the action of deforming forces.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
The strain has no unit since it is the ratio of the same physical quantity.
The important thing to understand is that we can define or calculate the term stress before
the material is elastically deformed, but the strain is defined only after deformation.
4.1.3 Elastic limit
Elastic materials retain its elastic property up to a limit of the applied stress. The elastic
limit of a substance is defined as the maximum stress that can be applied to the substance before
it becomes permanently deformed and does not return to its original state. Material is elastic when
the stress is below its elastic limit and becomes plastic if stress is above the elastic limit.
4.1.4 Hooke’s Law

English Scientist Robert Hooke in 1660 deduced a law about the elasticity of solids under
relatively small deforming forces. Hooke’s Law states that the stress is proportional to the strain,
within the elastic limit.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
= 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
The constant of proportionality depends on the material being deformed and on the nature
of the deformation and it is called as modulus of elasticity or elastic modulus. Since strain is a pure
number, the unit of elastic modulus is the same as that of stress i.e., N/m2 or pascal.
4.1.5 Young’s Modulus: Elasticity of Length
Consider a long bar of cross-sectional area A and initial length L that is clamped at one
end. When an external force is applied perpendicular to the cross-section, internal forces in the bar
resist distortion (“stretching”), but the bar reaches an equilibrium situation in which its final length
Lf, which is greater than L and in which the external force is exactly balanced by internal forces.
96
In such a situation, the bar is said to be stressed. We define longitudinal stress as the ratio of the
magnitude of the external force F to the cross-sectional area A.
𝐹
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴
The longitudinal strain is defined as the ratio of the change in length ΔL to the original
length L. Strain can be tensile (increase in length) or compressive (decrease in length).
∆𝐿
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐿
Young’s modulus (Y) is a measure of the length elasticity of a material. Young’s Modulus
is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain under relatively small
deforming force.
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹
(𝐴)
𝑌=
∆𝐿
(𝐿)
𝐹𝐿
𝑌=
𝐴 ∆𝐿

Answer the following questions based on the table given below
Youngs modulus
Material
(×10 10 N/m2)
Steel 20.0
Copper 11.0
Brass 9.1
Glass 5.5
Rubber 0.05
97
1. Arrange the materials in the increasing order of their deformed length under unit
external force, consider that the materials given are having the same dimension before
deformation?
2. Under the given external applied force, the glass and rubber show an extension of 1 m
in length. Which is thicker?
3. Comment on the following sentence: If a copper cable is cut into half of its original
length, the maximum load it can support is the same as the load supported by the cable
with its original length.
4. Which of the materials given in the table is best to make springs?
4.1.6 Rigidity Modulus: Elasticity of Shape
Fig. 4.1 Shearing a rectangular block by applying a force parallel to one of its faces
Another type of deformation occurs when an object is subjected to a deforming force

parallel to one of its faces while the opposite face is held fixed by another force. Consider a book
with a considerable thickness (dictionary), place it on a table and gently push sidewise with your
palm which is placed over the book. The rectangular or square box type book now looks like a
parallelogram box. The stress in this case is called shear stress. If the object is originally a
98
rectangular block, shear stress results in a shape whose cross-section is a parallelogram. That is,
we are deforming the shape of the object without changing its volume by applying a parallel
deforming force to one of the faces of the object. This is called shearing.
Shear stress is defined as the ratio of the tangential force (F) applied to the area (A) of the
face being sheared.
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
Shear strain is defined as the ratio of horizontal distance (∆𝑥) that the sheared face moves to the
height (h) of the object.
∆𝑥
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
ℎ
If the deformation is very small, the shear strain can be recognized by the angular
deformation (). From the figure, angular deformation in radian is
𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ∆𝑥
𝜃= =
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 ℎ
∴ 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜃
Rigidity modulus or shear modulus () is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain.
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹
(𝐴)
𝜂=
𝜃
𝐹
𝜂=
𝐴𝜃
4.1.7 Bulk Modulus: Volume Elasticity
Bulk modulus characterizes the response of an object to changes in a force of uniform

magnitude applied perpendicularly over the entire surface of the object. The stress is now a uniform
pressure on all sides, and the resulting deformation is a volume change. An object subject to this
type of deformation undergoes a change in volume. When we blow a balloon with our mouth or a
pump, the air we forcefully pass into the balloon, pushes on all surfaces inside the balloon
uniformly such that the balloon changes its volume.
99
The table below shows typical values of elastic moduli of a few substances.
Young’s Modulus Rigidity Modulus Bulk Modulus

Substance
(×10 10 N/m2) (×10 10 N/m2) (×10 10 N/m2)
Tungsten 35 14 20
Steel 20 8.4 6
Copper 11 4.2 14
Brass 9.1 3.5 6.1
Aluminium 7 2.5 7
Glass 6.5-7.8 2.6-3.2 5-5.5
Quartz 5.6 2.6 2.7
Water - - 0.21
Mercury - - 2.8
1. Why there is no entry for Young’s Modulus and Rigidity Modulus of some substances?
2. What is the specialty of such materials?
3. Why there is a value for Bulk modulus for those substances?
We define volume stress as the ratio of the magnitude of the total force (F) exerted on a
surface to the area (A) of the surface. The perpendicular force per unit area is called pressure (P).
𝐹
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =𝑃
𝐴
Under pressure, the object experiences a volume change ΔV. The volume strain or bulk
strain is defined as the ratio of the change in volume to the original volume.
ΔV
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑉
100
Bulk modulus (B) is defined as the ratio of volume stress to volume strain.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑃
𝐵= −
ΔV
(𝑉)
𝑃𝑉
𝐵=−
Δ𝑉
A negative sign is inserted in this defining equation so that B is a positive number. This
exercise is necessary because an increase in pressure (positive ΔP) applied externally causes a
decrease in volume (negative ΔV) and vice versa. The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the
compressibility and is denoted by 𝑘
1 Δ𝑉
𝑘= =−
𝐵 P𝑉
The SI unit of compressibility is that of reciprocal of pressure, Pa-1. Materials with small
bulk modulus and large compressibility are easier to compress.
Example 4.1
A metal wire of length 5 m and diameter 2 mm is stretched by hanging a mass of 8 kg at one end
and keeping the other end fixed to a sealing. Find the extension produced if the Young’s Modulus
of the material of the wire is Y = 7 x 1010 N/m2?
Solution:
Diameter of the wire, d = 2 mm
Radius of the wire, r = d/2 = 2/2 = 1 mm = 0.001 m
Area of cross section of the wire,
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 3.14 × (0. 001)2 = 3.14 × 10−6 𝑚2
Length of the given wire L = 5 m
Young’s Modulus of the material of the wire, Y = 7 x 1010 N/m2
Mass suspended = 8 kg
Force due to the mass = mg = 8 x 9.8 = 78.4 N
𝐹𝐿
We have, Young’s Modulus, 𝑌 = 𝐴 ∆𝐿
101
Therefore, the extension produced,
𝑚𝑔 𝐿
∆𝐿 =
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑌
78.4 × 5
∆𝐿 = = 1.78 × 10−3 𝑚
3.14 × 10−6 × 7 × 1010
Extension produced for the wire due to stretching = 1.78 × 10−3 𝑚
Example 4.2
A hydraulic press contains 0.5 m3 of oil. Find the decrease in the volume of the oil when it is
subjected to a pressure of 2.6 x 107 Pa. The bulk modulus of the oil is B = 5.0 x 109 Pa?
Solution:
Volume of the oil before hydraulic press = 0.5 m3
Pressure applied = 2.6 x 107 Pa
Bulk Modulus of the given oil, B = 5.0 x 109 Pa
𝑃 𝑃𝑉
Bulk modulus of substance, 𝐵 = − ∆𝑉 = −
( ) ∆𝑉
𝑉
𝑃𝑉
Change in volume, ∆𝑉 = − 𝐵
2.6 × 107 × 0.5

∆𝑉 = −
5.0 × 109
∆𝑉 = −2.6 × 10−3 𝑚3
Change in volume of the oil due to the hydraulic press = −2.6 × 10−3 𝑚3 . The negative sign
indicates the fact that volume of the oil is decreased by the application of pressure.
Example 4.3
A solid brass sphere is initially surrounded by air, and the air pressure exerted on it is 1.5 x 105
N/m2 (normal atmospheric pressure). The sphere is lowered into the ocean to a depth where the
pressure is 2.8 x 107 N/m2. The volume of the sphere in the air is 0.85 m3. By how much does this
volume change once the sphere is submerged? The bulk modulus of brass is 6.1 x 1010 N/m2.
Solution:
Air pressure on the brass sphere = 1.5 x 105 N/m2

Pressure at the depth of ocean = 2.8 x 107 N/m2
Volume of brass sphere at air = 0.85 m3
Pressure on brass sphere when it is submerged = 2.8 x 107 - 1.5 x 105
102
𝑃 𝑃𝑉
Bulk modulus of substance, 𝐵 = − ∆𝑉 = −
( ) ∆𝑉
𝑉
𝑃𝑉
Change in volume, ∆𝑉 = − 𝐵
0.85(2.8 × 107 − 1.5 × 105 )

∆𝑉 = −
6.1 × 1010
∆𝑉 = −3.88 × 10−4 𝑚3
The decrease in volume of the solid brass sphere submerged in the ocean = −3.88 × 10−4 𝑚3
Example 4.4
A square copper slab having a side of 75 cm and a thickness of 15 cm is subjected to a shearing
force of 12 x 104 N on the thickness-wise side. The lower edge is kept fixed to the floor. How
much will the upper edge be displaced or sheared? The rigidity modulus of copper is
4.2 × 1010 N/m2.
Solution:
The shearing force is applied parallel to the thickness wise face; hence it is
applied on an area, A = 75 x 15 cm2 = 1125 cm2 = 1125 x 10-4 m2
Shearing force, F = 12 x 104 N
Shearing strain = angular deformation = θ
Rigidity Modulus,  = 4.2 × 1010 N/m2.
Rigidity modulus is given by
𝐹
 =
𝐴𝜃
Therefore, shearing strain
𝐹 12 × 104
θ = = −4 10
= 2.5 × 10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐴 1125 × 10 × 4.2 × 10
But we have
𝑥
𝜃=
ℎ
Therefore, the amount of shearing on the edge
𝑥 = ℎ × 𝜃 = 75 × 10−2 × 2.5 × 10−5 = 1.875 × 10−5 𝑚
103
Example 4.5
In a circus performance, an actor tries to swing in a cable made of steel. Now suppose the tension
in the cable is 940 N as the actor reaches the lowest point. What diameter should a 10 m long steel
cable have if we do not want it to stretch more than 0.50 cm under these conditions? (Young’s
Modulus of steel, Y = 20 x 1010 N/m2)
Solution:
The problem says about the elongation of a steel cable, so we need to apply the
concept of Young’s modulus here.
𝐹𝐿
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠, 𝑌=
𝐴 ∆𝐿
𝐹𝐿
𝐴=
𝑌 ∆𝐿
940 ×10
𝐴= = 9.4 × 10−6 𝑚2
20 ×1010 ×0.50 ×10−2
Assuming the cross-sectional area of the cable as circular,

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 9.4 × 10−6 𝑚2
𝐴 9.4×10−6
Therefore, the radius of the cable, 𝑟 = √𝜋 = √ = 1.73 × 10−3 𝑚
3.14
Therefore, the required diameter of the steel cable, d = 2r = 3.46 x 10-3 m
4.2 PRESSURE
We know what happens to a man if an elephant steps on his chest. But in the circus, the same
act is performed with the help of a wooden plank. That means both the force and its coverage area
are important. The smaller the area on which the force acts, the greater is the impact. To make use
of this concept, we use the idea of pressure. Pressure (P) is defined as the perpendicular or normal
force acting per unit area of a substance.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹
𝑃 =
𝐴
SI unit of pressure is N/m2 or pascal (Pa). One pascal is the pressure developed when a
force of 1 N exerted on an area of 1 m2. Pascal is a very small unit of pressure. Other commonly
used units for pressure are:
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1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 105 𝑃𝑎
1 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 100 𝑃𝑎
1 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 133.322 𝑃𝑎

Which of the following exerts the most pressure while resting on a floor?
1. A cubic box of weight 25 N and 1.5 m sides
2. A cylinder of weight 15 N and a base radius of 1 m
3. A cubic box of weight 25 N with 2m sides
4. A cylinder of weight 25 N and a base radius of 1 m
4.2.1 Pressure inside a Fluid (Hydrostatic pressure)
A fluid is any substance that flows or deforms under applied shear stress. Liquids and gases
are both fluids. Fluids do not sustain shearing stresses or tensile stresses, because it does not have
a definite size or shape. The shape or size of fluid is the same as that of the container of the fluid.
Therefore, the only stress that can be exerted on an object submerged in a static fluid is one that
tends to compress the object from all sides. The force exerted by a static fluid on an object is
always perpendicular to the surfaces of the object and this perpendicular force per unit area is
called hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at
equilibrium at a given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity or weight of the fluid.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑃=
𝐴
Pressure is not a vector quantity. It acts in any direction with the same magnitude. That is,
it has no directional property. It is true that force acting on the surface is a vector quantity, but the
expression for pressure involves only the magnitude of force. And the value for pressure thus
obtained is independent of the orientation of the surface area.
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Pressure is the force per unit area acting normally to a surface element within a fluid. Due
to the high mobility of the molecules of the fluid, the force acting at one position propagates
immediately and isotropically with the same magnitude through the entire volume of the fluid.
Within a fluid at rest, the normal force exerted on a small surface has the same magnitude
everywhere and is independent of the orientation of the surface. This fact is called Pascal's law.
This is the basic principle behind hydraulic machines like a crane, break, lift, etc.
4.2.2 Atmospheric Pressure (𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 )
We live at the bottom of an ocean of air called the atmosphere. Each body, every grain of
sand, any object situated on the Earth is subject to air pressure. Atmospheric pressure is not so
small. The cause of atmospheric pressure is obvious. Just as water, air possesses weight and,
therefore, exerts a pressure equal (just as for water) to the weight of the column of air above the
body. The atmospheric pressure decreases with an increase in altitude. The higher we climb a
mountain, the lesser will be the air above us and therefore, the lower will be the atmospheric
pressure. Mountaineers get bleed through their nose or ear due to this pressure difference.
The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is equal to the weight of a column of air of
unit cross-sectional area extending from that point to the top of the atmosphere. The atmosphere
of the earth is spread up to a height of 200 km. Atmospheric pressure can be measured with a
mercury barometer in which pressure is measured in terms of the height of the mercury (Hg)
column. At sea level, atmospheric pressure corresponds to 76 cm of Hg which is equivalent to
1.013 × 105 Pa. One atmosphere (atm) is a standard unit of pressure equal to the mean atmospheric
pressure at sea level.
1𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎 = 76 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 = 760 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 1.013 𝑏𝑎𝑟
4.2.3 Gauge Pressure and Absolute Pressure

You might have experienced the pressure exerted by water while playing in water bodies. As
you move deep into the water, it pushes you up. The pressure inside the water increases with depth.
Likewise, atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude (height from the earth's surface);
for this reason, aircraft flying at high altitudes must have pressurized cabins for the comfort of the
passengers.
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To find the pressure at a
depth, consider a fluid at rest in a
container. In Fig. 4.2, point 1 is at
height h above point 2. The
pressures at points 1 and 2 are P1
and P2 respectively. Consider a
cylindrical element of fluid having
base area A and height h. As the
fluid is at rest the resultant
horizontal forces should be zero
and the resultant vertical forces
should balance the weight of the Fig. 4.2 Pressure inside a fluid at rest in a container
element. The forces (Remember, F=PA, since pressure P=F/A) acting in the vertical direction are
due to the fluid pressure at the top (P1A) acting downward, at the bottom (𝑃2 𝐴) acting upward.
If mg is the weight of the fluid in the cylinder, then
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1)𝐴 = 𝑚𝑔
If 𝜌 is the density of the fluid, we know that
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜌) = =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉
where V is the volume of the cylindrical element.
𝑉 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝐴ℎ
Therefore, the mass of fluid,
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝐴ℎ
So, the above equation can rewrite as,
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1)𝐴 = 𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1) = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
That is, Pressure difference (P2 -P1) depends on the vertical distance h between the points (1
and 2), the density of the fluid ρ, and acceleration due to gravity g.
If point 1 under discussion is shifted to the top of the fluid (say water), which is open to
the atmosphere, P1 may be replaced by atmospheric pressure (𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) and we replace P2 by P. Then
the above equation turns to
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(𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Thus, the pressure P, at depth below the surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere is greater
than atmospheric pressure by an amount 𝜌𝑔ℎ. This P is called absolute pressure at that point.
Absolute pressure at a point is pressure measured with respect to zero pressure or absolute vacuum.
The excess of pressure, (𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) at depth, h is called a gauge pressure at that point.
Gauge pressure at a point is the pressure measured relative to the atmospheric pressure. Blood-
pressure readings, such as 130/80 mm of Hg, give the maximum and minimum gauge pressures in
the arteries, measured in mm Hg or torr. Blood pressure varies with vertical position within the
body; the standard reference point is the upper arm, level with the heart.

The Mariana Trench, in the Pacific Ocean, is about 11.0 km deep. If the atmospheric pressure
at sea level is 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎, how much pressure would a submarine need to be able to
withstand to reach this depth?

Calculate the depth in the ocean at which the pressure is three times atmospheric pressure?
4.3 SURFACE TENSION
An object less dense than water, such as an air-filled balloon, floats with part of its volume
below the surface. Conversely, a razor blade or a fine paper carefully placed over the water surface
can rest atop a water surface even though its density is several times that of water. This is an
example of surface tension: The surface of the liquid behaves like a membrane under tension.
The surface of liquid acts in many respects in a manner analogous to a stretched membrane.
The careful examination of water drops slowly formed at the end of a glass tube or tap from which
it emerges provides another example of this phenomenon. The water in this case accumulates as
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though it were collected in an invisible membrane, until of a definite size, when it is detached as a
spherical drop. These effects are due to forces existing on the surface of the separation of liquid
from the air and the other media in contact with it.
Surface tension arises because the

molecules of the liquid exert attractive
forces on each other. There is zero net
force on a molecule inside the volume
of the liquid because it is surrounded
by molecules of the same type from all
sides. But a molecule at the surface is
pulled down by the molecules of the
liquid below it as shown in Fig. 4.3.
Fig. 4.3 Attractive forces on molecules in the bulk
Surface molecules can interact with air
and molecules at the surface of the liquid
molecules above and the force exerted
by air molecules is very small compared to the downward force exerted by the molecules of the
liquid. Due to the net downward force on the surface, the liquid tends to minimize its surface
area, just as a stretched membrane does. As liquids have no definite shape but have a definite
volume, they acquire a free surface when poured into a container. These surfaces possess some
additional energy. This phenomenon is known as surface tension and it is concerned with only
liquid as gases do not have free surfaces. Surface tension is the property of a liquid surface to
reduce its surface area to a minimum as possible due to the force exerted on molecules of the
surface by the molecules of the bulk. A sphere has a
smaller surface area for its volume than any other
shape and that is why the freely falling raindrops are
spherical in shape.
Consider a line AB drawn on the surface of
the liquid as shown in the figure. The line divides the
surface into two parts. Since the liquid surface
behaves like a stretched membrane, the two parts of
Fig. 4.4 Surface of the liquid acting
the surface pull each other with a force that is
like a stretched membrane
proportional to the length of the line AB. The forces
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acting on the liquid surface are tangential to the surface and are perpendicular to the line AB. If
‘F’ is the magnitude of force acting perpendicular to the line AB of length ‘l’, then
𝐹 ∝𝑙
𝐹=𝑆𝑙
where the constant of proportionality ‘S’ is called surface tension.
𝐹
𝑆=
𝑙
Hence, surface tension can be defined as the force per unit length acting tangential to the surface
of the liquid to reduce the surface area of the liquid. The SI unit of Surface tension is N/m.
4.3.1 Surface energy of the liquid
A molecule on the surface of the liquid has more potential energy than a molecule inside
the liquid. The extra energy possessed by the surface layer of the liquid is called surface energy
(U). Surface energy can be defined as the work done to increase the surface area of the liquid.
Surface energy is related to surface tension by the equation,
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑈 =𝑆 ×𝐴
𝑈
∴ 𝑆=
𝐴
Hence, surface tension can also be defined as the surface energy per unit area of the liquid surface.
4.3.2 Cohesion and Adhesion
The attractive forces of molecules are of two types - cohesion and adhesion. If the
molecules of the same kind attract, then it is called cohesion and if the molecules are of different
kinds attract, then it is called adhesion. Attractive forces acting between molecules of the same
kind are called cohesive forces. Attractive forces acting between molecules of different kinds are
called adhesive forces. Adhesion may occur between solid, liquid, or gaseous materials. When a
liquid comes in contact with a solid surface, the wetting of the surface occurs depending on the
ratio of strengths of cohesive and adhesive forces. When the adhesive forces dominate, the surface
tension of the liquid becomes low and the liquid spreads over the entire solid surface (perfect
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wetting). When the cohesive forces dominate, the surface tension of the liquid becomes high, and
the liquid contracts into drops (no wetting).
4.3.3 Angle of contact
The surface of liquid near the plane of contact, with another medium, is in general curved.
The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and the solid surface
inside the liquid is termed the angle of contact. It is denoted by θ. It is different at interfaces of
different pairs of liquids and solids. The value of θ determines whether a liquid will spread on the
surface of a solid or it will form droplets on it.
Fig. 4.5 Obtuse and acute angle of contacts at the solid -liquid interfaces
When θ is an obtuse angle, then the molecules of liquids are attracted strongly to
themselves and weakly to those of solid. The liquid does not wet the solid surface. It costs a lot of
energy to create a liquid-solid surface. This is what happens with water on a waxy or oily surface,
on the lotus leaf, and with mercury on any surface. If θ is an acute angle, the liquid molecules are
strongly attracted to those of the solid and the liquid gets easily wet to the solid surface. This is
what happens with water or kerosene on glass or plastic or any other surface.
Water forms droplets on lotus leaves since they have large angles of contact. That is why
the lotus leaf is hydrophobic in nature. That means water drop has less contact area with the lotus
leaf surface. But for herbicides, the angle of contact with leaves should be small so that it would
have a larger contact area to leaf. That is, they should be hydrophilic in nature so that the herbicides
effectively act on the herb’s leaf and destroy it. Waterproofing agents or paints used in buildings
and other construction actually create a large angle of contact between the water and fibers in it.
So, the surface will become hydrophobic in nature.
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4.3.4 Capillarity
Fig. 4.6 Capillary rise of water and capillary depression of mercury
One of the consequences of surface tension is capillary action or capillarity. When one end
of a tube of very small radius (known as capillary tube) is dipped in a liquid, the liquid rises or
falls in the tube. This phenomenon is called capillarity. The rise or fall of liquid in the capillary
tube depends on the angle of contact between the liquid and the tube. If the angle of contact is less
than 90o (acute angle of contact), the liquid rises in the tube and it is called capillary rise. If the
angle of contact is greater than 90o (obtuse angle of contact), the liquid falls in the tube and it is
called capillary depression.
4.3.5 Ascent Formula

The rising up of liquid through capillary tubes against gravity due to the surface tension at
the boundary line of the liquid and solid tube surface. The elevation height of liquid in a capillary
tube h is given by the ascent formula.
2𝑆 cos 𝜃
h=
𝑟𝜌𝑔
112
Here S is the surface tension, θ is the angle of contact between the surface of the liquid and surface
of the capillary tube at the point of contact, r is the inner radius of the capillary tube, ρ is the density
of the liquid rising through the capillary tube and g is the acceleration due to gravity. From the
expression, it is clear that for a given substance, the elevation depends only on the radius of the
capillary.

Take three types of liquids, say water, kerosene, and mercury. Shall we observe the same
capillary rise with a capillary tube of the same diameter and orientation? If not, explain why do
they differ?
4.3.6 Applications of Surface Tension
a) The action of detergents on oil or grease dirt in fabrics
Washing with water does not remove the grease or oil stains. This is because the water
does not wet this dirt. That is there is the very little contact area between them. If water could wet
grease, the flow of water could carry some grease away. Something of this sort is achieved through
detergents. The molecules of detergents are hairpin-shaped, with one end attracted to water and
the other to molecules of grease, oil, or wax, thus tending to form water-oil interfaces. The addition
of detergents, whose molecules attract at one end and say, oil on the other, reduces drastically the
surface tension S (water-oil). It may even become energetically favorable to form such interfaces,
i.e., globs of dirt surrounded by detergents and then by water. This kind of process using surface-
active detergents or surfactants is important not only for cleaning but also in recovering oil, mineral
ores, etc.
b) Why do farmers plough the land in the summer season?
By the surface tension at the boundary line of the liquid, the liquid in very narrow tubes
rises despite gravity. This phenomenon of the rising of a liquid in a thin tube is called capillary
rise. In the summer season where water scarcity affects, the farmers plough the land to open up
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the tiny capillary orifices between the soil. Through these capillaries, the water and air in the bed
will rise to the surface of the earth and keep the land living and organic.
4.3.7 Effect of temperature and impurities on surface tension
The surface tension of a liquid decreases with an increase in the temperature of the liquid. This
is because cohesive forces decrease with an increase in molecular thermal activity. Hence angle of
contact also decreases with an increase in the temperature of the liquid. The surface tension of the
liquid increases with the concentration of dissolved impurities like common salt. For dissolved
impurities, the surface tension increases linearly with the concentration of dissolved material. The
surface tension of the liquid decreases with insoluble impurities like oil, grease, etc.
4.4 FLUID DYNAMICS

Of the stable states of matter, liquids and gases can flow. So together they are called fluids.
Fluids are everywhere around us. Earth has an envelope of air and two-thirds of its surface is
covered with water. Water is essential for the existence of life on earth and our body is mainly
constituted of water. In this section, we are going to study the dynamics of fluids. An ideal fluid is
a fluid that is incompressible (that is, its density cannot change) and has no internal friction (called
non-viscous). Liquids are approximately incompressible in most situations, and we may also treat
gas as incompressible if the pressure differences from one region to another are not too great.
4.4.1 Streamline flow and turbulent flow

Generally, we are considering the fluid motion as layers, in each layer the fluid particles
are moving one by one in a line, called streamline or flowline. The flow is said to be steady, or
laminar if each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path such that the paths of different particles
never cross each other. That is the streamlines do not cross. In steady flow, every fluid particle
arriving at a given point has the same velocity irrespective of time. This does not mean that the
velocity at different points in space is the same. The velocity of a particular particle may change
as it moves from one point to another. That is, at some other point the particle may have a different
velocity, but every other particle which passes the second point behaves exactly like the previous
particle that has just passed that point. The object to be noted is that all the fluid particles have a
114
fixed value of the velocity at a particular point in the flow on arriving at that point. This condition
enforces the one-by-one streamline motion of fluid particles, that do not cross.
If the streamlines or flowlines are crossing, there must be multiple velocities for fluid
particles at that crossing point. This type of fluid flow is not steady or laminar, it is called turbulent
flow. Above a certain critical speed, the streamline fluid flow becomes turbulent. Turbulent flow
is an irregular flow characterized by small whirlpool-like regions.
The turbulent flow is mathematically difficult to handle. So, we are limiting our discussions to
the steady or laminar flow of fluid. Laminar flow is ideal, the flow of water around us is somewhat
turbulent in nature. As of now, consider the flow of water from a tap. Initially, there will be a very
smooth flow of water when we gently try to open a tap, this smooth flow can be treated as a
streamline flow of fluid. And the steady smooth flow is getting narrower as the distance from the
opening of the tap increases and at last, the flow becomes irregular or turbulent. How it is like this.
We are going to learn here.
Table 4.1 Comparison of streamline flow and turbulent flow of fluids
Streamline flow Turbulent flow
It is the steady, smooth, regular, one-by- The flow of particles is irregular and in
one flow of fluid particles. a zigzag manner.
The speed of fluid motion is lower than The fluid motion speed is greater than
the critical velocity. Critical velocity of the critical velocity.
fluids is the velocity above which the flow
becomes irregular or turbulent.
The fluid layers do not cross each other The fluid layer may cross each other
The particles reaching a given point in the The particles in the fluid can have
path of flow have the same velocity with different velocities at a given point in
time. That means a single velocity of the fluid flow. That means multiple
particles is possible at a given point in the velocities at a given point in the flow
flow of fluids. can be possible.
115
4.4.2 Reynold’s Number
For simplicity in handling, we took the ideal fluid which is incompressible and non-viscus.
But practically the fluid is somewhat incompressible up to an extent, but it will have some internal
force between the fluid layers against the flow. Hence, we cannot neglect the viscosity of the fluid.
Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912) observed that turbulent flow is less probable for viscous fluid
flowing at low rates through a pipe. He defined a dimensionless number that has a vital role in
predicting whether a liquid has streamline flow or turbulent flow. This number is called the
Reynolds number (Re). Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces
within flowing fluid.
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
ρvd
𝑅𝑒 =
η
where ρ is the density of the fluid flowing with a speed v, d is the diameter of the pipe, and η is
the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid. It is found that flow is streamline or laminar for Re less
than 1000. The flow becomes unsteady for Re between 1000 and 2000. The flow is turbulent for
Re greater than 2000.
4.4.3 Continuity Equation in Fluid Dynamics

When you are watering the garden with a hose, if you find a plant at a distance that your
hose cannot extend up to, what will you do? You may partially close the end of the hose with your
thumb such that the water stream reaches there. This is an application of the continuity equation.
The equation of continuity in fluid

dynamics is analogous to the law of
conservation mass in mechanics. Consider a
pipe of varying cross-sectional area as shown
in Fig.4.7, through which an incompressible
and non-viscous fluid flows. At the point P, let
the velocity of the fluid be 𝑣1 and area of
cross-section be 𝐴1 . At the point Q, let the
Fig. 4.7 A pipe of non-uniform cross section
velocity of the fluid be 𝑣2 and area of cross-
116
section be 𝐴2 . If 𝜌 is the density of the fluid and considering the flow of fluid through the pipe
for a time ∆𝑡, we can write
Distance travelled by the fluid at point P = 𝑣1 ∆𝑡

The volume of the fluid entering the tube at P = 𝐴1 𝑣1 ∆𝑡
Mass of the fluid entering the tube at point P = 𝜌 𝐴1 𝑣1 ∆𝑡
Similarly,
Mass of the fluid leaving the tube at point Q = 𝜌 𝐴2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡
The total mass of the fluid entering into a pipe through any cross-section should be equal to the
total mass of fluid coming out of the same pipe through any other cross-section at the same time.
Therefore,
𝜌 𝐴1 𝑣1 ∆𝑡 = 𝜌 𝐴2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Equation of continuity in fluid dynamics states that when an incompressible and non-
viscous fluid moving with steady flow through a pipe of varying cross-sectional area, the product
of the area of cross-section and velocity of flow remains a constant at every point in the pipe. That
means, where the area decreases, the velocity of fluid flow must be increased to maintain the
constant and vice versa. The product Av, which has the dimensions of volume per unit time, is
called either the volume flux or the flow rate. The condition Av = constant is equivalent to the
statement that the volume of fluid that enters one end of a tube in a given time interval equals the
volume leaving the other end of the tube in the same time interval if no leaks are present.
If you reduce the cross-sectional area of the hose with your thumb, then according to the
continuity equation, the velocity of fluid flow must increase to keep the product constant. So, the
water stream flows with more speed and covers more distance. The steady smooth flow from a
tap, when we gently open it is getting narrower as the distance passes. Because of gravity, the
water starting from the tap gets accelerated and attains more velocity. By continuity equation in
fluid dynamics, as the velocity increases, the area of the cross-section must be reduced. Therefore,
the steady smooth flow gets narrower as the distance from the tap increases. If the velocity is
further increased beyond the critical velocity, the flow becomes irregular or turbulent.
117
The time required to fill a bucket with water from a certain garden hose is 30 s. If you cover
part of the hose’s nozzle with your thumb so that the speed of the water leaving the nozzle
doubles, how long does it take to fill the bucket?
Example 4.6
The radius of a pipe decreases from 5 cm to 3 cm. If the velocity of water at the wider portion is
7 m/s, calculate the velocity in the narrow portion?
Solution:
The radius of the pipe at the wider portion, 𝑟1 = 5 cm = 5 x 10-2 m
Area of the cross-section at the wider portion, A1 = 𝜋𝑟1 2
= 3.14 x (5 x 10-2)2 = 7.85 x 10-3 m2
Radius of the narrow portion, 𝑟2 = 3 cm = 3 x 10-2 m
Area of cross section at narrow portion, A2 = 𝜋𝑟2 2 = 3.14 x (3 x 10-2)2 = 2.826 x 10-3 m2
According to continuity equation in fluid dynamics, A1v1 = A2v2
Velocity at the wider portion, 𝑣1 = 7 m/s
𝐴1 𝑉1 7.85×10−3 ×7
Therefore, velocity at the narrow portion, 𝑣2 = =
𝐴2 2.826×10−3
𝑣2 = 19.44 𝑚/𝑠
Example 4.7
The diameter of a water pipe decreases from 15 cm to 7 cm. If the velocity at the wider portion is
5 m/s. Calculate the velocity at the narrow region?
Solution:
Diameter of the pipe at wider portion d1 = 15 cm
The radius of the pipe at the wider portion, 𝑟1 = d1/2 = 7.5 cm = 7.5 x 10-2 m
Area of the cross-section at the wider portion, A1 = 𝜋𝑟1 2 = 3.14 x (7.5 x 10-2)2 = 1.77 x 10-
2
m2
Diameter of the pipe at the narrow portion, d2 = 7 cm
The radius of the narrow portion, 𝑟2 = d2/2 = 3.5 cm = 3.5 x 10-2 m
Area of cross section at narrow portion, A2 = 𝜋𝑟2 2 = 3.14 x (3.5 x 10-2)2 = 3.85 x 10-3 m2
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According to the continuity equation in fluid dynamics, 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
Velocity at the wider portion, 𝑣1 = 5 m/s
𝐴1 𝑣1 1.77×10−2 ×5
Therefore, velocity at the narrow portion, 𝑣2 = =
𝐴1 3.85×10−3
𝑣2 = 22.98 𝑚/𝑠
Example 4.8
Water flowing through a garden hose of diameter 4 cm fills a 50 L pond in 35 seconds. What is
the speed of the water leaving the end of the hose?
Solution:
Diameter of the hose d = 4 cm
Radius of the hose r = d/2 = 4/2 = 2 cm = 2 x 10-2 m
Cross sectional area of the hose A = πr2 = 3.14 x 0.022 = 1.256 x 10-3 m2
50𝐿 50×10−3 𝑚3
Rate of flow or volume flow rate of water through the hose = 35 𝑠 = 35 𝑠
= 1.43 × 10−3 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
The continuity equation can be written as Av = a constant
The constant term is the rate of flow.
That is, 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Therefore, the velocity of water at the end of the hose, 𝑣 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1.43 × 10−3
𝑣= = 1.14 𝑚⁄𝑠
1.256 × 10−3
Example 4.9
Find out the velocity of water, if we connect a nozzle of diameter 2 cm at the end of the hose in
the above problem?
Solution:
Diameter of the nozzle connected to the hose = 2 cm
The radius of the nozzle connected to the hose = 1 cm = 1 x 10-2 m
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 3.14 ×. 012
𝐴 = 3.14 × 10−4 𝑚2
We have, 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
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That is, speed of the water at the end of nozzle 𝑣 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1.43 × 10−3
𝑣= = 4.55 𝑚/𝑠
3.14 × 10−4
This problem can otherwise solve by the form of continuity equation in fluid
dynamics as
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
The cross-sectional area of the hose, A1 = 1.256 x 10-3 m2 (calculated in the above
problem)
Speed of water from the hose, 𝑣1 = 1.14 m/s (calculated in the above
problem)
Cross sectional area of the nozzle A2 = 3.14 × 10−4 𝑚2
Speed of water from the nozzle, 𝑣2 =?
𝐴1𝑣1
Rearranging the continuity equation, we can have, 𝑣2 = 𝐴2
−3
1.256 × 10 × 1.14
𝑣2 = = 4.56 𝑚/𝑠
3.14 × 10−4
Example 4.10
An incompressible oil of density 850 kg/m3 is pumped through a cylindrical pipe of differential
cross-section at a rate of 10 litres per second. The first section of the pipe has a diameter of 8.0
cm. The second section of the pipe has a diameter of 4.0 cm. (a) What are the flow speed and mass
flow rate in the first section? (b) What are the flow speed and mass flow rate in the second section?
Solution:
Volume flow rate through the pipe = 10 litres per second = 10 x 10-3 m3/s = 10-2 m3/s
Diameter of the first section of the pipe d1 = 8 cm
The radius of the first section of the pipe, 𝑟1 = d1/2 = 8/2 = 4 cm = 4 x 10-2 m
Area of cross section of the first section, 𝐴1 = 𝜋𝑟1 2
𝐴1 = 3.14 × (4 × 10−2 )2 = 5.024 × 10−3 𝑚2
By continuity equation, 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
That is speed oil at the first section, 𝑣1 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
10−2
𝑣1 = = 1.99 𝑚/𝑠
5.024 × 10−3
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Diameter of the second section of the pipe d2 = 4 cm
The radius of the second section of the pipe, 𝑟2 = d2/2 = 4/2 = 2 cm = 2 x 10-2 m
Area of cross section of the second section, 𝐴2 = 𝜋𝑟2 2 = 3.14 × (2 × 10−2 )2
A2 = 1.256 x 10-3 m2
Continuity equation in fluid mechanics otherwise expressed as
𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝐴2𝑣2 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐴1𝑣1 5.024×10−3 ×1.99
Therefore, 𝑣2 = = = 7.96 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴2 1.256×10−3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 10−2

Or 𝑣2 = = = 7.96 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1.256×10−3
Mass flow rate and volume flow rate are constant since we are considering the flow of an
incompressible (constant density) fluid as streamline flow or laminar flow.
Therefore, the mass flow rate at any point in the pipe = density of oil x volume flow rate
= 850 kg/m3 x 10-2 m3/s
= 8.5 kg/s
4.4.4 Energies of a flowing fluid
A flowing fluid possesses three types of energies – kinetic energy, potential energy, and
pressure energy.
a) Kinetic energy
The kinetic energy is due to the motion of fluid particles. To understand this, let us
put a small leaf at the river on the coast side and then put the same leaf in the middle of the river.
And observe, which one is moving slow and fast? The leaf at the coast side moves slowly because
the water at the coast side moves slowly, but the leaf in the middle of the river moves faster because
the river moves fast in the middle. That is the motion of the fluid gives energy termed as kinetic
energy of fluids. If m mass of the fluid flows with a velocity v, then kinetic energy is given by
1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
For unit volume, we can rewrite this equation with the density of fluid ρ as
1 2
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝜌𝑣
2
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b) Potential energy
The energy of the fluid by virtue of its position is called potential energy. To identify this
energy of fluid, pour a bucket of water to a plant in a pot. Then try, pouring the same amount of
water with the same bucket from the terrace to the same plant. What will happen? The plant and
the pot may get damaged due to the flow of water from the terrace. This shows that the fluid kept
at a height can do some work and it has extra energy due to its position. This energy is termed the
potential energy of the fluid.
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
In terms of density of fluid,
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
c) Pressure energy
Unlike in mechanics, fluids have a new kind of energy, called pressure energy which is due
to the action of fluid molecules on any immersed substance. While playing with your friends in a
pond or river, you might have experienced that it is easier to lift your friend inside water than in
air. Similarly, it is easier to pull a bucket of water from a well when it is still submerged in water
than in air. We do not feel the actual weight of the body when it is submerged in water. This shows
that the fluid molecules apply force on a submerged body from all the sides and the net force is
called pressure. Due to pressure, the fluid can do work and it possesses energy. The energy of the
fluid due to its pressure is called pressure energy. If P is the pressure, m is the mass of fluid and ρ
is the density of the fluid, the pressure energy is given by
𝑚𝑃
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 =
𝜌
For unit volume, we can rewrite this equation as
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃
4.4.5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

According to the continuity equation, the speed of fluid flow can vary along the paths of
the fluid. What about pressure? The variation of pressure of flowing fluid depends on height as in
the static situation and it also depends on the speed of flow. We can derive an important
relationship called Bernoulli’s equation that relates the pressure, flow speed, and height for the
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flow of an ideal fluid. Bernoulli’s equation is an essential tool in analyzing plumbing systems,
hydroelectric generating stations, and the flight of airplanes.
Bernoulli’s equation is a general expression that relates the pressure difference between
two points in the pipe to both velocity changes (kinetic energy change) and elevation (height)
changes (potential energy change). Bernoulli’s theorem is analogous to the law of conservation of
energy in mechanics.
Bernoulli’s theorem states that the sum of kinetic energy, potential energy, and pressure
energy of an ideal fluid in a streamline flow remains constant throughout the flow. That is, total
energy of an ideal fluid in streamline motion is a constant.
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

For the unit volume of a flowing fluid, Bernoulli’s theorem can be mathematically written as
1 2
𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
If we consider total energy at any two points on the streamline, then
1 2 1
𝜌𝑣1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝑃2
2 2
In the case of a fluid flowing through a horizontal pipe, the potential energy becomes a
constant since ℎ1 = ℎ2 at any two points. Hence,
1 2 1
𝜌𝑣1 + 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝑃2
2 2
1 2
𝜌𝑣 + 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
The above equation gives a relation between pressure and velocity of fluid flow. If the
velocity of fluid flow increases in a region, pressure decreases in that region and vice versa.
4.4.6 Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem
a) Atomizer
An atomizer is a device to spray a liquid or make a liquid into a jet of tiny droplets., like in
body spray, spray painting, car wash stations, etc. The principle behind the working of atomizers
is Bernoulli’s theorem. According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the velocity of a fluid increases in a
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region, the pressure decreases in that region, and vice versa in order to maintain the total energy
as constant.
Fig. 4.8 Schematic diagram of an atomizer
The schematic diagram of an atomizer is shown in the figure. The essential parts of the
atomizer are a cylinder C with a piston P, a narrow T section pipe, and a container to fill the liquid
to be sprayed. As we push the piston rapidly to inside, the air in the cylinder begins to move
towards the T section pipe. Since the area of cross-section of the cylinder is larger than the area of
the cross-section of the T section pipe, as a consequence of the continuity equation the velocity of
air moving through the T section pipe is greater than the velocity of air in the cylinder. According
to Bernoulli’s theorem, the pressure in the T section pipe must be lower than the pressure at the
surface of the liquid in the container. Because of this pressure difference, the liquid in the container
rises up and reaches the T junction pipe. The liquid mixes with high-speed air to form a spray. For
a perfume bottle or spray paint, the container with liquid is kept at high pressure with an air
compressor. So, a small pressure difference created due to the press at the spray piston will give a
jet of liquid particle or atomized liquid.
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b) Airfoil
Fig. 4.9 Cross sectional view of an air foil with streamlines of air
Airfoil is a special shape of solid objects which produces a lifting effect or floating effect while
moving in a streamlined fluid or air. The cross-section of wings of an airplane, boomerang, wings
of birds, propeller blade, turbine blade, etc. is somewhat with an airfoil shape. The characteristic
airfoil shape has a rounded leading edge followed by a sharp trailing edge and curved surfaces as
shown in Fig. 4.9. When the airfoil is moving against the streamlined air, because of this special
shape the streamlines might have a speed difference at the upper and lower surfaces. If the air
streams are moving at different speeds, so with different kinetic energy, then according to
Bernoulli’s theorem there will be pressure difference.
Since the number of streamlines is more at the upper surfaces (remember the fluid layers
should not cross in streamline motion of fluids), the velocity of air is higher at the upper surface
of the airfoil (more streamlines at the same cross-sectional area cause increase in velocity).
Therefore, the kinetic energy of air at the upper side is higher. Then by Bernoulli’s theorem, the
pressure energy should be lesser at the upper side of the airfoil than on the lower side. That means
there is a lifting force from the lower side of the airfoil, which tries to float the airfoil while it is in
motion. This lifting effect comes into action only when the airfoil and streamlined air are in relative
motion. So, the lifting or floating motion of the paper plane or boomerang can be understood with
Bernoulli’s theorem. The airplane engine can use its energy to fly forward and save energy for
keeping the mass at the air floating because of the airfoil shape of wings.
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Can you relate the following everyday life experience to what we have learned here?
a) We may feel that we are pulled aside to a fast-running truck or bus just near to us. Or
when we are standing at the railway station platform and a train which does not have a
stop at that station passing just near to us with very high speed.
b) The motion of a boomerang
c) The motion of a kite
4.5 VISCOSITY
The viscus force is analogous to the frictional force in mechanics. Consider a glass plate
placed at an inclination of 45 degrees. Let us pour a drop of water and honey at the elevated side
at two points with the same height. Observe, what happened. The water drops easily flow
downward while the honey does not. What it means, both are in the liquid state, but they are not
behaving alike. There are some internal forces to resist the motion of fluids. That force is called
viscus force.
It is the property of a fluid by virtue of which it tends to resist the relative motion between
the layers of the fluid is called viscosity. We know that the fluid under streamline motion moves
as liquid layers that do not cross together. They move one above the other. So, there is relative
motion between the liquid layers.
4.5.1 Coefficient of viscosity

Consider the flow of a liquid over a solid surface. Fig.4.10 shows a few representative
layers of the flowing liquid. The layer of the liquid in contact with the solid surface has zero
velocity and velocity of the layers of the liquid increases with the distance of the layers from the
solid surface. The viscous force (F) acting between two layers of the liquid is directly proportional
to the area of liquid layers and the velocity gradient between the layers (𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )/𝑑 . Combining
these proportionalities, we can write,
𝐴(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
𝐹 𝛼
𝑑
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𝐴(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
𝐹=𝜂
𝑑
The constant of proportionality η is called the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid. Therefore, the
co-efficient of viscosity η can be defined as that much resistive force developed between the liquid
layers of unit area when they are moving with a unit velocity gradient. The SI unit of coefficient
of viscosity η is kgm-1s-1 or Nsm-2.
Fig. 4.10 Flow of liquid in layers over a solid surface
4.5.2 Terminal velocity
Consider an object falling through a viscous medium. At first, the object will accelerate
due to gravity acting on the mass of the object while the viscus force or frictional analogue in fluid
dynamics and buoyant force opposes this motion of the object. Finally, an equilibrium may occur
between the downward gravitational force and opposing forces. Thus, the net force on the body
becomes zero and it stops accelerating and descent with a uniform velocity. This uniform velocity
is called terminal velocity.

Why there are no humans get killed by hitting raindrops? [We know that the clouds occur at
roughly 3 km to 18 km altitude, then a raindrop with a small mass may kill humans and other
organisms as it accelerates at a rate of 9.8 m/s2]
127
Consider that we are going to drop a spherical object of radius 1 mm made of steel with density
7.801 x 103 kg/m3 into the following fluids as given in the table below. Use the information given
in the table and answer the following questions.
1. Find out the type of liquid with maximum terminal velocity?

2. Arrange the liquids with their increasing order of terminal velocity?
3. Find out the type of liquid with minimum terminal velocity?
Co-efficient of Density
Name of Fluid
viscosity (μPa s) (103 kg/m3)
Acetone 330 0.792
Ethyl alcohol 1192 0.789
Methyl alcohol 591 0.793
Benzene 649 0.921
Glycerol 141.2x104 1.26
Nitric acid 1770 1.31
Sulphuric acid 22x103 1.834
turpentine 1490 0.86
Kerosene 1460 0.82
Toluene 585 0.867
Heavy water 1260 1.1
4.5.3 Stokes’s law
When a body falls through a fluid, it drags the layer of the fluid in contact with it. As we
know the viscus force that is the relative motion between the different layers of the fluid is
equivalent to the frictional motion in Mechanics. The body under motion through the fluid
experiences a retarding force. It is observed that the viscous force is proportional to the velocity
of the object and is opposite to the direction of motion. The other quantities on which the force F
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depends on viscosity η of the fluid and radius a of the sphere (consider the shape of body as a
sphere for simplicity in the calculation). Sir George G. Stokes (1819-1903), an English scientist
introduced an expression for the viscous drag force F as given below.
𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣
Where η is the co-efficient of viscosity of the medium, r is the radius of the spherical body and
v is the uniform velocity after equilibrium or terminal velocity.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. A 200 kg load is hung on a wire of length 4.00 m, cross-sectional area 0.2 x 10-4 m2, and
Young’s modulus 8.00 x 1010 N/m2. What is its increase in length? [Ans: 4.9 mm]
2. A steel wire of diameter, 1 mm can support a tension of 0.5 kN. A steel cable to support a
tension of 25 kN should have a diameter of what order of magnitude? [Ans: 7.07 mm]
3. 250 L oil of compressibility k = 20 x 10-6 atm-1 is subjected to a hydraulic press. Find the
decrease in the volume of the oil when it is subjected to a pressure 1.6x107 Pa? [Ans:
7.9 x 10-4 m3]
4. How much load is needed to elongate a steel wire to 0.5% of its original length? The diameter
of the wire is 2 mm and Young’s modulus of the material of the wire is 20 x 1010 N/m2. [Ans:
320.4 kg]
5. A wire of length 2 m is subjected to longitudinal stress by fixing the one end and hanging 500
kg mass at the other end. If the wire stretched for a length of 5 mm and its Young’s Modulus
is 9.1 x 1010 N/m2, calculate the radius of the wire? [Ans: 2.62 mm]
6. Let a steady stream of water flow from a kitchen tap. At the tap, the diameter of the stream is
0.85 cm. The stream fills a 150 cm3 container in 15 s. Find the diameter of the stream 10.0 cm
below the opening of the tap? [Ans: 3 mm]
(Find the cross-sectional area of steady smooth flow of water with diameter 0.85 cm and apply
continuity equation in fluid dynamics to find the velocity of flow there. Equate the product of
the area of cross-section and velocity with volume flow rate. Then, treat this as initial velocity
and find the final velocity after a displacement of 10 cm with an acceleration of 9.8 m/s2, since
the motion is under gravity. Use equations of motion under uniform acceleration. Now again
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apply the continuity equation to find the area of cross-section and hence the diameter of steady
smooth flow which is narrowed due to an increase in velocity.)
7. A copper rod of cross-sectional area 0.5 cm2 and length 1.00 m is elongated by 2 x 10-2
mm and a steel rod of the same cross-sectional area but 0.100 m in length is elongated by
1.5 x 10-3 mm. Which rod undergoes greater tensile strain? [Ans: Copper]
8. Water is flowing in a pipe with a varying cross-sectional area. At point 1 the cross-sectional
area of the pipe is 0.075 m2 and the magnitude of the fluid velocity is 4 m/s (a) What are
the fluid speed at points in the pipe where the cross-sectional area is 0.15 m2 (a) and (b)
0.05 m2 (c) Calculate the volume of water discharged from the open end of the pipe in 1.00
hour? [Ans: (a) 2 m/s, (b) 6 m/s and (c) 1080 m3]
9. Water is flowing in a pipe with a circular cross-section but with varying cross-sectional
area (a) At one point in the pipe, the radius is 6 cm. What is the speed of the water at this
point if water is flowing into this pipe at a steady rate of 1.20 m3/s? (b) At a second point
in the pipe, the water speed is 3.5 m/s. What is the radius of the pipe at this point?
[Ans: (a) 106.16 m/s and (b) 0.33 m]
10. A shower head has 25 circular openings, each with a radius of 1.5 mm. The shower head
is connected to a pipe with a radius of 1.0 cm. If the speed of water in the pipe is 5 m/s,
what is its speed as it exits the shower head openings? [Ans: 8.89 m/s]
QUESTIONS
1. Define stress and strain? And comment on their unit?
2. Explain Hooke’s Law
3. Explain Moduli of elasticity and give their expressions?
4. Explain why there is no value for Young’s modulus and rigidity modulus for liquids and
only Bulk modulus?
5. Explain the tensile strength of a material?
6. Define hydrostatic pressure and explain Pascal’s law?
7. Define the pressure one Pascal?
8. Why pressure is not a vector quantity?
9. Why do mountaineers get bleed through their nose or ear at high altitudes?
10. Describe the terms gauge pressure and absolute pressure?
11. Mention the types of attraction between molecules?
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12. Describe the hydrophilic and phobic surfaces considering the angle of contact?
13. Write a short note on the ascent formula?
14. Distinguish between streamline and turbulent flow of fluids?
15. What is Reynold’s number? Mention its importance?
16. Explain continuity equation in fluid dynamics and how it is related to the law of
conservation of mass?
17. Give an account of different types of energies associated with the flow of fluids?
18. Explain Bernoulli’s theorem?
19. Describe the working of an atomizer with a neat diagram?
20. Explain why there is a floating effect while the airfoil and fluid are in relative motion?
21. Define the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid and mention its unit?
22. What is meant by the terminal velocity of a body?
23. Explain Stokes’s law?
131
Bibliography
1. Text Book of Physics for Class XI & XII (Part-I, Part-II); N.C.E.R.T., Delhi
2. Applied Physics, Vol. I and Vol. II, TTTI Publications, Tata McGraw Hill, Delhi
3. Concepts of Physics by H C Verma, Vol. I & II, Bharti Bhawan Ltd. New Delhi
4. Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday/Resnick/Walker, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd
5. Modern approach to Applied Physics-I and II, AS Vasudeva, Modern Publishers.
132
Revised Syllabus (Revision 2021)
Program: Diploma in Engineering

Course Code: Course Title: Applied Physics-I
Semester: 1 Credits: 3
Course Category: Basic Science
Periods/Week: 3 (L:2 T:1 P:0) Periods/Semester: 45
Course Objectives:
• To provide students with a broad understanding of physical principles of
the universe to help them develop critical thinking and quantitative
reasoning skills
• To help the diploma engineers in applying the basic concepts of physics to
solve broad-based engineering problems
Course Pre-requisites:
Topic Course Course name Semester

code
Basic knowledge in Secondary Level
Physics Physics
133
Course Outcomes
On completion of the course student will be able to:
Duration Cognitive
CO No. Description Level
(Hours)
Apply laws of mechanics in rocket propulsion and recoil

CO 1 9 Applying
of gun.
CO 2 Apply concepts of circular motion and rotational motion 10 Applying
Make use the concepts of energy, power, work,

CO 3 13 Applying
temperature and friction to solve problems
Use the theorems of fluid dynamics in atomiser and

CO 4 13 Applying
airfoil
CO-PO MAPPING WITH VALUES
Course
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7
Outcomes
CO 1 3
CO 2 3
CO 3 3
CO 4 3
134
Course Outline
Description Duration Cognitive

(Hours) Level
CO 1: Apply laws of mechanics in rocket propulsion and recoil of gun.
Discuss various physical quantities and

M1.01 1 Understanding
their units.
Identify types of errors in measurements

M1.02 and apply it to calculate errors in 2 Applying
laboratory experiments.
Differentiate a physical quantity into

Understanding
M1.03 scalar and vector and discuss various 2
methods of vector addition.
Apply Newton’s laws of motion

and law of conservation of linear
M1.04 4 Applying
momentum to describe rocket
propulsion and recoil of gun.
Module 1: Measurements and Force
Physical quantities - Fundamental and derived, Units and systems of units (CGS,
MKS and SI units),
Measurements: Errors in measurements - systematic and random errors
(qualitative idea only), absolute error, relative error, percentage error, numerical
problems
Scalar and Vector quantities – representation of vector, Collinear vectors,
Coplanar vectors, equal vectors, unit vectors. Addition and Subtraction of Vectors,
Triangle and Parallelogram law of addition, Resolution of a Vector.
Equations of motion (elementary idea), Newton’s laws of motion (no derivation),
Force, Momentum, Statement and derivation of conservation of linear momentum, its
applications - recoil of gun and rockets, Impulse and its examples (numerical
problems related to force and momentum).
135
CO 2: Apply concepts of circular motion and rotational motion
Describe basic concepts of circular

motion and its application in the case of 4 Applying
M2.01
banking of roads and railway tracks.
Explain rotational motion and theorems Understanding

M2.02 3
of moment of inertia.
Discuss the conservation of angular

M2.03 momentum and torque in rotational 2 Understanding
motion.
Series Test – I (Module 1 & 2) 1
Module 2: Rotational Motion
Circular motion, angular displacement, angular velocity, angular acceleration,

Relation between linear and angular velocity, linear acceleration and angular
acceleration. Centripetal acceleration and Centripetal force (qualitative idea only).
Application - banking of roads and railway tracks (numerical problems related to
circular motion)
Moment of inertia and its physical significance, radius of gyration for rigid body,
Theorems of parallel and perpendicular axes, Moment of inertia of rod, disc, ring and
sphere (hollow and solid)- (Formulae only)
Definition of angular momentum and torque, Conservation of angular momentum

(quantitative).
Make use the concepts of energy, power, work, temperature and friction
CO 3:
to solve problems
M3.01 Explain the concept of work and friction. 3 Understanding
136
Describe conservation of energy and
transformation of energy into various 2 Understanding
M3.02
forms
Discuss the concept of power and apply

4 Applying
M3.03 it to solve engineering problems.
Discuss the concepts of heat and

measurement of temperature using 4 Applying
M3.04
mercury thermometer and pyrometer
Module 3: Work, Energy, Power and Heat
Definition of work and unit, Work done in moving an object on horizontal plane,
Friction: definition, static friction, kinetic friction, laws of friction, methods of
reducing friction and examples.
Energy and its units, kinetic energy, potential energy with examples. conservation
of energy for freely falling bodies, Various forms of energy, transformation of energy
(mention examples), Power- definition, power and work relationship, calculation of
power (numerical problems related to energy and power).
Concept of heat and temperature, scales of temperature and their relationship

(numerical problems relating various temperature scales), modes of heat transfer
(conduction, convection and radiation with examples), specific heat of solids,
measurement of temperature - Mercury thermometer and Pyrometer.
CO 4: Use the theorems of fluid dynamics in atomiser and airfoil
Explain the basic concepts of elasticity and

M4.01 apply it to calculate various elastic modulii 4 Applying
of materials
137
Discuss properties of fluids such as surface
2 Understanding
M4.02 tension and pressure.
Define the term coefficient of viscosity and

M4.03 2 Understanding
explain Stoke’s law
Apply theorems of fluid dynamics to

M4.04 explain the working of atomiser and air 4 Applying
foil
Series Test – II (Module 3 & 4) 1
Module 4: Properties of Matter
Elasticity: definition of stress and strain, Hooke’s law, modulii of elasticity

(numerical problems).
Pressure: definition and units, atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure and absolute
pressure.
Surface tension: concept, units, cohesive and adhesive forces, angle of contact,
Ascent Formula (No derivation), mention two applications of surface tension, effect
of temperature and impurity on surface tension.
Viscosity and coefficient of viscosity: Terminal velocity, Stoke’s law.

Hydrodynamics: Fluid motion, stream line and turbulent flow, Reynold’s number
(qualitative idea only), Equation of continuity (numerical problems of equation of
continuity), Bernoulli’s Theorem and its applications (air foil, atomizer).
138
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
APPLIED PHYSICS -I
Time: 3 Hour Max. Marks: 75

PART A
I. Answer all the following questions in one word or one sentence
1. Mole is the unit for ---------
2. Pick out the scalar quantities from the following
a) velocity b) displacement c) work d) force
3. The analogous physical quantity of displacement in circular motion is----------.

4. Moment of inertia of a sphere about its diameter is --------------.
5. Write the SI unit of power.
6. The mode of heat transfer by the movement of particles is -------------.
7. Define stress.
8. Capillary rise is connected with the phenomenon of --------.
9. Suggest a lubricant that can be used for light machines like watches.
(9 x 1 = 9 marks)
PART B
II. Answer any eight questions from the following. Each question carries 3 marks.
1. Correct the following statements.

a) The rate of change of speed is known as acceleration
b) A freely falling stone is moving with constant speed.
c) Two vectors each of magnitude P acting in the opposite direction have the
resultant 2P.
2. Derive the relation between torque and angular momentum.
3. Explain the working of a pyrometer with a schematic diagram.
139
4. Convert 300 K into Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale.
5. Give three practical applications of conduction of heat.

6. Write a brief note on solar energy.
7. Which boils faster; milk or water? Comment your answer
8. Write a note on gauge pressure.
9. Young’s moduli of certain materials are given in the table. Make a comparative
study of the materials when stretched by the same load.
Material Y x 1010 N/m2
Steel 20.0
Glass 5.5
Rubber 0.05
Copper 11.0
10. Distinguish between elasticity and plasticity with examples.
(8 x 3 = 24 marks)
PART C
Answer all questions. Each question carries 7 marks
III. A car moving with a momentum P. If the velocity of the car changes at a certain instant and
its momentum increases by 100%. Calculate the increase in kinetic energy of the car.
OR
IV. In measurement with a scale, the length of a table is observed as 2.18 m, 2.22 m, 2.19 m,
and 2.20 m. Find the percentage error in measurement.
V. Discuss the conservation of angular momentum with an example.
OR
VI. Calculate the angle of banking for a circular track of radius of curvature 200 m suitable
for a maximum speed of 40 m/s.
140
VII. How can we add two vectors in the following situations?
a) Two vectors in the same direction.
b) Two vectors in the opposite direction.
c) If the two vectors are not parallel to each other.
OR
VIII. The particle executes 400 revolutions in a minute along a circle of radius 20 cm. Calculate
linear velocity and angular velocity.
IX. A crane that lifts a load produces a tension of 4500 N in the cable attached to the load. If the
motor winds the cable at the rate of 2 m/s. Estimate the power of the engine of the crane.
OR
X. Explain different modes of heat transfer.
XI. Friction is a necessary evil. Give a proper explanation of the statement. State laws of
friction.
OR
XII. A metal wire of length 10 m and diameter 1 mm is stretched by hanging a mass of 14 kg at
one end and keeping the other end fixed to a sealing. Find the extension produced if the
Young’s Modulus of the material of the wire is Y = 7 x 1010 N/m2.
XIII. a) Explain the elementary idea of surface tension.

b) If the clothes have grease stains on them, washing with water will not remove these
stains. Suggest a solution to the problem and explain it.
OR
XIV. State Bernoulli’s theorem. Explain an application of Bernoulli’s theorem.
6 x 7 = 42 Marks
141

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GOVERNMENT OF KERALA

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

STATE INSTITUTE OF TECHNICAL TEACHERS

Layout and Design

Chapter 1: Measurements and Force 1

1.1 MEASUREMENTS AND UNIT SYSTEMS

Conceptual Learning 1.1

Find the values of the following quantities in proper units

3. Distance from home to college

4. How long do you study per day?

1.1.1 Physical quantities

1.1.2 Unit of a physical quantity

Table 1.1 Examples of some physical quantities in suitable units

1.1.3 Fundamental quantities and derived quantities

1.1.4 Unit systems

1.1.5 CGS system

1.1.6 MKS system

1.1.7 System International (SI)

Table 1.3 Fundamental quantities and their units in SI unit system

Fundamental quantity Unit Symbol

Luminous intensity candela cd

Conceptual Learning 1.2

Prefix Multiple Symbol Prefix Sub- multiple Symbol

Conceptual Learning 1.3

1) 2.43 cm = 2.43 x 10-2 m

1.2.1 Systematic Errors

1.2.3 Least Count Error

1.2.4 Absolute error

Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , . . . . . . . . . , 𝑎𝑛 be the values obtained for a physical quantity ‘a’ in an

1.2.5 Relative error

1.2.6 Percentage error

Conceptual Learning 1.4

|∆a1 |+ |∆a2 |+ ………….+ |∆an |

Mean absolute error, ∆𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 0.85

Conceptual Learning 1.5

1.3.1 Graphical representation of a vector

1.3.2 Collinear vectors

1.3.3 Equal vectors

1.3.4 Negative of a vector

1.3.5 Unit vector

1.3.6 Addition of vectors

Conceptual Learning 1.6

1.3.7 Graphical methods for vector addition

(a) Triangle method of vector addiction

Fig. 1.3 Addition of two vectors by triangular method

(b) Parallelogram method of vector addition

Fig. 1.4 Addition of two vectors by parallelogram method

1.3.8 Analytical method for vector addition

The magnitude of the resultant vector R is given by the expression

Conceptual Learning 1.7

Fig. 1.6 Subtraction of two vectors

1.3.10 Resolution of a vector

A vector lying in a plane is usually

simple trigonometric relations, x-component and y-component of vector 𝐴⃗ is given by

Now let us examine two real-life examples of the resolution of vectors.

Fig. 1.10 Resolution of pulling force applied on a cart

Conceptual Learning 1.8

1.4.1 Distance travelled and Displacement

1.4.3 Velocity (v)

1.4.4 Acceleration (a)