Advanced Mathematics S6 TG

Advanced Mathematics
for Rwanda Schools
Teacher’s Guide
Senior Six
Authors
Emmanuel Ngezahayo
Pacifique Icyingeneye
FOUNTAIN PUBLISHERS
www.fountainpublishers.co.ug
Fountain Publishers Rwanda Ltd
P.O. Box 6567
Kigali, Rwanda
E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected];
[email protected]
Website: www.fountainpublishers.co.ug
© Emmanuel Ngezahayo, Pacifique Icyingeneye 2017

First Published 2017
All rights reserved; no part of this book may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means; electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or oth-
erwise without prior written permission from the authors and
the publishers.
ISBN: 978-9970-19-420-9
Contents
Section 1: General introduction.......................... ix
Section 2: Content map................................... xvii
Section 3: Sample lesson plan......................... xxii
Section 4: Units description...........................xxviii
Unit 1 Complex numbers.............................................1

Lesson 1.1. Concepts of complex numbers.................... 3
Lesson 1.2. Definition and properties of the number i..... 5
Lesson 1.3. Geometric representation of
a complex number.................................... 7
Lesson 1.4. Modulus of a complex number.................... 8
Lesson 1.5. Loci related to distances on Argand
diagram................................................. 11
Lesson 1.6. Equality of two complex numbers............. 13
Lesson 1.7. Addition and subtraction of
complex numbers.................................... 14
Lesson 1.8. Conjugate and opposite of a
complex number..................................... 16
Lesson 1.9. Multiplication of complex numbers............ 17
Lesson 1.10. Inverse and division of
complex numbers.................................... 19
Lesson 1.11. Square root of a complex number............. 20
Lesson 1.12. Linear equations..................................... 22
Lesson 1.13. Quadratic equations................................ 24
Lesson 1.14. Polynomials in set of
complex numbers.................................... 25
Lesson 1.15. Argument of a complex number................ 29
Lesson 1.16. Loci related to the angles......................... 32
Lesson 1.17. Polar form of a complex number............... 36
Lesson 1.18. Multiplication and division of
complex numbers in polar form................ 38
Lesson 1.19. Powers of complex number in polar form... 41
Lesson 1.20. nth root of a complex number.................. 43
Lesson 1.21. Graphical representation of nth roots of a
complex number..................................... 45
Lesson 1.22. Construction of regular polygon................. 49
Lesson 1.23. Exponential form of a complex number...... 52
Lesson 1.24. Trigonometric number of a multiple of
an angle................................................ 53
Lesson 1.25. Linearisation of trigonometric
expressions............................................ 55
Lesson 1.26. Solving equation of the form
a cos x + b=
sin x c, a, b, c ∈  and a ⋅ b ≠ 0 .. 57
Lesson 1.27. Alternating current problem...................... 59
iii
Advanced Mathematics for Rwanda Schools Teacher’s Book Six
Unit 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions............75

Lesson 2.1. Domain and range of natural
logarithmic functions............................... 77
Lesson 2.2. Limit and asymptotes for natural
Lesson 2.3. Derivative of natural logarithmic functions.. 81
Lesson 2.4. Variation and curve sketching of natural
Lesson 2.5. Domain and range of logarithmic
function with any base............................ 88
Lesson 2.6. Limit of logarithmic function with
any base................................................ 91
Lesson 2.7. Logarithmic differentiation....................... 94
Lesson 2.8. Further logarithmic differentiation............. 95
Lesson 2.9. Variation and curves of logarithmic
functions with any base........................... 97
Lesson 2.10. Domain and range of exponential
functions with base " e " ......................... 104
Lesson 2.11. Limit of exponential functions
with base " e " ....................................... 105
Lesson 2.12. Derivative of exponential functions
with base “e”........................................ 108
Lesson 2.13. Variation and curve of exponential
functions with base " e " ......................... 109
functions with any base......................... 113
with any base....................................... 114
with any base....................................... 116
functions with any base......................... 117
Lesson 2.18. Compound interest problems.................. 122
Lesson 2.19. Mortgage amount problems.................... 124
Lesson 2.20. Population growth problems................... 126
Lesson 2.21. Depreciation value problems.................. 127
Lesson 2.22. Earthquake problems............................ 128
Lesson 2.23. Carbon-14 dating problems.................... 130
iv
Contents
Unit 3 Taylor and Maclaurin’s Expansions.................141

Lesson 3.1. Finite series.......................................... 143
Lesson 3.2. Infinite series ....................................... 144
Lesson 3.3. Tests for convergence of series ............... 147
Lesson 3.4. Power series ........................................ 149
Lesson 3.5. Taylor and Maclaurin series ................... 151
Lesson 3.6. Taylor series by using Maclaurin series ... 153
Lesson 3.7. Calculation of limits ............................. 156
Lesson 3.8. Estimation of the number e.................... 157
Lesson 3.9. Estimation of the number π .................. 158
Lesson 3.10. Estimation of trigonometric number
of an angle........................................... 161
Lesson 3.11. Estimation of an irrational number.......... 162
Lesson 3.12. Estimation of natural logarithm of a
number................................................ 164
Lesson 3.13. Estimation of roots of equations.............. 166
Unit 4 Integration................................................... 175
Lesson 4.1. Differentials.......................................... 177
Lesson 4.2. Definition of indefinite integrals.............. 179
Lesson 4.3. Properties of integrals ........................... 180
Lesson 4.4. Integration by substitution...................... 183
Lesson 4.5. Integration of rational functions where
numerator is expressed in terms of
derivative of denominator....................... 185
degree of numerator is greater or equal
to the degree of denominator.................. 187
denominator is factorised into linear
factors................................................. 188
denominator is a quadratic factor............ 192
Lesson 4.9. Integrals of the form
∫ sin mx cos nx dx, ∫ cos mx cos nx dx, ∫ sin mx sin nx dx .. 195
Lesson 4.10. Integrals of the form ∫ sin m x cos n x dx ........... 197
Lesson 4.11. Integrals of the form ∫ tan m x secn x dx ......... 199
Lesson 4.12. Integrals containing sin x, cos x, tan x
on denominator.................................... 201
2 2
Lesson 4.13. Integrals containing sin x, cos x on
denominator......................................... 203
Lesson 4.14. Integrals containing n ax + b ................ 204
Lesson 4.15. Integrals containing ax 2 + bx + c .......... 205
v
Lesson 4.16. Integration by parts .............................. 209

Lesson 4.17. Integration by reduction formulae ........... 210
Lesson 4.18. Integration by Maclaurin series............... 212
Lesson 4.19. Definite integrals .................................. 213
Lesson 4.20. Properties of definite integrals................. 215
Lesson 4.21. Improper integrals, Infinite limits of
integration............................................ 217
Lesson 4.22. Discontinuous integrand........................ 219
Lesson 4.23. Calculation of area of plane surfaces....... 221
Lesson 4.24. Calculation of volume of a solid of
revolution............................................. 225
Lesson 4.25. Calculation of arc length of a curved
surface................................................ 229
Unit 5 Differential Equations...................................245
Lesson 5.1. Definition and classification.................... 247
Lesson 5.2. Differential equations with separable
variables.............................................. 249
Lesson 5.3. Simple homogeneous equations.............. 250
Lesson 5.4. Linear differential equations................... 252
Lesson 5.5. Particular solution................................. 254
Lesson 5.6. Second order differential equations:
Definition............................................. 256
Lesson 5.7. Second order differential equations
with constant coefficient: two distinct
real roots............................................. 257
Lesson 5.8. Characteristic equation with a
double root........................................... 259
Lesson 5.9. Characteristic equation with
complex roots....................................... 261
Lesson 5.10. Non- homogeneous linear differential
equations of the second order with
constant coefficients.............................. 262
Lesson 5.11. Differential equations of the second order
with the right hand side r ( x ) = Peα x ..... 265
Lesson 5.12. Differential equations of the second
order with the right hand side
= r ( x ) Peα x cos β x + Qeα x sin β x ........... 267
Lesson 5.13. Applications: Newton’s law of cooling...... 269
Lesson 5.14. Applications: Electrical circuits............... 271
vi
Contents
Unit 6 Intersection and Sum of Subspaces................281

Lesson 6.1. Definition of subspaces.......................... 282
Lesson 6.2. Intersection of subspaces....................... 283
Lesson 6.3. Dimensions of intersection of subspaces.. 285
Lesson 6.4. Sum of subspaces................................. 286
Lesson 6.5. Dimension of sum of subspaces.............. 288
Lesson 6.6. Grassmann’s formula of dimension for
subspaces............................................ 289
Unit 7 Transformation of Matrices............................295
Lesson 7.1. Kernel and range................................... 297
Lesson 7.2. Elementary row/column operations.......... 298
Lesson 7.3. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors................. 300
Lesson 7.4. Diagonalisation of a matrix..................... 304
Lesson 7.5. Echelon matrix..................................... 307
Lesson 7.6. Matrix inverse....................................... 309
Lesson 7.7. Rank of matrix...................................... 312
Lesson 7.8. Solving system of linear equations........... 313
Lesson 7.9. Power of matrix.................................... 315
Unit 8 Conics......................................................... 325
Lesson 8.1. Generalities on conic sections................. 326
Lesson 8.2. Definition and equation of a parabola...... 329
Lesson 8.3. Tangent line and normal line
on a parabola....................................... 334
Lesson 8.4. Definition and equation of an ellipse........ 337
Lesson 8.5. Tangent line and normal line on ellipse.... 342
Lesson 8.6. Definition and equation of a hyperbola.... 344
Lesson 8.7. Tangent line and normal line on
hyperbola............................................. 349
Lesson 8.8. Definition of polar coordinates................ 351
Lesson 8.9. Polar equation of a conic....................... 353
Lesson 8.10. Polar equation of a straight line.............. 355
Lesson 8.11. Polar form of a circle ............................ 357
Lesson 8.12. Applications of conics............................ 359
Unit 9 Random Variables........................................375
Lesson 9.1. Probability density function of a
discrete random variable........................ 376
Lesson 9.2. Cumulative distribution of discrete
random variable.................................... 378
Lesson 9.3. Expected value, variance and standard
deviation of a discrete random variable.... 380
Lesson 9.4. Binomial distribution............................. 382
vii
Lesson 9.5. Expected value, variance and standard

deviation of a binomial distribution......... 384
Lesson 9.6. Poisson distribution............................... 385
continuous random variable................... 388
Lesson 9.8. Cumulative distribution of continuous
random variable.................................... 391
Lesson 9.9. Variance and standard deviation of a
continuous random variable................... 392
Answers for Summative Evaluation One.....................................403
Answers for Summative Evaluation Two.....................................416
Answers for Summative Evaluation Three...................................425
Answers for Summative Evaluation Four....................................438
References.........................................................................450
viii
Section 1: General introduction
1.1. Instruction to the user

This Teacher’s Guide is developed to help the teacher and
learners to use the Advanced Mathematics Learner’s Book
Senior 6. Generally, this Teacher’s Guide provides:
࿌࿌ Content map.
࿌࿌ Sample lesson plan.
࿌࿌ All lessons to be taught for each unit, recommended
periods to each lesson and development of each lesson.
࿌࿌ Generic competence and cross-cutting issues to be
addressed for each lesson.
࿌࿌ Summary for each lesson.
࿌࿌ Guidance on how to do each activity.
࿌࿌ Solutions to all activities.
࿌࿌ Answers (final answers) to all exercises.
Notice
࿌࿌ Number of lessons given is a proposal, the teacher can
combine two or more lessons depending on students’
level of understanding or number of periods a class has
per day.
࿌࿌ The teacher must do exercises or activities instead of
copying answers given in this book.
࿌࿌ This book is a guide, the teacher must prepare and
use her/his innovation based on the guidance provided
herein.
1.2. General introduction to the new curriculum

The curriculum for Rwandan schools at primary and secondary
levels has been changed from knowledge and content based
to competence based. The overall objective is to raise the
standards of education through providing all the knowledge,
skills, attitudes and values that constitute the competencies
that are relevant to real life, enabling them to succeed in the
world of work and of further learning.
ix
1.3. Competences to be developed

Competence is defined as ability to use appropriate
combination of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values in
order to accomplish a particular task successfully. That
is, the ability to apply learning with confidence in a range
of situations. There are basic competences and generic
competences
Basic competences
These are essential competences highlighted in national
policy documents. Their descriptors give an orientation
about priority subjects to be taught, and the kind of learner
envisaged at the end of every cycle. These are:
࿌࿌ Literacy
࿌࿌ Numeracy
࿌࿌ ICT and digital
࿌࿌ Citizenship and nationality identity
࿌࿌ Entrepreneurship and business development
࿌࿌ Science and technology
Generic competence
Generic competences apply across the curriculum and can
be developed in all subjects. They are transferrable and
applicable to a range of situations including employment.
These are;
࿌࿌ Critical thinking: Helps learners become capable of
critical and open-minded questioning and reasoning.
࿌࿌ Communication: Through group discussion, learners
develop their communication skills. Also through
presentation, learners communicate and convey
information and ideas through speaking when they are
presenting their work.
࿌࿌ Self confidence: Learners will gain self confidence
competence when they are presenting their work.
࿌࿌ Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills:
Through group discussion, learners will learn how to
x
Introduction
work with others, participate and collaborate. It gives

them the opportunity to debate their opinions, take
turns, and work together towards a common goal.
࿌࿌ Research: Learners will gain the knowledge of using
the internet. They will also learn how to do a research.
1.4. Techniques to develop competences

The following are some techniques that will be used to
develop competences:
࿌࿌ Group work: Learners form groups of at least 5 learners.
They discuss something in groups and report back on
what the group discussed. In this way, they learn from
each other, and how to work together as a group to
address or solve a problem.
࿌࿌ Pairing: Learners work in pairs (two learners). They
exchange ideas and write down results.
࿌࿌ Practical work: Learners form groups and do the activity
practically such as curve sketching, drawing figures and
then present their results.
࿌࿌ Research work: Learners form groups and do research
either by reading textbooks or using the internet.
1.5. Cross cutting issues to be addressed

Cross cutting issues are the link between what is taught
in school and real life. The following are integrated in
Mathematics subject:
࿌࿌ Peace and values education: By offering learners the
chance of working in groups, they develop peace and
value education by the fact of being convinced without
fighting.
࿌࿌ Inclusive education: The lesson covers all categories of
learners.
࿌࿌ Gender education: Both girls and boys have equal
opportunity to study mathematics.
࿌࿌ Financial education: Learners will be able to use
mathematics to solve problems in finance.
xi
1.6. Equipments needed for the subject

Learners will need geometric instruments for sketching curves
and scientific calculators for some calculations.
1.7. General guidance on activities and exercises

In Core mathematics-Learners Book Six, there are nine units.
There are many activities to be done by learners before a
new lesson. Some activities will be done in pairs (exactly
two learners) and others in groups (more than two learners;
at least five learners). This will help learners to understand
well the lesson. For each activity, there is an icon to show the
teacher what kind the activity is.
At the end of the lesson, there is a series of exercises which
summarise the lesson taught. As a teacher, let learners do
those exercises and correct them on the chalkboard. Also
at the end of each unit, there is a series of exercises which
summarise the whole unit.
Icons
The icons used in this book are as follows:
Practical Activity icon
The hand indicates a practical activity such as curve
sketching, draw figures and then presents the results or
comments. The activity is done in groups.
Group Work icon

Group work means that learners are expected to discuss
something in groups and report back on what their group
discussed. In this way, they learn from each other and
also learn how to work together as a group to address or
solve a problem.
Pairing Activity icon

This means that they are required to do the activity in
pairs, exchange ideas and write down the results.
xii
Introduction
Research Activity icon

Some activities require you to do research either by
reading textbooks or using the internet.
When organising groups or pairs:

࿌࿌ Kind of activity: Depending on the icon shown for the
activity.
࿌࿌ If the activity is a pairing activity, request learners to
form groups of exactly two learners each.
࿌࿌ If the activity is a group work, practical or research
activity, request learners to form groups of at least five
learners each.
࿌࿌ For each lesson, we provided the topics (prerequisites)
that learners have to recall before studying the lesson or
doing the activity. So, as teacher help learners, especially
time takers, to recall those topics.
࿌࿌ Decide who will be working together: Learners who are
sitting together should sit face to face.
࿌࿌ Give the learners roles; manager/leader, resource
collector, reporter, …
࿌࿌ Arrange a stop signal: Decide on a signal that tells
learners when you want them to stop talking and listen
to the teacher such as clapping rhythm/1, 2, 3 look at
me/ shaker/ 5, 4, 3, 2, 1/ hands up/ mobile ringtone.
࿌࿌ Make a noise monitor to show learners what level of
noise is OK.
࿌࿌ Monitor the groups: Move around the classroom
monitoring the groups to check whether everyone is
working and intervene where necessary.
࿌࿌ Choose some groups or learners to come and present the
result of their work.
࿌࿌ Harmonise the answers given by learners.
xiii
1.8. General guidance on assessment

Assessment is regarded as those formal and informal
procedures that teachers and learners employ in gathering
information on learning and making judgment about what
learners know and can do.
Competence based assessment is an assessment process
in which a learner is confronted with a complex situation
relevant to his/her everyday life and asked to look for a
solution by applying what he/ she has learnt (knowledge,
skills, competences and attitudes). The purpose of this is to
evaluate what learners can do or what changes/ behavior they
should have. Evaluation is when facts from the assessment
are used to make a decision.
Types of assessment
࿌࿌ Formative or continuous assessment
࿌࿌ Summative assessment.
Formative assessment is commonly referred to as assessment
for learning, in which focus is on monitoring learner response
to and progress with instruction. Formative assessment
provides immediate feedback to both the teacher and the
learner regarding the learning process. Formative and
summative assessments contribute in different ways to the
larger goals of the assessment process.
Purpose of formative assessment
a) Determine the extent to which learning objectives and
competences are being achieved.
b) Diagnose or detect learning errors.
c) Decide on the next steps in terms of progression.
d) Keep records and measure progress.
e) Identify learners with extra learning abilities.
f) Motivate learners to learn and succeed.
g) Check effectiveness of teaching methods (variety,
appropriateness, relevance or need for new approaches/
strategies).
xiv
Introduction
h) Provide feedback to learners, parents and teachers.

i) Guide learners to take control of their own learning.
Purpose of summative assessment
a) Mainly concerned with appraisal of work in terms of
units of work completed.
b) Comes at the end of the unit course or program.
c) Used for:
� Selection � Guidance on future courses
� Certification � Promotion
� Curriculum control � Accountability
When to assess
Assessment should be clearly visible in lesson, unit, term
and yearly plans.
࿌࿌ Before learning (diagnostic): At the beginning of a new
lesson, find out what learners already know and can do,
and check whether they are at the same level.
࿌࿌ During learning (formative/continuous): When learners
appear to be having difficulty in some of the work; by
using on-going assessment (continuous). The assessment
aims at giving learners support and feedback.
࿌࿌ After learning (summative): At the end of a section of
work or a learning unit, you have to assess the learners.
This is also known as assessment of learning to
establish and record overall progress of learners towards
full achievement.
What to assess
The assessment should focus on correctness of answers,
coherence of ideals, logical reasoning and understanding. It
should also focus on the learner’s approach to a situation,
appreciation of the task given, impression of a situation,
manipulation, reasoning, persistence and tolerance. Learners
should show evidence of the ability to perform and accomplish
a given task through aptitude, and/or use practical tests and
evaluation of the final outcome learning.
xv
Note that when assessing, if the assessment is a question
paper, the questions should be:
࿌࿌ Clear, simple and straight forward.
࿌࿌ Short and precise.
࿌࿌ Free of bias.
࿌࿌ Readable.
࿌࿌ Original.
࿌࿌ Indicate marks for each.
࿌࿌ Follow order of difficulty.
࿌࿌ Contain a variety of action verbs.
xvi
Section 2: Content map
Unit 1 Unit 2
Unit Title Complex numbers Logarithmic and exponential

functions
Number of 36 + homework 28 + homework
Periods
Key Unit Perform operations on Extend the concepts of
competence complex numbers in different functions to investigate fully
forms and use complex logarithmic and exponential
numbers to solve related functions, finding the
problems in Physics (voltage domain of definition,
and current in alternating the limits, asymptotes,
current), computer Science variations, graphs , and
(fractals), Trigonometry model problems about
(Euler’s formula to transform interest rates, population
trigonometric expressions). growth or decay, magnitude
of earthquake, etc
Equipment, Instruments of geometry and Instruments of geometry
learning and Scientific calculator and Scientific calculator
teaching
materials
required
List of • Critical thinking • Critical thinking
generic • Communication • Communication
• Cooperation, • Cooperation,
competence
interpersonal interpersonal
practiced management and life management and life
skills skills
• Research
Activities/ Group work, pairing, Group work, pairing,
Techniques practical, research practical, research
List of cross • Peace and values • Peace and values
cutting education education
• Inclusive education • Inclusive education
issues to be
• Financial education
addressed
xvii
Assessments • Formative assessments • Formative assessments

strategies of through activities through activities
• Summative assessments • Summative assessments
the key unit
through exercises and through exercises and
competence end of unit assessments. end of unit assessments.
Unit 3 Unit 4
Unit Title Taylor and Maclaurin’s Integration

Expansions
Periods
Key Unit Use Taylor and Maclaurin’s Use integration as the
competence expansion to solve problems inverse of differentiation and
about approximations, limits, as the limit of a sum, then
integration,... Extend the apply it to find area of plane
Maclaurin’s expansion to surfaces, volumes of solid of
Taylor series. revolution, lengths of curved
lines.
Equipment, Instruments of geometry and Instruments of geometry

learning and Scientific calculator and Scientific calculator
teaching
materials
required
competence
skills skills
• Research
Activities/ Group work, pairing Group work, pairing,
Techniques practical
issues to be
addressed
xviii
Introduction

strategies of through activities through activities.
the key unit
Unit 5 Unit 6
Unit Title Differential equations Intersection and Sum of

vector Subpaces
Periods
Key Unit Use ordinary differential Relate the sum and the
competence equations of first and second intersection of subspaces
order to model and solve of a vector space by the
related problems in Physics, dimension formula.
Economics, Chemistry,
Biology.
Equipment, Scientific calculator Scientific calculator
learning and
teaching
materials
required
competence
skills skills
• Research
Activities/ Group work, pairing, research Group work, pairing
Techniques
issues to be
addressed
xix

strategies of through activities. through activities.
the key unit
Unit 7 Unit 8
Unit Title Transformation of Matrices Conics

Periods
Key Unit Transform matrices to an Determine the
competence echelon form or to diagonal characteristics and the
matrix and use the results graph of a conic given by
to solve simultaneous linear its Cartesian, parametric or
equations or to calculate the polar equation.
nth power of a matrix. Find the Cartesian,
parametric and polar
equations of a conic from its
characteristics.
Equipment, Scientific calculator Instrument of geometry,
learning and Scientific calculator
teaching
materials
required
competence
skills skills
Activities/ Group work, pairing Group work, pairing,
Techniques practical, research
issues to be
addressed
xx
Introduction

strategies of through activities. through activities.
the key unit
Unit 9
Unit Title Random variables
Number of Periods 33 + homework
Key Unit competence Calculate and interpret the parameters of

a random variable (discrete or continuous)
including binomial and the Poisson
distributions.
Equipment, learning Instrument of geometry, Scientific calculator
and teaching materials
required
List of generic competence • Critical thinking
practiced • Communication
• Cooperation, interpersonal management
and life skills
• Research
Activities/ Techniques Group work, pairing, practical
List of cross cutting issues • Peace and values education
to be addressed • Inclusive education
Assessments strategies of • Formative assessments through activities.
the key unit competence • Summative assessments through exercises
and end of unit assessments.
xxi
Section 3: Sample lesson plan
School: ……………………… Academic year: ………..
Teacher’s name: ………………
Term Date Subject Class Unit No Lesson Duration Class
No size
1 .... Mathe- S6 MEG 1 1 of 40 35
matics 27 minutes
Type of Special Educational Needs • 3 low vision learners: Give
and number of learners them places where they are able
to see what is written on the
blackboard. Avoid making their
own group otherwise it can be
considered as segregation.
• 4 learners with extra abilities:
To encourage them to explain,
to each other and help their
classmates.
Unit title Complex numbers
Key Unit Perform operations on complex numbers in different forms
Competence: and use complex numbers to solve related problems
in Physics (voltage and current in alternating current),
computer Science (fractals), Trigonometry (Euler’s formula
to transform trigonometric expressions).
Title of the Concepts of complex numbers
lesson
Instructional Through examples, learners should be able to define a
objective complex number, show real part and imaginary part of a
complex number and show that two complex numbers are
equal or not equal accurately.
Plan for this Location: Classroom
Class Learners are organised into groups
Learning Exercise book, pen, calculator, ruler
Materials
References Advanced Mathematics for Rwanda Schools, Learner’s
Book Senior 6
xxii
Introduction
DESCRIPTION OF TEACHING AND

LEARNING ACTIVITY
In groups, learners will do activity 1.1 in
learner’s book page 2, make presentation of
group findings. In conclusion, learners will do
questions 1.a), 1.b), 2.a) and 2.b) of exercise
1.1 in the Learner’s Book page 4 in their Competences and
Timing for respective groups and solve them on the
cross cutting issues
each step chalkboard. Learners will do questions 1.c)
to be addressed
and 2.c) of exercise 1.1 as individual quiz and
questions 1.d) and 2.d) will be an assignment.
At the end of the lesson, learners are also
given another assignment to be discussed as
an activity of the next lesson “Definition and
properties of the number i”.
Teacher’s activities Learners’ activities
Introduction Ask a question, on Questions
5 minutes how to solve quadratic By using
equations in set of discriminant
real numbers using method, solve in
discriminant method 
(Including case where 1. x 2 + 7 x + 10 =
0
2
the discriminant is 2. x + 4 x + 4 =0
negative). 3. x 2 + x + 4 =0
Solution Students are
2
1. x + 7 x + 10 =
0 developing
∆= 49 − 40= 9 communication
−7 + 3 −7 − 3 skills when they
x1 = = −2, x2 = = −5
2 2 are explaining and
S ={−5, −2} sharing ideas.
2
2. x + 4 x + 4 =0
∆= 16 − 16= 0
−4
x1 = x2 = = −2
2
S= {−2}
3. x 2 + x + 4 =0
∆ = 1 − 16 = −15 < 0
No real solution
xxiii
Development Step 1:
of the lesson Form groups In their groups, Cooperation and
5 minutes • Ask learners to learners will do interpersonal
do activity 1.1 in activity 1.1. In management
Learner’s Book page their exercise book
2 in their groups. developed through
• Go round to check using the fact that working in groups.
the progress of the −1 = i , they will
discussion, and find two numbers,
intervene where
a and b, whose
necessary. Communication:
• Guide learners with sum is 6 and
special educational whose product is Learners
needs on how to do 18. communicate and
activity. convey information
10 minutes Step 2: and ideas through
Ask groups to present Secretary presents speaking when they
their work on the the work. are presenting their
chalkboard. Learners interact work.
through questions Self confidence:
and comments. Learners will gain
Answers self confidence
Recall that a competence when
quadratic equation they are presenting
is written as their work.
0,
x 2 − sx + p =
where s and p In group activities,
are the sum and the fact of being
product of two convinced without
roots respectively. fighting, peace and
Then, we need to education values are
solve the equation developed too.
x 2 − 6 x + 18 =
0
∆ = ( −6 ) − 4 (18 )
2
= 36 − 72
= −36
xxiv
Introduction
6 + −36
x1= a=
2
and
6 − −36
x2= b=
2
Now, if −1 = i or
i 2 = −1 , we have
6 + 36 × i 2
a=
2
6 − 36 × i 2
b=
2
or
a=
3 + 3i, b =
3 − 3i
Conclusion
5 minutes Ask learners to give Summarise the
the main points of learned lesson:
the learned lesson in A complex number
summary. is a number that
can be put in the
form a + bi ,
where a and b
Learners develop
are real numbers
critical thinking
and = i −1
(i being the first through generating a
letter of the word summary.
“imaginary”).
The set of all Through group
complex numbers activities, cooperation
is denoted by  is developed.
and is defined as
z =a + bi : a, b ∈  
= 2 
and i = −1 
The number a
of the complex
number z= a + bi
is called the real
part of z and
xxv
denoted by Re ( z )
or ℜ ( z ) ; the
number b is called
the imaginary part
and denoted by
Im ( z ) or ℑ ( z ) .
A complex number
whose real part is
zero, is said to be
purely imaginary,
whereas a complex
number whose
imaginary part is
zero, is said to be
a real number or
simply real.
Thus,
∀x ∈ , x ∈  ,
which gives that
 ⊂ .
5 minutes Request learners to do Through presentation
Learners will do
questions 1.a) and 2.a) on chalkboard,
questions 1.a) and
of exercise 1.1 in their 2.a) of exercise communication skills
respective groups. 1.1, in Learner’s are developed.
Move around the class Book page 4
checking the progress in their respective
of the discussion, groups.
and intervene where
necessary.
5 minutes Request some Learners will

learners to answer to present answers of
questions 1.b), and questions 1.b) and
2.b) of exercise 1.1 on 2.b) of exercise
chalkboard. 1.1, in Learner’s
Ensures that learners Book page 4,
understand the learned on chalkboard.
lesson and decide
whether to repeat the
lesson or to start a new a
lesson next time.
xxvi
5 minutes Give learners an Learners will do
individual evaluation questions 1.c) and
(quiz) and homework 2.c) of exercise
in regard to the learned 1.1, in Learner’s
lesson. Book page 4
Lead into next lesson: as individual
quiz; questions
Request learners to do
1.d) and 2.d) as
activity 1.2 at home.
assignment.
Teacher’s Even if the objective has been achieved, some learners don’t remember
self how to solve a quadratic equation using discriminant method.
evaluation The time management has been disturbed by revising how to use
discriminant method. For this reason, next time before any activity,
learners will be given a task of revising the topics related to the given
activity as homework.
General Methodology
Follow the following three steps when teaching any lesson.
a) Introduction
Review previous lesson through asking learners some
questions. If there is no previous lesson, ask them pre-
knowledge questions on the day lesson.
b) Body of the lesson
Give an activity to learners that will be done in groups or
pairs. Invite one or more groups/pairs for presentation of
their work to other groups/pairs. After activities, capture
the main points from the presentation of the learners,
summarise them and answer to their questions.
c) Conclusion
Ask learners what they learned in the day lesson.
Request them to do exercises in their respective groups
and to correct exercises on the chalkboard. Give them
individual evaluation. Remember to give homework to
learners. Give them two home works: one for the lesson
of the day and another which will be activity for the next
lesson.
xxvii
Section 4: Units description
Unit 1 Complex Numbers
Unit 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations
Unit 3 Taylor and Maclaurin’s Expansions
Unit 4 Integration
Unit 5 Differential Equations
Unit 6 Intersection and Sum of Subspaces
Unit 7 Transformation of Matrices
Unit 8 Conics
Unit 9 Random Variables
xxviii
Unit 1 Complex numbers
Learner’s Book pages 1 - 79
Key unit competence

Perform operations on complex numbers in different forms
and use complex numbers to solve related problems in
Physics (voltage and current in alternating current),
Computer Science (fractals), Trigonometry (Euler’s
formulae to transform trigonometric expressions), …
Vocabulary or key words concepts

Argand diagram: Plane representing complex plane where
x − axis is called real axis and y − axis is
called imaginary axis.
Affix: Coordinates of a complex number in Argand
diagram.
Modulus: The distance from origin to the affix of the
complex number.
Argument: Argument of complex number z is the
angle the segment oz makes with the
positive real x -axis.
Polar form: A way of expressing a complex number
using its modulus, its argument and basic
trigonometric ratios (sine and cosine).
Exponential form: A way of expressing a given complex
number using its modulus, its argument
and the number e .
1
Guidance on the problem statement

The problem statement is “Solve in set of real number the
following equations x 2 + 6 x + 8 =0 and x 2 + 4 =0 ”.
For first equation, we have solution in  but second equation
does not have solution in  . Therefore, the set  is not
sufficient to contain solutions of some equations.
Since the square root of −4 does not exist in set of real
number, for second equation we introduce new kind of
number i such that i 2 = −1 and we write x 2 =−4 =4 × i 2 so
that x =± −4 =± 4 × i =±2i .
List of lessons
No Lesson title Number of periods
1 Concepts of complex numbers 1
2 Definition and properties of number i 1
3 Geometric representation of a complex 1
number
4 Modulus of a complex number 1
5 Loci related to distances 1
6 Equality of complex numbers 1
7 Addition and subtraction of complex 1
numbers
8 Conjugate and opposite of a complex 1
number
9 Multiplication of complex numbers 1
10 Inverse and division of complex numbers 1
11 Square root of a complex number 1
12 Linear equations in set of complex 1
numbers
13 Quadratic equations in set of complex 1
numbers
14 Polynomials in set of complex numbers 2
15 Argument of a complex number 2
16 Loci related to angles 1
17 Polar form of a complex number 1
2
Complex Numbers
18 Multiplication and division of complex 1

numbers in polar form
19 Powers of complex number in polar form 1
20 Nth roots of a complex number 2
21 Graphical representation of nth roots of a 2
complex number
22 Construction of regular polygon 2
23 Exponential form of a complex number 1
24 Trigonometric number of a multiple of an 2
angle
25 Linearisation of trigonometric expressions 2
Solving equation of the form
26 2
a cos x + b sin x =
c
27 Alternating current problem 2
Total periods 36
Lesson development
Lesson 1.1. Concepts of complex numbers

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define a
complex number, show real part and imaginary part of a
complex number and show that two complex numbers are
equal or not equal accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Find the square root of a positive real number.
࿌࿌ The square root of a negative real number does not exist.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
3
Activity 1.1 Learner’s Book page 2
In this lesson, the following generic competence and

cross-cutting issues are to be addressed:
࿌࿌ Critical thinking
࿌࿌ Communication
࿌࿌ Self confidence
࿌࿌ Cooperation, interpersonal management and life
skills
࿌࿌ Peace and values education
࿌࿌ Inclusive education
Answers
1. Here, we need to solve the equation x 2 − 6 x + 18 = 0
2
Calculating the discriminant for x − 6 x + 18 = 0 , we
get
∆ = ( −6 ) − 4 (18 ) = 36 − 72 = −36
2
6 + −36 and x = b= 6 − −36

x1= a= 2
2 2
As ∆ < 0 , x 2 − 6 x + 18 =
0 has no real solutions.
2. Now, if −1 =i or i 2 = −1 , we get
6 + −36 6 + 36i 2 6 + 6i
a= = = = 3 + 3i
2 2 2
6 − −36 6 − 36i 2 6 − 6i
and b= = = = 3 − 3i .
2 2 2
3. a and b, are not elements of  or a, b ∉ 
Synthesis
As conclusion, a complex number is a number that
can be put in the form a + bi , where a and b are real
numbers and = i −1 (i being the first letter of the word
“imaginary”).
4
Complex Numbers
Exercise 1.1 Learner’s Book page 4
Re ( z ) 0,=
1. a)= Im ( z ) 45 b) Re ( z ) =
−3, Im ( z ) =
0
c) Re ( z ) = 3 d) Re ( z ) =
−1, Im ( z ) = −10, Im ( z ) =
7
2. a) Real b) Purely imaginary
c) Purely imaginary
d) neither real nor purely imaginary
Lesson 1.2. Definition and properties of the

number i
Learning objectives
Given powers of the number i with natural exponents,
learners should be able to simplify them accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Properties of powers in set of real numbers.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. i 3 =i 2i1 =−1i =−i
i 4 = i 2i 2 = ( −1) × ( −1) = 1
i 5 =i 2i 2i1 =( −1) × ( −1) × i =i
5
i 6 =i 2i 2i 2 =( −1) × ( −1) × ( −1) =−1

i 7 =i 2i 2i 2i =( −1) × ( −1) × ( −1) i =−i
i 8 = i 2i 2i 2i 2 = ( −1) × ( −1) × ( −1) × ( −1) = 1
i 9 = i 2i 2i 2i 2i = ( −1) × ( −1) × ( −1) × ( −1) i = i
2. In general;
i 4 k = 1, i 4 k +1 = i, i 4 k + 2 = −1, i 4 k +3 = −i k = 0,1, 2,3, 4,5,...
Synthesis
The imaginary unit, i, “cycles” through 4 different values
each time we multiply as it is illustrated in the following
figure .
The powers of imaginary unit can be generalised as

follows:
i 4 k = 1, i 4 k +1 = i, i 4 k + 2 = −1, i 4 k +3 = −i
1. -1 2. i 3. 1
i
4. −i 5. 6. −i
6
Complex Numbers
Lesson 1.3. Geometric representation of

a complex number
Learning objectives
Given complex numbers and using a ruler, learners should be
able to represent those complex numbers in Argand diagram
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Remember how to represent a point ( x, y ) in Cartesian
plane.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, instruments of geometry

skills
Answers
y
4
A (1, 2 )
2
B ( −3, 2 )
1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
C ( 2, −1)
-2
-3
D ( −2, −3)
-4
7
Synthesis
A complex number z= a + bi can be visually represented
as a pair of numbers ( a, b ) forming a vector from the
origin or point on a diagram called Argand diagram.
y
5
4
z4 = 4i
z8 = 3 + 3i
3
1
z5= 2 + i
z2 = 3 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
z3 =−1 − i
-2
z1= 2 − 2i
-3
z6 =−2 − 3i
-4
-5
z7 = −5i
Lesson 1.4. Modulus of a complex number

Learning objectives
Given a complex number, learners should be able to find its
modulus correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finding distance between two points in Cartesian plane.
Teaching Aids
8
Complex Numbers

skills
Answers
Curve:
9
y
8
z =−3 + 7i 7
6
5
4
3
2 z = 2i
z = −8 1
x
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1
-2
-3
-4 z= 3 − 4i
-5
-6
-7
1. z =−8 =( −8, 0 )
-8
-9
( −8 − 0 )
2
Distance from origin is + 0 =8
z 2=
2. = i ( 0, 2 )
0 + ( 2 − 0) =
2
Distance from origin is 2
3. z =−3 + 7i =( −3, 7 )
( −3 − 0 ) + ( 7 − 0 )
2 2
Distance from origin is = 58
4. z =3 − 4i =( 3, −4 )
( 3 − 0 ) + ( −4 − 0 )
2 2
Distance from origin is =5
9
Synthesis
As conclusion, the distance from the origin to point
( x, y ) corresponding to the complex number z= x + yi is
called the modulus of z and is denoted by z or x + iy :
r z=
= x2 + y 2 .
Y
z= x + yi
y
y2
x 2+
=r
X
0 x
Figure 1.1: Modulus of a complex number
1) 5 2) 5 3) 1
2
4. 5) 1 6) 5 5
2
Lesson 1.5. Loci related to distances on Argand

diagram
Learning objectives
Given a condition, learners should be able to determine the
locus on Argand plane precisely.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finding modulus of a complex number.
࿌࿌ The general form of equation of a circle, a straight line,…
in Cartesian plane.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator and instrument of geometry
10
Complex Numbers

skills
Answers
Let z= x + yi , we have
x + yi − 1 + 3i =2 ⇔ x − 1 + i ( y + 3) =2 ⇔ ( x − 1) + ( y + 3) =2 ⇔ ( x − 1) + ( y
2 2 2
3i =2 ⇔ x − 1 + i ( y + 3) =2 ⇔ ( x − 1) + ( y + 3) =2 ⇔ ( x − 1) + ( y + 3) =22
2 2 2 2
which is the circle of centre (1, −3) or 1 − 3i and radius

R = 2.
Curve
y
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
( x − 1) + ( y + 3)
2 2
22
=
-2
(1, −3) R
-3
-4
-5
Synthesis
As conclusion, z = R represents a circle with centre P
and radius R, z − z1 =
R represents a circle with centre
z1 and radius R and z − z1 = z − z2 represents a straight
line, the perpendicular bisector (mediator) of the segment
joining the points z1 and z2 .
11
1
1. Circle: 3 x 2 + 3 y 2 + 4 x + 1 =0 , radius is and centre
3
 2 
is  − , 0 
 3  2 2
2. a) Circle: x + y =4 , radius 2, centre at origin; (0,0)
b) Interior of the circle: x 2 + y 2 =
4 , radius 2, centre
at origin
c) Exterior of the circle: x 2 + y 2 =
at origin
d) Circle: ( x + 1) + y =1 , radius 1, centre ( −1, 0 )

2 2
e) Vertical line: z1 = −1 , mediator of the line segment

joining points z1 = −1 and z2 = 1
f) Circle: ( x − 1) + ( y + 3) =
2 2
(1, −3)
Lesson 1.6. Equality of two complex numbers

Learning objectives
Given two complex numbers, learners should be able to show
that they are equal or not and to use this concept to solve
some equation accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Solving a linear equation with one unknown.
࿌࿌ Solving a system of two linear equations with two
unknown.
Teaching Aids
12
Complex Numbers

skills
Answers
1. 3 + 2i − 1 = 3 − 1 + 2i = 2 + 2i and 2 + 4i − 2i =2 + 2i .
Argand diagram
The two complex numbers are represented by the

same point in Argand diagram.
From their real and imaginary parts, the two
quantities have equal real parts and equal imaginary
parts, so they are equal.
2. Combine like terms on the right:
x + 2i =x + ( 2 x − 3) i . Since the imaginary parts
5
must be equal, 2 = 2 x − 3 ⇒ x = .
2
3. This is interesting: we have only one equation, but
two variables; it doesn’t seem like there is enough
information to solve.
13
But since we can break this into a real part and

an imaginary part, we can create two equations:
x 3 y, =
= y 2 x − 4 . Doing substitution gives us
5 12
y = 6y − 4 ⇒ y = , which gives x = .
5 5
Synthesis
As conclusion, if two complex numbers, say a + bi
and c + di are equal, then their real parts are
equal and their imaginary parts are equal. That is,
a + bi = c + di ⇔ a = c and b = d .
=
1. x = 4, y = −3 2. x 5,=y 6
3. =x 3,= x=
y 3 4. −6, y =
9
5. =x 2,= =
y 5 6. x 3,=y 1
7. x = 6, y = −6 8.
=x 8,=y 14
Lesson 1.7. Addition and subtraction of

complex numbers
Learning objectives
Given two complex numbers, learners should be able to add
and subtract them correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Simplification by combining like terms.
Teaching Aids

14
Complex Numbers

skills
Answers
1. z1 + z2 = ( 2 + 3i ) + ( 5 − 4i ) = 2 + 5 + 3i − 4i = 7 − i
z1 − z2 =( 2 + 3i ) − ( 5 − 4i ) =2 − 5 + 3i + 4i =−3 + 7i
2. Re ( z1 + z2 ) =
7, Im ( z1 + z2 ) =
−1
Re ( z1 − z2 ) =
−3, Im ( z1 − z2 ) =
7
Synthesis
As conclusion, two complex numbers are added (or
subtracted) by adding (or subtracting) separately the two
real and the two imaginary parts.
1. z1 + z2 =−12, z1 − z2 =
12 + 6i
2. z1 + z2 =
16i, z1 − z2 =−10 + 8i
3. z1 + z2 =5 + 3i, z1 − z2 =1 + 5i
4. z1 + z2 =−2 − 24i, z1 − z2 =−44 − 4i
5. z1 + z2 =−2 + 8i, z1 − z2 =8 + 12i
6. z1 + z2 =−2 − 24i, z1 − z2 =−44 − 4i
7. z1 + z2 =35 − 13i, z1 − z2 =−9 − 15i
8. z1 + z2 =4 + 9i, z1 − z2 =2 − 11i
15
Lesson 1.8. Conjugate and opposite of a

complex number
Learning objectives
Given a complex number, learners should be able to find the
conjugate and opposite moderately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Plot a complex number in Argand plane
࿌࿌ Adding two complex numbers
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and instruments of geometry

skills
Answers
1. Argand diagram of complex numbers
y
5
z1= 4 + 3i
3
1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
z3 =−4 − 3i z2= 4 − 3i
-4
-5
16
Complex Numbers
1 1
2. a) ( z1 + z2 =) ( 4 + 3i + 4 − 3i=) 4
2 2
1 1
b) ( z1 − z2= ) ( 4 + 3i − 4 + 3=i) 3
2i 2i
1
3. 1 ( z1 + z2 ) = Re ( z1 ) and ( z1 − z2 ) =
Im ( z1 )
2 2i
Synthesis
As conclusion, the conjugate of the complex number
z= x + yi , denoted by z or z*, is obtained by changing
the sign of the imaginary part. Hence, the complex
conjugate of z= x + yi is z = x − yi .
1. −76 2. 12 + 4i
9i 3.
4. 3 − i 5. 3+i
−8 − 10i 6.
−5 − 5i
7. 3 + 5i 8.
Lesson 1.9. Multiplication of complex numbers

Learning objectives
Given two complex numbers, learners should be able to
multiply them perfectly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Distributive property.
࿌࿌ Multiplication is distributive over addition.
࿌࿌ Relation i 2 = −1 .
Teaching Aids
17

skills
Answers
1. z1 × z2 = ( 2 − 3i )( 3 + 2i )
=6 + 4i − 9i − 6i 2
= 6 + 6 − 5i
= 12 − 5i
2. Re ( z1 × z2 ) =
12, Im ( z1 × z2 ) =
−5
Synthesis
As conclusion, the multiplication of two complex
numbers z1= a + bi and z2 = c + di is defined by the
following formula:
z1 × z2 = ( a + bi )( c + di )
= ( ac − bd ) + ( bc + ad ) i
1. 9 − 36i 2. 10 + 5i
−73 + 40i 3.
4. −3 − 10i 5. −4 − 7i
10 − 41i 6.
18
Complex Numbers
Lesson 1.10. Inverse and division of

complex numbers
Learning objectives
Given complex numbers, learners should be able to find
the inverse of a complex number and divide two complex
numbers accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Multiplication of complex numbers.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. z1 ⋅ z1 = ( 2 + i )( 2 − i ) = 22 − 2i + 2i + 12 = 22 + 12 = 5
Hence, if z= a + bi then, z= a − bi and z ⋅ z = a 2 + b 2 .
5 z 1
2. z1 ⋅ z1 =5 ⇒ z1 = ⇒ 1=
z1 5 z1
Then,
1 z1 or 1 = z1
=
z1 5 z1 a 2 + b 2
1 z
3. = 2 1 2
z1 a + b
z2 z z
Multiplying both sides by z2 , we get = 22 1 2
z1 a + b
19
Synthesis
The inverse of z= a + bi is given by = z z

z −1 = 2
and the division of two complex z ⋅ z a + b2
z1 z1 ⋅ z2 a + bi  ac + bd   bc − ad 
numbers is
= = =  +i 
z2 z2 ⋅ z2 c + di  c 2 + d 2   c 2 + d 2 
1 i 1 4 i z 1 4
1. − ,
= − + , 1 =
= − − i
z1 3 z2 51 51 z2 17 17
2.
1 5 12 1 5 4 z 23 80
=
− − i, =− i, 1 =+ i
z1 169 169 z2 41 41 z2 41 41
3 4 1 2 i z1 2 11
3. 1 =− i, = + , = + i
z1 25 25 z2 5 5 z2 5 5
4. 1 = 23 14 1 21 10 z1 343 524
− + i, =+ i, =
− − i
z1 725 725 z2 541 541 z2 541 541
1 1 3 1 1 2 z 7 1
5. = + i, =− − i, 1 =− + i
z1 10 10 z2 5 5 z2 5 5
z
6. 1 =− 2 − 1 i, 1 =− 5 − 2 i, 1 =12 − 1 i
z1 5 5 z2 29 29 z2 29 29
z
7. 1 =− 1 − 1 i, 1 =1 + 1 i, 1 =−1
z1 2 2 z2 2 2 z2
1 1 3 1 1 10 z1 118 32
8. − − i,
= = − i, = + i
z1 74 37 z2 101 101 z2 101 101
Lesson 1.11. Square root of a complex number

Learning objectives
square root accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Solve a system of two linear equations with two unknowns.
࿌࿌ Use of the identity ( a + b ) =a 2 + 2ab + b 2 .
2
20
Complex Numbers
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator

skills
Answers
( x + yi )
2
8 − 6i
=
⇔ x 2 − y 2 + 2 xyi =8 − 6i
 x2 − y 2 =
8
⇔
2 xy = −6
Squaring both sides of each equation and adding two
equations, gives
 x 4 − 2 x 2 y 2 + y 4 =
64
⇔ 2 2
4 x y = 36
x4 + 2x2 y 2 + y 4 = 100
Using algebraic identity, gives
⇒ ( x2 + y 2 ) =
2
100
⇒ x2 + y 2 =
10
Now,
 x 2 − y 2 = 8
 2 2
 x + y = 10
2x2 = 18 ⇒ x 2 =
9 or x =
±3
2 2
But x + y =10 , then, y 2 = 10 − x 2 = 10 − 9 = 1 or y = ±1
Thus, the square root of z= 8 − 6i is 3 − i or −3 + i
21
We take different sign (for x and y) since the product xy

is negative.
Synthesis
To get a square root of the complex number a + bi , we
let a + bi be a square root of the complex number a + bi ,
and solve the simultaneous equation
 x2 − y 2 =
a
( x + iy )2 =+ a bi 

 ⇒ 2 xy = b
( )
2
 x + iy a
=+ bi  2 2 2 2
x + y = a + b
 x 2 + y 2 = a 2 + b 2
⇔ and 2xy = b
2 2
 x − y = a
Notice:
In writing square root of the complex number a + bi , that
is, x + iy , x and y must satisfy the condition 2xy = b .
1) ± ( )
7 + i 7 2) ± ( −4 − 6i ) 3) ± ( −4 − 6i )
4) ± ( −3 + 10i ) 5) ± ( 3 + 2i ) 6) ± ( −6 + 2i )
7) ± ( −6 − 2i ) 8) ± ( −5 − 12i )
Lesson 1.12. Linear equations

Learning objectives
Given linear equations with complex coefficients, learners
will be able to solve them in the set of complex numbers
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Solving linear equations in set or real numbers.
Teaching Aids
22
Complex Numbers

skills
Answers
1. z + 3i − 4 = 0 ⇒ z = 4 − 3i
2. 4 − i + iz =4 z − 3i ⇒ iz − 4 z =−3i − 4 + i
⇒ z ( i − 4 ) =−4 − 2i
−4 − 2i
⇒z=
i−4
14 12
⇒z= + i
17 17
3. (1 + i )( i + z ) = 4i ⇒ i + z − 1 + iz = 4i
⇒ z ( i + 1) = 4i + 1 − i
⇒ z ( i + 1) =1 + 3i
1 + 3i
⇒z= =2+i
i +1
2+i 1 + 3i
4. (1 − i ) z = 2 + i ⇒ z = ⇒z=
1− i 2
Synthesis
As conclusion, in complex numbers also, we may need
to find the complex number z that satisfies the given
linear equation.
1. 2 + 2i 2. −4 − 2i
9 3
3. −7 + 6i 4. + i
5 5
23
Lesson 1.13. Quadratic equations

Learning objectives
Given quadratic equations, learners should be able to solve
them in the set of complex numbers correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Discriminant method used to solve a quadratic equation.
࿌࿌ Relation i= −1 .
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. x 2 + 2 x + 3 =0
∆ = 4 − 12 = −8
−2 + −8 −2 + 2i 2
x1 = = =−1 + i 2
2 2
−2 − −8 −2 − 2i 2
x2 = = =−1 − i 2
2 2
{
S = −1 + i 2, − 1 − i 2 }
2. x 2 + 2 x + 1 + i =0
∆ = 4 − 4 (1 + i ) = 4 − 4 − 4i = −4i
∆= −4i
∆= 2 − i 2 or − 2 + i 2
24
Complex Numbers
−2 + 2 − i 2 −2 + 2 2
=x1 = −i
2 2 2
−2 − 2 + i 2 −2 − 2 2
=x2 = +i
2 2 2
 −2 + 2 2 −2 − 2 2 
S=  −i , +i 
 2 2 2 2 
Synthesis
In solving equation az 2 + bz + c =0 where a, b and c are
real numbers ( a ≠ 0 ), we get either:
−b + ∆
࿌࿌ Two real roots ( if ∆ > 0 ); z1 = and
2a
−b − ∆
z2 =
2a −b
࿌࿌ One double real root ( if ∆ = 0 ); z=
1 z=
2 or
2a
࿌࿌ Two conjugate complex roots ( if ∆ < 0 ):
−b + i −∆ −b − i −∆
z1 = and z2 = .
2a 2a
 2 + i 26 2 − i 26 
1. S =  , S ={5 + 3i,5 − 3i}
 2.
 3 3 
 3 11 3 11 
3. S = + i, − i
 2 2 2 2 
Lesson 1.14. Polynomials in set of

complex numbers
Learning objectives
Given a polynomial with complex coefficients, learners should
be able to factorise completely it in set of complex numbers
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finding zero of a polynomial.
࿌࿌ Use of synthetic division.
25
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. a) ( z − 2 − 3i )( z + 3 + i ) = z 2 + 3z + iz − 2 z − 6 − 2i − 3zi − 9i + 3
= z 2 + (1 − 2i ) z − 3 − 11i
b) ( z − i )( z + 3i )( z − 4i ) = (z 2
+ 3 zi − iz + 3) ( z − 4i )
= (z 2
+ 2iz + 3) ( z − 4i )
= z 3 − 4iz 2 + 2iz 2 + 8 z + 3 z − 12i
=z 3 − 2iz 2 + 11z − 12i
2. P ( z ) = z 3 + ( −2 − i ) z 2 + ( 2 + 2i ) z − 4 is divisible by
z + i if and only if P ( −i ) =.
0
P ( −i ) = ( −i ) + ( −2 − i )( −i ) + ( 2 + 2i )( −i ) − 4
3 2
=i + 2 + i − 2i + 2 − 4
=0
Thus, P ( z ) = z 3 + ( −2 − i ) z 2 + ( 2 + 2i ) z − 4 is divisible
by z + i .
Now, using synthetic division
1 −2 − i 2 + 2i −4
−i −i 2i − 2 4
1 −2 − 2i 4i 0
26
Complex Numbers
P ( z ) = z 3 + ( −2 − i ) z 2 + ( 2 + 2i ) z − 4
( z + i )  z 2 + ( −2 − 2i ) z + 4i 
=
Again, we factorise z + ( −2 − 2i ) z + 4i
2
since
2 is a root, then
1 −2 − 2i 4i
2 2 −4i
1 −2i 0
z + ( −2 − 2i ) z + 4i =
2
( z − 2 )( z − 2i )
Thus, P( z) =( z + i )( z − 2 )( z − 2i )
3. If P ( z ) = z 3 − 2 z 2 + ( 7 + 2i ) z − 6 ( 2 − i )
2 − i is a factor of −6 ( 2 − i ) ,
P ( 2 − i ) = ( 2 − i ) − 2 ( 2 − i ) + ( 7 + 2i )( 2 − i ) − 6 ( 2 − i )
3 2
= 2 − 11i − 6 + 8i + 16 − 3i − 12 + 6i
=0
Other values are: z = 3i, z = −2i
All roots can be found as follows:
P ( z ) = z 3 − 2 z 2 + ( 7 + 2i ) z − 12 + 6i
P ( z ) =0 ⇔ z 3 − 2 z 2 + ( 7 + 2i ) z − 12 + 6i =0
z = 3i is a root since
P ( 3i )= ( 3i ) − 2 ( 3i ) + ( 7 + 2i )( 3i ) − 12 + 6i
3 2
=−27i + 18 + 21i − 6 − 12 + 6i
=0
Using Synthetic division, we have
1 −2 7 + 2i −12 + 6i
3i 3i −6i − 9 −6i + 12
1 −2 + 3i −2 − 4i 0
P ( z ) = z − 2 z + ( 7 + 2i ) z − 12 + 6i
3 2
= ( z − 3i )  z 2 + ( −2 + 3i ) z − 2 − 4i 
27
−2i is also a root
1 −2 + 3i −2 − 4i
−2i −2i 4i + 2
1 −2 + i 0
P ( z ) = z − 2 z + ( 7 + 2i ) z − 12 + 6i
3 2
( z − 3i )( z + 2i )( z − 2 + i )
=
z
Then, = 3i or z = −2i or z = 2−i
Synthesis
As conclusion, the process of finding the roots of a polynomial
in set of complex numbers is similar to the case of real numbers
remembering that the square root of a negative real number
exist in set of complex numbers considering −1 = i . The
methods used are synthetic division and factorisation.
1. a) P ( z ) = ( z + 2 )( z − 1 + 3i )( z − 1 − 3i ) ; {−2,1 − 3i,1 + 3i}

b) Q ( z ) = ( z − 2 )( z − 2 + i )( z − 2 − i ) ; {2, 2 − i, 2 + i}
c) R ( z ) = ( z − 2 + 3i )( z − 2 − 3i ) ( z + 2 − 2 )( z + 2 + 2 ) ; {2 − 3i, 2 + 3i, −2 + 2
(
2 + 3i )( z − 2 − 3i ) z + 2 − 2 )( z + 2 + 2 ) , {2 − 3i, 2 + 3i, −2 + 2, −2 − 2 }
d) M ( z ) = ( z − 3i )( z + 2i )( z − 2 + i ) ; {3i , −2i , 2 − i}
=
2. a 79,
= b 29
3. p ( z ) =
−2 z 3 + 8 z 2 − 18 z + 20
 7 7 
4. S = 3 − i, − + i 
 2 2 
28
Complex Numbers
Lesson 1.15. Argument of a complex number

Learning objectives
Given a complex numbers, learners should be able to find its
argument moderately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Concepts of trigonometry.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, scientific calculator and instruments of
geometry

skills
Answers
2 y
z5 = i z1 = 1 + i
1
z3 =−1 + i
x
-1 0 1
-1
z4 =−1 − i z6 = −i z2 = 1 − i
29
1 π
For z1 = 1 + i , tan θ = =1 ⇒ θ =arctan (1) = . From the
1 4
figure, this is the needed angle.
1 π
For z2 = 1 − i , tan θ = =−1 ⇒ θ =arctan ( −1) =− .
−1 4
From the figure, this is the needed angle.
−1 π
For z3 =−1 + i , tan θ = =−1 ⇒ θ =arctan ( −1) =− .
1 4
From the figure, this is not the needed angle. The
π 3π
needed angle is π + θ = π − =
4 4
−1 π
For z4 =−1 − i , tan θ = =1 ⇒ θ =arctan (1) = .
−1 4
From the figure, this is not the needed angle. The
π 3π
needed angle is θ − π = − π = − .
4 4
π
For z5 = i . From the figure, the needed angle is θ =
2
π
For z6 = −i . From the figure, the needed angle is θ = −
2
Synthesis
Depending on the quadrant in which the argument of
complex number z= x + yi lies, we define arg ( z ) as
follows:
 y st th
arctan x , if z lies in 1 or 4 quadrant or on positive x − axis

π + arctan y , if z lies in 2nd quadrant or on negative x − axis
 x

−π + arctan y , if z lies in 3rd quadrant
arg ( z ) =  x
π
 , if z lies on positive y − axis
2
 π
− , if z lies on negative y − axis
 2
undefined=, if x 0= and y 0
30
Complex Numbers
This is equivalent to
 y
arctan x , if x > 0

π + arctan y , if x < 0 and y ≥ 0
 x

−π + arctan y , if x < 0 and y < 0
arg ( z ) =  x
π
 , x = 0, if y > 0
2
 π
− , x = 0, if y < 0
 2
undefined , if x = 0 and y = 0
z= x + yi
y
0
θ ) x
X
Figure 1.2: Argument of a complex number
π π π
1. − 2.
− 3.
4 6 4
π π
4. − 5. −
3 6
31
Lesson 1.16. Loci related to the angles

Learning objectives
Given an argument condition, learners should be able to
sketch on Argand diagram, the region satisfying that condition
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Drawing angle with a given size.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pencil and instruments of geometry

skills
Answers
π π
1. arg ( z ) = ⇒ arg ( x + yi ) =
4 4
Here, we need all complex numbers lying on the half
π
line passing through ( 0, 0 ) and makes an angle of
4
with positive x − axis .
32
Complex Numbers
π π π
2. arg ( z − 4 ) =⇒ arg ( x + yi − 4 ) = ⇒ arg ( x − 4 + yi ) =
3 3 3
Here, we need all complex numbers lying on the half
π
line passing through ( 4, 0 ) and makes an angle of
3
with positive x − axis .
Synthesis
As conclusion, arg ( z ) = θ represents the half line
through O inclined at an angle θ to the positive direction
of x − axis .
Figure 1.3: Locus as a half line through 0
arg ( z − z1 ) =
θ represents the half line through the point
z1 inclined at an angle θ to the positive direction of
x − axis .
33
Figure 1.4: Locus as a half line through any point
θ ≤ arg ( z − z1 ) ≤ β indicates that the angle between AP

and the positive x-axis lies between θ and β , so that P
can lie on or within the two half lines as shown in
Figure 5.1.
Figure 1.5: Locus between two half lines
1. a)
34
Complex Numbers
b)
2.
a) From the graph, we see that there is only one

point of intersection. Thus, there is only one
complex number satisfying both conditions.
b) Putting z =−7 − 4i , we have
−7 − 4i + 3 + i = −4 − 3i = 16 + 9 =5 also
π 3π
arg ( −7 − 4i + 3) =arg ( −4 − 4i ) =−π + arctan (1) =−π + =−
4 4
Thus, z =−7 − 4i verifies both conditions.
35
Lesson 1.17. Polar form of a complex number

Learning objectives
Given a complex number, learners should be able to express
it in polar form accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finding the modulus of s complex number.
࿌࿌ Finding argument of a complex number.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and scientific calculator

skills
Answers
1. Graph
36
Complex Numbers
2. r = 16 + 16 = 4 2
4 π
3. θ arctan
= =  
4 4
x π
4. cos θ = ⇒ x = r cos θ ⇒ 4 = 4 2 cos
r 4
y π
sin θ = ⇒ y = r sin θ ⇒ 4 = 4 2 sin
r 4
From z= 4 + 4i , we have
π π  π π
z = 4 2 cos + i 4 2 sin = 4 2  cos + i sin 
4 4  4 4
Synthesis
As conclusion, if r and θ are the modulus and principal
argument of complex number z respectively, then the
z is z r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) .
polar form of=
y
y z= x + yi
θ ) x
0
x
Figure 1.6: Modulus and argument of a complex number
π
1. a) 4 cis 0 b) 2 cis c) 2 cis (π )
2
 π π  π
d) 5cis  −  e) 2 cis f) 2 3 cis  − 
 2 6  3
 π
g) 2 3 cis  − 
 6
Here, remember that the notation r cis θ is the same as
r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) .
37
2. a) 1 + i 3 b) 2 ( −2 + 2i ) c) 1 − i
1
d) 3i e) −4 f)
2
(
− 3 −i )
g) 3 −i
Lesson 1.18. Multiplication and division of

complex numbers in polar form
Learning objectives
Given two complex numbers, learners should be able to
multiply and divide them in polar form exactly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Putting a complex number in polar form
࿌࿌ Addition formulae in trigonometry.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
(1 − i )
1. z1 z2 = ( 3 −i )
= 3 − i − i 3 − 1= 3 −1− ( )
3 +1 i
( ) ( )
2 2
z1 z2 = 3 −1 + 3 +1 = 3 − 2 3 + 1 + 3 + 2 2 + 1= 8= 2 2
 − 3 −1  5π
arg ( z1 z2 ) = arctan   = −
 3 −1  12
38
Complex Numbers
 −5π 
Then, z1 z2 = 2 2 cis  
 12 
2. z1 = 1 − i
π  π
z1 = 2, arg ( z1 ) =arctan ( −1) =− ⇒ z1 = 2 cis  − 
4  4
z
= −i
 1  π  π
z2 =2, arg ( z2 ) =arctan  − =− ⇒ z2 =2 cis  − 
 3 6  6
 π  π   π  π    π   π 
z1=
z2  2 2 cos  −  + i sin  −   cos  −  + i sin  −  
2 cis  −  2 cis  − =
 4  6   4  4    6   6 
  π  π  π  π  π  π  π   π 
= 2 2 cos  −  cos  −  + i cos  −  sin  −  + i sin  −  cos  −  − sin  −  sin  −  
  4  6  4  6  4  6  4   6 
  π  π  π  π   π  π  π  π  
= 2 2 cos  −  cos  −  − sin  −  sin  −  + i  cos  −  sin  −  + sin  −  cos  −   
  4   6   4   6    4   6   4   6  
  π  π     π  π   
= 2 2 cos  − +  −   + i  sin  − +  −     , from addition formulae in trigonometry
  4  6     4  6   
  5π   5π    −5π 
= 2 2 cos  −  + i cos  − =  2 2 cis  
  12   12    12 
3. The two results are the same

z 1− i
4. 1 =
z2 3 −i
(1 − i ) ( 3 +i ) 3 + i − i 3 +1 3 +1 1− 3
= = = + i
4 4 4 4
z1 z1 1− i 2
= = =
z2 z2 3 −i 2
 1− 3 
z    π
arg  1  = arctan  4  = −
 z2   1+ 3  12
 
 4 
Then,
z1 2  π 
= cis  − 
z2 2  12 
 π  π
5. z1 = 2 cis  −  , z2 =2 cis  − 
 4  6
39
 π   π  π 
2 cis  −  2 cos  −  + i sin  −  
z1  4   4  4 
= =
z2  π   π  π 
2 cis  −  2 cos  −  + i sin  −  
 6   6  6 
  π  π    π   π 
2 cos  −  + i sin  −   cos  −  − i sin  −  
  4   4    6   6 
=
  π  π    π   π 
2 cos  −  + i sin  −   cos  −  − i sin  −  
  6   6    6   6 
  π  π  π  π  π  π  π   π 
2 cos  −  cos  −  − i sin  −  cos  −  + i cos  −  sin  −  + sin  −  sin  −  
  4  6  6  4  6  4  4   6 
=
 2 π  2  π 
2 cos  −  + sin  −  
  6  6 
  π  π  π  π   π  π  π   π  
2 cos  −  cos  −  + sin  −  sin  −  + i  sin  −  cos  −  − cos  −  sin  −   
 4   6   4   6    4   6   4   6  
= 
2 ×1
  π  π   π  π  
2 cos  − −  −   + i sin  − −  −  
=   4  6   4  6  
2
2  π   π z1 2  π 
= cos  −  + i sin =
−  cis  − 
2   12   12z2 2  12 
6. The two results are the same.
Synthesis
Given two complex numbers
= z1 r1 ( cos θ1 + isin θ1 )
and z2 r2 ( cos θ 2 + isin θ 2 ) then,
=
z1 z2 r1r2 ( cos (θ1 + θ 2 ) + isin (θ1 + θ 2 ) ) and
=
z1 r1
=
z2 r2
( cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 ) ) with the provision
that 2π may have to be added to, or substracted from
θ1 + θ 2 (or θ1 − θ 2 ) if θ1 + θ 2 (or θ1 − θ 2 ) is outside the
permitted range of the principal argument ]−π , π ] .
We note that;
( z1 z2 ) Arg ( z1 ) + Arg ( z2 ) and
Arg=
 z1 
Arg
=   Arg ( z1 ) − Arg ( z2 )
 z2 
40
Complex Numbers
 11π  z 2  7π 
1. a) zw =2 2 cis  − , = cis  − 
 12  w 2  12 
π  z
b)=zw 4 cis  = , 4 cis ( −π )
3 w
 5π  z 2 π 
=c) zw 2=
2 cis   , cis  
 12  w 2  12 
 5π  z 6  11π 
d) zw 4 6 cis  =
= , cis  − 
 12  w 3  12 
π  z 2  7π 
=e) zw 2 cis   ,
= cis  
 12  w 2  12 
z π 
= f) zw 2= cis (π ) , cis  
w 2
 5π 
2. 2 cis  − 
 12 
Lesson 1.19. Powers of complex number in polar

form
Learning objectives
powers and use De Moivre’s theorem accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Putting a complex number in polar form.
Teaching Aids
41

skills
Answers
z
1. = 3 +i
 1  π
= arg ( z ) arctan
z 2,= =  
 3 6
π 
z = 2 cis  
6
( )( ) ( )
2
3 + i =3 + 2i 3 + ( i ) =
2 2
2. z =3 + i 3 + 2i 3 − 1 =
2 + 2i 3
π
z 2 = 4 + 12 = 4, arg ( z 2 ) = arctan 3 = ( ) 3
π 
z 2 = 4 cis  
3
3
(
3. z = 2 + 2i 3 )( )
3 + i = 2 3 + 2i + 6i − 2 3 = 8i
π
=z3 =82 8, arg ( = z3 )
2
π 
z 3 = 8cis  
2
4. From 1 to 3, we see that
π   2π 
=z 2 4=
cis   22 cis  
3  6 
 π  3  3π 
=z 3 8cis
=   2 cis  
2  6 
Hence, z = r cis ( nθ ) where r is modulus and θ is
n n
argument of z.
42
Complex Numbers
Synthesis
The power of a complex number in polar form is given
( r ( cos θ + i sin θ ))
n
by; z
= n
= r n ( cos nθ + i sin nθ ) ; n ∈  0
where r and θ are modulus and argument of z
respectively.
1
1. a)
2
( )
−1 − i 3 b) −64 c) −32i
1
d)
2
( )
−1 − i 3 e) −1 f) −512
g) −128 − 128i
=
2. m 6=
k , k 1, 2,3, 4,...
Lesson 1.20. nth root of a complex number

Learning objectives
Given a complex number, learners should be able to find the
nth roots of that complex number accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Evaluating powers in polar form.
Teaching Aids

skills
43
Answers
arg ( z ) arctan
1. z 4,=
= = ( 0 ) 0 ⇒ z =4 cis 0
( zk )
4
2. =z
But ( zk ) = ( r ') cis 4θ '

4 4
Then ( r ') cis 4θ ' = 4 cis 0

4
r ' = 4 4 ⇒ r ' = 2
( r ')4 = 4 
 ⇒ kπ
4θ ' = 2kπ θ ' =
 2
 kπ 
Now, zk = 2 cis  
 2 
If k 0,=
= z0 2 cis 0
π 
If=k 1,=
z1 2 cis  
2
If k 2,=
= z2 2 cis π
 3π   π
=
If k 3,=
z3 2 cis  =  2 cis  − 
 2   2
Synthesis
To find nth roots of a complex number z , you start by
expressing z in polar form z = rcisθ , where r is modulus
of z and θ argument of z.
Then, nth roots of a complex number z is given by
 θ + 2 kπ 
z=
k
n
r cis   k 0,1, 2,3,......, n − 1
=
 n 
π   5π   7π   3π 
1. z0 =
cis   , z1 =
cis   , z2 =−
cis   , z3 =−
cis  
8
   8   8   8 
 2π   4π   4π   2π 
2. z0 =
1, z1 =
cis   , z2 =
cis   , z3 =−
cis   , z4 =−
cis  
 5   5   5   5 
44
Complex Numbers
 2π   4π   4π   2π 
3. z0 =
2, z1 =
2 cis   , z2 =
2 cis   , z3 =
2 cis  −  , z4 =
2 cis  − 
 5   5   5   5 
π   7π   11π   5π 
4. z0 =
2 cis   , z1 =
2 cis   , z2 =
2 cis  −  , z3 =
2 cis  − 
12
   12   12   12 
2π 10 + 2 5
5. sin =
5 4
Hint:
2π
First, find cos and then use the relation
5
2π 2π
sin = 1 − cos 2
5 5
Lesson 1.21. Graphical representation of nth roots

of a complex number
Learning objectives
Given a complex number and using a ruler, learners should
be able to represent nth roots of that complex number in
Argand plane correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finding nth roots of a complex number.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pencil, instruments of geometry and calculator

skills
45
Answers
arg ( z ) 0
1. z 4,=
=
2 kπ 4π
zk = 5 4 cis z2 = 5 4 cis
5 5
=z0 =
5
4 cis 0 5 4 6π
z3 = 5 4 cis
2π 5
z1 = 5 4 cis 8π
5 z4 = 5 4 cis
5
2. Representation of the obtained roots on Argand
diagram and joining the obtained points.
y
2π
z1 = 5 4 cis
5
1
4π
z2 = 5 4 cis
5
x
-1 0 1
z0 = 4
5
6π
z3 = 5 4 cis
5 -1
8π
z4 = 5 4 cis
5
3. See diagram above.
Synthesis
As conclusion, if the complex number for which we are
computing then n roots is z = rcisθ , the radius of the
th
circle will be R = n r and the first root z0 corresponding

θ
to k = 0 will be at an amplitude of ϕ = . This root will be
n
followed by the n − 1 remaining roots at equal distances
apart.
46
Complex Numbers
π   π
z0 3cis  =
1. = , z1 3cis (π )=
, z2 3cis  − 
3  3
y
3
z0
2
z1 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
z2
-3
π   3π   3π   π
2. z0 = 2 cis   , z1 = 2 cis   , z2 = 2 cis  −  , z3 = 2 cis  − 
4  4   4   4
 3π   3π   π
2 cis   , z2 = 2 cis  −  , z3 = 2 cis  − 
 4   4   4
y
z1 z0
1
x
-2 -1 0 1 2
z2 -1
z3
47
π   5π   π
z0 2 cis  =
3. =  , z1 2 cis  =, z2 2 cis  − 
6  6   2
y
z1 z0
1
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1
-2
z2
π   3π   3π   π
4. z0 =
cis   , z1 =
cis   , z2 =−
cis   , z3 =−
cis  
4  4   4   4
y
1
z1 z0
x
-1 0 1
z2 z3
-1
48
Complex Numbers
Lesson 1.22. Construction of regular polygon

Learning objectives
Using nth roots of unity and geometric instruments, learners
should be able to construct a regular polygon in Argand plane
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finding nth roots of unity
࿌࿌ Representation of nth roots of unity in Argand diagram.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pencil, instrument of geometry and calculator

skills
Answers
2 kπ
1. zk cis =
= , k 0,1, 2
3
2π 4π
=z0 cis
= 0 1 , z1 = cis , z2 = cis
3 3
2. Graph
3. See the graph above.
49
4. The obtained figure is an equilateral triangle.
Synthesis
To draw a regular polygon with n sides follow the
following steps:
࿌࿌ Start by drawing a unit circle in Argand diagram. The
radius and the centre of this circle will be the radius
and centre of the regular polygon.
࿌࿌ Around the circle, place the points with affixes
2 kπ
= zk cis = , k 0,1, 2,....., n − 1 . Those points are
n
the vertices of the polygon.
࿌࿌ Using a ruler, join the obtained points around the
circle.
࿌࿌ The obtained figure is the needed regular polygon.
z1 1. A regular hexagon (6 sides) z0

y
1
x
-1 0 1
-1
z2
50
Complex Numbers
z1 2. A regular heptagon (7 sides) z0

y
1
x
-1 0 1
-1
z1 3. A regular octagon (8 sides) z0

y
1
z2
x
-1 0 1
-1
z1 4. A regular nonagon (9 sides) z0

y
1
z2
x
-1 0 1
-1
51
z2
Lesson 1.23. Exponential form of a complex

number
Learning objectives
Given a complex number, learners should be able to express
that complex number in exponential form accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finding modulus of a complex number.
࿌࿌ Finding argument of a complex number.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
x 2 x3 x 4 x5 x 6 x 7
1. e x =+
1 x+ + + + + + + ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
Replacing x with iθ gives
( iθ ) ( iθ ) ( iθ ) ( iθ ) ( iθ ) ( iθ )
2 3 4 5 6 7
iθ
e 1 + iθ +
= + + + + + + ...
2! 3!
5! 6! 4! 7!
θ iθ θ iθ θ iθ
2 3 4 5 6 7
=1 + iθ − − + + − − + ...
2! 3! 4! 2! 6! 7!
iθ θ2
iθ 3 θ 4 iθ 5 θ 6 iθ 7
2. e =+1 iθ − + + − − − + ...
2! 3! 4! 2! 6! 7!
θ2 θ4 θ6  θ3 θ5 θ7 
=1 − + − + ... + i  θ − + − + ... 
2! 4! 6!  3! 2! 7! 
52
Complex Numbers
x2 x4 x6
Since cos x =−
1 + − ... and
2! 4! 6!
x3 x5 x 7
sin x =x − + − ... , we can write
3! 5! 7!
eiθ cos θ + i sin θ
=
3. The right hand side of the expression obtained in 2)
is the polar form of complex number having modulus
1 and argument θ .
Synthesis
Exponential form of a complex number z, can be simply
found from its polar form z = rcisθ .
For a complex number having modulus 1 and argument
θ , we have the following equality; =
eiθ cos θ + i sin θ ,
which leads to r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) =
reiθ .
Therefore, z = reiθ is exponential form of complex number
=z r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) .

iπ 2 iπ iπ
−
1. e 2.
2 2 2e
2e 3. 3 4
iπ iπ
−
4. 2 3 e 6
3 2e4
5eiπ 6.
5.
0.9 i
7. 5e 8. 13e −1.9i
Lesson 1.24. Trigonometric number of a multiple

of an angle
Learning objectives
Given a multiple of an angle, learners should be able to find
its trigonometric number accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Binomial expansion.
Teaching Aids
53

skills
Answers
1. Newton binomial expansion gives
( cos x +=
i sin x ) C0 cos n x + nC1 cos n −1 x ( i sin x ) + nC2 cos n − 2 x ( i sin x ) + ..... + nCn ( i sin x ) (1)
n n 2 n
= n n
C0 cos x + C1i cos n n −1 n
x sin x − C2 cos n−2 2 n n n
x sin x + ..... + Cni sin x ( 2)
2. Relations (1) and (2) are equivalent. Then,
cos nx + i sin nx= nC0 cos n x − nC2 cos n −2 x sin 2 x + .......
(
+ i nC1 cos n −1 x sin x − nC3 cos n −3 x sin 3 x + .... ) ( 3)
3. Recall that two complex numbers are equal if they
have the same real parts and same imaginary parts.
Thus, from ( 3) , we have
n
cos nx = C0 cos n x − nC2 cos n −2 x sin 2 x + nC4 cos n −4 x sin 4 x + .....
n
sin nx = C1 cos n −1 sin x − nC3 cos n −3 x sin 3 x + nC5 cos n −5 x sin 5 x + ....
Synthesis
Generally,
=cos nx ∑
0≤ k ≤ n
n
Ck i k cos n − k x sin k x, with k − even
=i sin nx ∑
1≤ k ≤ n
n
Ck i k cos n − k x sin k x, with k − odd
n n!
Ck =
k !( n − k ) !
54
Complex Numbers
2 cos x sin x
1. 2 cos 2 x − 1 2.
3cot x − cot 3 x 3cot x − cot 3 x
3. 4.
1 − 3cot 2 x 1 − 3cot 2 x
tan 5 x − 10 tan 3 x + 5 tan x
5.
5 tan 4 x − 10 tan 2 x + 1
6. 32 cos 6 x − 48cos 4 x + 18cos 2 x − 1
3 5
7. −32 cos x sin x + 32sin x cos x + 6sin x cos x
Lesson 1.25. Linearisation of trigonometric

expressions
Learning objectives
Given a trigonometric expression, learners should be able to
linearise that trigonometric expression exactly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Euler’s formulae.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen

skills
Answers
Euler’s formulae are
1 ix − ix
cos
= x
2
(
e +e )
1 ix − ix
sin x
=
2i
(
e −e )
55
From these formulae, we have

2
2  eeixix − − ee − ix   eeix +
− ix 2 ix
+ ee − ix 
− ix
sin x cos
2 x =
sin x cos x =  2i   
 2i   22 
 ee 2ix +2 ix −2 ix
+ ee −2ix − − 22   eeix +
ix
+ ee − ix 
− ix
=
=    
 −44
−   22 
3ix ix − ix −3ix ix
ee3ix + + eeix + + ee − ix + + ee −3ix − − 22eeix − − 22ee −− ixix
=
=
−88
−
3ix −3ix ix − ix
ee3ix + + ee −3ix − − eeix − − ee − ix
=
=
−88
−
11  ee3ix +
3ix
+ ee −−33ixix eeixix + + ee −− ixix 
== −− 4  −
− 
4  22 22 
11
− 4 (( cos
== − cos 33 xx + cos xx ))
+ cos
4
Synthesis
To linearise trigonometric expression (product in sum),
we use Euler’s formulae
1 iθ −iθ 1 iθ −iθ
cos θ =
2
e +e ( ) sin θ =
2
e −e ( )
1 1 1 1
1. cos ( x − y ) + cos ( x + y ) 2. cos ( x − y ) − cos ( x + y )
2 2 2 2
1 1
3. 1 sin 2 x 4. − cos 2 x
2 2 2
1 1 3 1
5. + cos 2 x 6. sin x − sin 3 x
2 2 4 4
3 1 1 1
7. cos x + cos 3 x 8. − cos 4 x
4 4 8 8
56
Complex Numbers
Lesson 1.26. Solving equation of the form

a cos x + b=
sin x c, a, b, c ∈  and a ⋅ b ≠ 0
Learning objectives
Given equation of the form
sin x c, a, b, c ∈  and a ⋅ b ≠ 0 , learners should
a cos x + b=
be able to solve it using complex numbers precisely.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Solving simple trigonometric equation.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and scientific calculator.

skills
Answers
z = 1+ 3 = 2
1. z = 1 − i 3 2.
π
3. arg ( z ) = ( )
arctan − 3 =
−
3
 π 
4. 2 cos  x +  = −1
 3
 2π
+ 2 kπ
 π 1 π  3
⇔ cos  x +  =− ⇔ x + =
 3 2 3  2π
− + 2 kπ
 3
π
 + 2 kπ
⇒x=3
−π + 2kπ
57
Synthesis
To solve the equation of the form
a cos x + b=
sin x c, a, b, c ∈  and a ⋅ b ≠ 0 , follow these
steps:
1. Reduction of a cos x + b sin x a, b ∈ 
y
b N ( z ')
)
sin x M ( z)
θ
)x x
0 a cos x
Figure 1.7: Reduction of a trigonometric expression
To get the expression equivalent to a cos x + b sin x ,

we use dot product expressed in terms of angle θ − x

that is, between two vectors OM = ( cos x,sin x ) and

ON = ( a, b ) .
 
OM ⋅ ON
Or cos (θ − x ) = 
OM ⋅ ON
a cos x + b sin x
⇔ cos (θ − x ) =
a + b 2 ⋅ cos 2 x + sin 2 x
2
a cos x + b sin x
⇔ cos (θ − x ) =
a 2 + b2
⇒ a cos x + b sin x = a 2 + b 2 cos (θ − x )
Therefore, a cos x + b sin x =
c
⇔ a 2 + b 2 cos (θ − x ) =
c
2. Solve reduction formula of a cos x + b sin x =
c
c ⇔ a 2 + b 2 cos (θ − x ) =
a cos x + b sin x = c
58
Complex Numbers
c
⇔ cos (θ − x )
= , as a 2 + b2 ≠ 0
2 2
a +b
Since ∀α ∈ , − 1 ≤ cos α ≤ 1 ⇔ cos α ≤ 1 , thus,
a cos x + b sin x =
c has many solutions if and only if
c 2 2
≤ 1 or c ≤ a + b , otherwise, there is no
a 2 + b2
solution.
π
1.  x =+ π   π 
kπ , x =, k ∈   2.  x =+ kπ , k ∈  
 6 2   4 
3π π π π
3. ± − + 2kπ , k ∈  4. ± + 2 kπ , k ∈ 
4 4 6 4
π
5. π ± π + 2kπ , k ∈  6.
− + 2 kπ , k ∈ 
6 3 4
Lesson 1.27. Alternating current problem

Learning objectives
By leading textbooks or accessing internet, learners should
be able to solve alternating current problems that involve
complex numbers accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Converting a complex number to different forms.
࿌࿌ Make a research by reading textbooks or accessing
internet.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, textbooks or internet if available.

59

skills
࿌࿌ Research
Answers
1
R jω L +
Z =+
jωC
R 10,=
when = C 0.04 and ω = 4 we have
L 5,=
1
10 + j ( 4 )( 5 ) +
Z=
j ( 4 )( 0.04 )
1 − j 0.16
=10 + j 20 + =10 + j 20 +
0.16 j ( j 0.16 )( − j 0.16 )
j 0.16
=10 + j 20 − =10 + j 20 − j 6.25 =10 + j13.75
0.0256
Thus, Z= 10 + j13.75 or Z= 10 + 13.75 j
Synthesis
The voltage in an AC circuit can be represented as
V = V0 e jwt
= V0 ( cos wt + j sin wt )
which denotes Impedance, Vo is peak value of
impedance and ω = 2π f where f is the frequency of
supply. To obtain the measurable quantity, the real part
is taken:
Re (V ) = V0 cos wt and is called Resistance while
imaginary part denotes Reactance (inductive or
capacitive).
Briefly, the current, I (cosine function) leads the applied
potential difference (p.d.), V (sine function) by one
quarter of a cycle i.e. π radians or 900 .
2
60
Complex Numbers
Figure 1.8: R − L series circuit Figure1.9: R − C series circuit
In the Resistance and Inductance ( R − L ) series circuit,

as shown in figure 1.8,
VR + jVL =
V as
= VR IR
= VL IX L (where X L is the
inductive reactance 2πf L ohms) and V=IZ (where Z is
the impedance), then, R + jX L =Z.
In the Resistance and Capacitance ( R − C ) circuit, as
shown in figure 1.9,
V , from which R − jX C =
VR − jVC = Z
1
XC
(where X C is the capacitive reactance,= Ω ).
2π fC
1. a) R =3Ω, L =25.5mH b) R =2Ω, L =1061µ F

L 44.56mH d) R =4Ω, L =459.5µ F
R 0,=
c)=
2. 15.76 A, 23.20 lagging 

0
3.  27.25 A,3.370 lagging 
61
4. a) 0.3A b) V leads I by 520

5. Z 0 = 390.2cis ( −10.430 ) , γ = 0.1029cis 61.920
Summary of the unit
1. Concepts of complex numbers

A complex number is a number that can be put in the form
a + bi , where a and b are real numbers and =
i −1 .
The set of all complex numbers is denoted by  and is defined
{z =
as  = −1} .
a + bi : ( a, b ) ∈  2 and i 2 =
The real number a of the complex number z= a + bi is called
the real part of z, and the real number b is often called the
imaginary part. A complex number whose real part is zero
is said to be purely imaginary, whereas a complex number
whose imaginary part zero is said to be a real number or
simply real.
2. Algebraic form of a complex number
Powers of i : i 4 k = 1, i 4 k +1 = i, i 4 k + 2 = −1, i 4 k +3 = −i
z = ( a, b ) is a geometric form of the complex number z.
z= a + bi is the algebraic (or standard or Cartesian or
rectangular) form of the complex number z.
If two complex numbers, say a + bi and c + di are equal
then, both their real and imaginary parts are equal. That is,
a + bi = c + di ⇔ a = c and b = d .
The addition and subtraction of two complex
numbers a + bi and c + di is defined by the formula:
( a + bi ) ± ( c + di ) = ( a ± c ) + ( b ± d ) i
62
Complex Numbers
The complex conjugate of the complex number z= x + yi ,

*
denoted by z or z , is defined to be z = x − yi .
The complex number − z =− x − yi is the opposite of
z= x + yi , symmetric of z with respect to 0.
The multiplication of two complex numbers
c + di and c + di is defined by the formula:
( a + bi )( c + di ) = ( ac − bd ) + ( bc + ad ) i
1 z
The inverse of z = a + bi is given by = z=
−1
z a + b2
2
If z1= a + bi and z2 = c + di then,

z1 a + bi  ac + bd   bc − ad 
= =  + i
z2 c + di  c 2 + d 2   c 2 + d 2 
If a complex number x + yi is a square root of the complex

x =

±
1
2
a + a 2 + b2 ( )
number a + bi , then, 
y =
 ±
1
2
(
a 2 + b2 − a )
Let a, b and c be real numbers ( a ≠ 0 ), then the equation
az 2 + bz + c =0 has either two real roots, one double real root
or two conjugate complex roots.
a) If ∆ > 0 , there are two distinct real roots:
−b + ∆ and z = −b − ∆ .
z1 = 2
2a 2a
b) If ∆ =0 , there is a double real root:
b
z1 = z2 = −
2a
c) If ∆ < 0 , there is no real roots. In this case, there are
two conjugate complex roots:
−b + i −∆ and z = −b − i −∆ .
z1 = 2
2a 2a
2
Where, ∆= b − 4ac
b c
z1 + z2 =− , z1 ⋅ z2 =
a a
63
Every polynomial of positive degree with coefficients in the

system of complex numbers has a zero in the system of
complex numbers. Moreover, every such polynomial can be
factored linearly in the system of complex numbers.
3. Polar form of a complex number
The absolute value (or modulus or magnitude) of a complex
r z=
number z= x + yi is = x2 + y 2
Principal argument of a complex number z= x + yi
 y
arctan x , if x > 0

π + arctan y , if x < 0, y ≥ 0
 x

−π + arctan y , if x < 0, y < 0
arg ( z ) 
= x
π
 , if= x 0, y > 0
2
 π
− , if x = 0, y < 0
 2
Undefined = if x 0= and y 0
=
Polar (or modulus-argument) form is z r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) or
z = r cisθ .
=
Given two complex numbers z1 r1 ( cos θ1 + isin θ1 ) and
=z2 r2 ( cos θ 2 + isin θ 2 ) , the formulae for multiplication
and division are= z1 z2 r1r2 ( cos (θ1 + θ 2 ) + isin (θ1 + θ 2 ) ) and
z1 r1
=
z2 r2
( cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 ) ) respectively.
Power of a complex number z is given by
( r ( cos θ + i sin θ ))
n
=zn = r n ( cos nθ + i sin nθ ) ; n ∈  0
De Moivre’s theorem: ( cos θ + i sin θ ) =( cos nθ + i sin nθ )

n
If ( zk ) = z for z = rcisθ , then

n
 θ + 2 kπ 
z=
k
n
r cis   k 0,1, 2,3,......, n − 1
=
 n 
64
Complex Numbers
To draw a regular polygon with n sides, the steps followed are:

ᅧᅧ Start by drawing a unit circle in Argand diagram. The
radius and the centre of this circle will be the radius
and centre of the regular polygon.
ᅧᅧ Around the circle, place the points with affixes
2 kπ
= zk cis = , k 0,1, 2,....., n − 1 . Those points are the
n
vertices of the polygon.
ᅧᅧ Using a ruler, join the obtained points around the circle.
ᅧᅧ The obtained figure is the needed regular polygon.
4. Exponential form of a complex number
The exponential form of a complex number z whose
modulus is r and argument is θ , is z = reiθ
Euler’s formulae (these formulae are used to linearise
trigonometric expressions):
1 iθ
cos
= θ
2
( e + e−iθ )
1 iθ
sin θ
=
2i
( e − e−iθ )
5. Applications
Formulae for trigonometric number of a multiple of an
angle
cos nx = ∑Ci
0≤ k ≤ n
k
k
cos n − k x sin k , with k even
i sin nx = ∑Ci
1≤ k ≤ n
k
k
cos n − k x sin k , with k odd
n n!
Ck =
k !( n − k ) !
ᅧᅧ To solve the equation a cos x + b sin x = c, solve the
equation
c
cos ( x=−θ ) =, θ arg ( a + bi )
a + b2
2
65
Alternating current
Resistance and Capacitance (R-C)
Let a p.d. V be applied across a resistance R and a
capacitance C in series. The same current I flows through
each component and so the reference vector will be that
representing I. The p.d. R across R is in phase with I, and
VC , that across C, lags on current I by 900 .
R C
I VR VC
Phasor diagram
VR I
ϕ
VC
V
Figure showing Resistance and Capacitance in series
Vector sum of VR and VC is called Impedance and equals

the applied p.d. V;
Z= VR + jVC where VR and VC are known as resistance and
reactance respectively.
But VR = IR and VC = IX C where X C is the capacitive
1
reactance of C and equals .
ωC
Resistance and inductance (R-L)
The analysis is similar but here, the p.d. VL across L leads
on current I and the p.d. VR across R is again in phase with
I.
66
Complex Numbers
R L
I VR VL
Phasor diagram
VL V
θ
VR I
Figure showing Resistance and Inductance in series
Z= VR + jVL where VR and VL are known as resistance and

reactance respectively.
But VR = IR and VL = IX L where X L is the inductive
reactance of L and equals ω L
or ω = 2π f .
For the n–branch parallel circuit, Impedance Z is given by:
1 n
1
=∑
Z k =1 Z k
67
End of Unit Assessment answers Learner’s Book page 75
1. a) 3 − 8i b) 5 + 5i
1 − 7i
c) 100 + 200i d)
5
2. a) x =± −4 =± 2 −1 =±2i
−1 ± i 3 1 3
b) x = =− ± i
2 2 2
−6 ± 36 − 44 −6 ± i 2 2
c) x = = =−3 ± i 2
2 2
1 3
d) x = 1, − ± i
2 2
3. Plot
y
5
−3 + 2i 2
i 2+i
1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
1− i
-2
−3 − 2i
−3i
-3
-4
-5
π
1 cis 0 b) i = cis
a) =
2
 π  π
c) −3=i 3cis  −  d) = 1− i 2cis  − 
 2  4
  1 
e) 2 + i = 5cis  arctan   
  2 
  2 
−3 − 2i
f) = 13cis  π − arctan   
  3 
  2 
−3 + 2i
g) = 13cis  π + arctan  −  
  3 
68
Complex Numbers
4. a) 2 cis 0 =2 b) 3 cis π =−3

π 3π 3 2 3 2
c) cis i d) 3 cis
= =− +i
2 4 2 2
5. a) i 7 = −i b) (1 + i ) = −4 (1 + i )
5
 1 3
( )
−4
c) 3 − i = 2−4  − + i 
 2 2 
π  3 1 z =  5π  3 1
z0 cis  =
6. a) =  + i , 1 cis   = − + i ,
6 2 2  6  2 2
 3π 
z2 = cis   = −i
 2 
π   9π   17π 
b) z0 = 2cis   , z1 = 2cis   , z2 = 2cis 
8 8 8
,
 16   16   16 
 25π 
z3 = 8 2cis  
 16 
z1 7π
7. Polar form: = cis , Cartesian form:
z2 12
z1 2 6  2 6
= − + i  + 
z2 4 4  4 4 
 7π 2− 6
cos =
 12 4

sin 7π = 2 + 6
 12 4
8. eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ = cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ =1
9. ( e= )
−1
( cos θ + i sin θ )
iθ −1
1 cos θ − i sin θ
= = = cos θ − i sin θ= cos ( −θ ) + i sin ( −θ )= e−iθ
cos θ + i sin θ cos θ + sin θ
2 2
10. The nth roots of unit are given by:

2 kπ
=zk cis = k 0,1, 2,3,...., n − 1
n
69
 2π 
z=
0 cis =
0 1 z1 = cis  
 n 
2
 4π    2π   2
=z2 cis
=    cis =  z1
 n    n 
3
 6π    2π   3
=z3 cis
=    cis =
   z1
 n    n 

 2 ( n − 1) π    2π  
n −1
=zn −1 cis=
 cis 
 =  z1n −1
 n    n 
2 3 n −1
The sum is sn = 1 + z1 + z1 + z1 + .... + z1 (1)
Multiplying both sides by z1 gives
(
z1sn= z1 1 + z1 + z12 + z13 + .... + z1n −1 )
⇔ z1sn= z1 + z12 + z13 + z14 + .... + z1n ( 2)
(1) − ( 2 ) gives
( sn − z1sn ) =1 + z1 + z12 + z13 + .... + z1n−1
− z1 − z12 − z13 − z14 − .... − z1n
sn (1 − z1 ) = 1 − z1n
1 − z1n
⇔ sn =
1 − z1
 2nπ 
=
But z1n cis =
  cis
= ( 2π ) 1 , then
 n 
1 − z1n 1 − 1 0
sn
= = = = 0
1 − z1 1 − z1 1 − z1
Thus, the sum of nth roots of unit is zero.
π 1+ 5
11. cos
=
5 4
3
12. z = − + yi, y ∈ 
2
13. S ={−3, −2i, 2i}
70
Complex Numbers
2001
1 3
14.  + i  = −1
 2 2   
15. a) M is a point on circle of diameter [ AB ] if BM ⊥ AM .
z − zB
We need to check if M is pure imaginary.
zM − z A
zM − z B ieiθ − i eiθ − 1
= =
zM − z A ieiθ + i eiθ + 1
θ θ θ
i  i −i 
e 2  e 2 − e 2  2i sin θ
= θ θ =  = 2 i tan θ
i  i
θ
−i  θ 2
e 2  e 2 + e 2  2 cos
2
 
which is a pure imaginary.
Thus, M is a point on circle of diameter [ AB ] .
π
π z ' e=
i
z iz
b) Rotation of centre o and angle of is= 2
2
i (1 ieiθ ) =
zM ' =+ i − eiθ
θ
zM − z B ieiθ − i i ( eiθ − 1) ( eiθ − 1) 2i sin 2 θ
= = = = = tan
zM ' − z B −e − 1 i ( e + 1) i ( e + 1) 2i cos θ
iθ 2 iθ iθ
2
2
which is real.
Thus, points B, M and M ' are collinear.
16. Values of x are 2 and -5
17. a) The locus is the mediator of the segment [ AB ] such
that z A =2 and z B =−1 .
b) The locus is the mediator of the segment [ AB ] such
that z A =2i and z B =−2 .
c) The locus is the circle of centre 1 − 3i and radius 2.
d) The locus is the circle of centre −1 + 0 and radius 1.
e) The locus is the rectangular hyperbola.
f) The locus is the union of 2 bisectors of equations
y = − x and y = x respectively.
71
18. The two complex numbers are 1 + 2i 2 and 1 − 2i 2

 kπ 
19. z cis 
= ,k ∈
 4 
3
20. Re ( z ) = 0 , Im ( z ) = −
3
θ π
21. z= cot , arg ( z )= θ −
2 2
 −1 + 3   −1 + 3   −1 − 3   −1 − 3 
22. z 
=  +  = i or z   +   i
 2   2   2   2 
23. z =
6 + yi, y ∈ 
24. Isosceles triangle has two sides equal in length different
from the third. We must check if there are two equal
  
sides among AB , AC and BC

AB = 4 − 2i − 1 − 2i = 3 − 4i = 9 + 16 =5

AC = 1 − 6i − 1 − 2i = −8i = 64 = 8

BC = 1 − 6i − 4 + 2i = −3 − 4i = 9 + 16 = 5
  
Then, = AB BC ≠ AC and hence the triangle is
isosceles.
9 30
 3 −i   3 +i 3 −i 
25. a) (i)  = −i (ii)  + − 2 1
 =
 1 + i 3   3 −i
 3 +i 
 
=
b) (i) n 6k , k ∈ {1, 2,3, 4,5,.......}
(ii) n= 3m, m ∈ {1,3,5, 7,9,.....}

c) Let z1 = 1 + i z2 = 1 − i
z1 = 2 z2 = 2
π π
arg ( z1 ) = arg ( z2 ) = −
4 4
π   π
z1 = 2cis   =z2 2cis  − 
4  4
72
Complex Numbers
Then,
n n
  π    π 
(1 + i ) + (1 − i )
n n n n
= z + z =  2cis    +  2cis  −  
1 2
  4    4 
( 2 ) cos  n4π  + i ( 2 ) sin  n4π  + ( 2 ) cos  n4π  + i ( 2 ) sin  − n4π 
n n n n
=
( 2 ) cos  n4π  + i ( 2 ) sin  n4π  + ( 2 ) cos  n4π  − i ( 2 ) sin  n4π 
n n n n
=
 nπ  nπ  nπ 
( 2) 
( 2) 
( 2)
n n n
= cos  + cos  =2 cos  
 4   4   4 
n
 nπ   nπ  1+ 2  nπ 
( )
n n
= 2 =
2 cos   2=( )
2 2 cos   2 cos  
 4   4   4 
n+2
 nπ  as required.
=2 2
cos  
 4 
26. a) E ( −1) =−
( 1) + 2 ( −1) + 2 ( −1) + 1 =0 . Thus, -1 is a
3 2
root of E.
a 1,=
b)= b 1,=
c 1
 1 3 1 3 
c) S = −1, − − i ,− +i 
 2 2 2 2 
27. a) Complex plane
y
5
4
(1, 4 )
3
2
( 4, 2 )
1
1 
 ,0 x
2 
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
( 2, −3)
-4
-5
1 3 1 1
b) z
 = − 2 + 3i =− + 3i , z =1 + 4i − = + 4i
AB
2 2
BC
2 2
5
c) E= +i
2
73
z1 2  5π 
28. a) Polar form: = cis  
z2 2  12 
z1 3 −1 3 +1
=
Algebraic form: +i
z2 4 4
 5π 6− 2
cos =
 12 4
b) 
sin 5π = 6 + 2
 12 4
c) The lowest value of n is 12.
0
29. 11.86 N , 146.77 from force A
30. 8.394 N , 208.680 from force A
31. (10 + j 20 ) Ω, 22.36cis 63.430 Ω
mh 
32. ±  
 2π 
33. 14.42 A, 43.85 lagging 
0
34. 14.58 A, 2.510 leading

V
35. Current I =
Z
Impedance Z for three branch parallel circuit is given by
1 1 1 1
= + +
Z Z1 Z 2 Z 3
For our case, Z1 =
4 + 3 j, Z 2 =
10, Z 3 =
12 − 5 j .
And then,
1 1 1 1 2797 764
= + + = − = 0.331 − 0904 j
Z 4 + 3 j 10 12 − 5 j 8450 8450
= 0.343 cos ( −15017 ') + j sin ( −15017 ') 
V
I == 240 × 0.343 cos ( −15.280 ) + j sin ( −15.280 ) 
Z
= 82.32 cos ( −15.280 ) + j sin ( −15.280 ) 
Thus, I 82.32
= = A, with θ 15.280 lagging .
74
Unit 2 Logarithmic and
Exponential Functions
Key unit competence

Extend the concepts of functions to investigate fully
logarithmic and exponential functions, finding the domain
of definition, the limits, asymptotes, variations, graphs,
and model problems about interest rates, population
growth or decay, magnitude of earthquake, etc

Depreciation: A negative growth (diminishing in value
over a period of time).
Earthquake: A sudden violent shaking of the ground as
a result of movements within the earth’s
crust.
Richter scale: A logarithmic scale for expressing the
magnitude of an earthquake on the basis
of seismograph oscillations.

The problem statement is “The population P of a city increases
according to the formula P = 500e at where t is in years and
t = 0 corresponds to 1980. In 1990, the population was
10,000. Find the value of the constant a; correct your answer
to 3 decimal places.”
75
Advanced Mathematics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Teacher’s Book Six
From this problem, if t = 0 corresponds to1980, then 1990

corresponds to t = 10 and this gives the following equation:
at
500e at = 1000 or e = 2 .
To find the value a, we take ln on both sides and we get
ln 2
ln e10 a = ln 2 or 10a ln e= ln 2 ⇒ a= = 0.069 . Such kind
10
of problems are solved using logarithms.
List of lessons
1 Domain and range of natural logarithmic 1
function
2 Limit and asymptotes for natural 1
logarithmic function
3 Derivative of natural logarithmic function 1
4 Variation and curve of natural logarithmic 2
function
5 Domain and range of logarithmic function 1
with any base
6 Limit and asymptotes for logarithmic 1
function with any base
7 Logarithmic differentiation 1
8 Further differentiation 1
9 Variation and curve of logarithmic function 2
with any base
10 Domain and range of exponential function 1
with base e
11 Limit and asymptotes for exponential 1
function with base e
12 Derivative of exponential function with 1
base e
13 Variation and curve of exponential function 2
with base e
14 Domain and range of exponential function 1
with any base
76
Logarithmic and Exponential Equations
15 Limit and asymptotes for exponential 1

16 Derivative of exponential function with any 1
base
17 Variation and curve of exponential function 2
with any base
18 Compound interest problems 2
19 Mortgage amount problems 1
20 Population growth problems 1
21 Depreciation value problems 1
22 Earthquake problems 1
23 Carbon-14 dating 1
Total periods 28
Lesson development
Lesson 2.1. Domain and range of natural

logarithmic functions
Learning objectives
Given any logarithmic function, learners should be able to
find its domain and range accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finding domain of polynomial, rational/irrational and
trigonometric functions.
࿌࿌ Finding range of polynomial, rational/irrational and
Teaching Aids

77

skills
࿌࿌ Financial education
Answers
x ln x x ln x x ln x
-0.8 impossible 0.2 -1.61 1.5 0.40
-0.6 impossible 0.4 -0.91 2 0.69
-0.4 impossible 0.6 -0.51 2.5 0.91
-0.2 impossible 0.8 -0.22 3 1.09
0 impossible 1 0 3.5 1.25
1. (i) For negative x values and zero, ln xis impossible.
(ii) For x values between 0 and 1, ln xis less than zero.
(iii) For x values greater than 1, ln xis greater than zero.
2. Curve
4 y
3
y = ln x
2
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Figure 2.1: Curve of y = ln x
Synthesis
From figure 2.1, ln x is defined on positive real
numbers, ]0, +∞[ and its range is all real numbers that
is domf= ]0, +∞[ and Im f = ]−∞, +∞[ .
78
1. a) ]0, +∞[ b) ]0, 4[
c) ]−∞, +∞[ d) ]−∞,3[

2. 316.2
Lesson 2.2. Limit and asymptotes for natural

logarithmic functions
Learning objectives
Given a natural logarithmic function, learners should be able
to evaluate limits and deduce relative asymptotes accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Evaluating limits.
࿌࿌ Finding relative asymptotes.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. lim− ln x does not exist since at the left of zero ln is
x →0
impossible.
79
2. If x takes on values closer to 0 from the right, we have

x ln x
0.5 -0.69315
0.45 -0.79851
0.4 -0.91629
0.35 -1.04982
0.3 -1.20397
0.25 -1.38629
0.2 -1.60944
0.15 -1.89712
0.1 -2.30259
0.05 -2.99573
We see that if x takes on values closer to 0 from the
right, ln x becomes smaller and smaller negative.
Then lim+ ln x = −∞ . There is a vertical asymptote
x →0
x =0.
3. If we give to x the values of the form 10n ( n ∈  ) ,
n
ln10
= n ln10 ≈ 2.30n and let n take values 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,…, we have;
ln x
n x = 10n ln x
x
1 10 2.302585 0.230258509
2 100 4.60517 0.046051702
3 1000 6.907755 0.006907755
4 10000 9.21034 0.000921034
5 100000 11.51293 0.000115129
6 1000000 13.81551 0.000013816
7 10000000 16.1181 0.000001612
8 100000000 18.42068 0.000000184
9 1000000000 20.72327 0.000000021
10 10000000000 23.02585 0.000000002
We see that if x takes on values of the form 10 ( n ∈  ) ,

n
80
ln x becomes larger and larger without bound and

consequently approaches no fixed value. Then
lim ln ( x ) = +∞ . There is no horizontal asymptote.
x →+∞
Also, that if x takes the values of the form
ln x
10n ( n ∈  ) , becomes closer to zero.
x
ln x
Then, lim = 0.
x →+∞ x
There is no oblique asymptote.
Synthesis
As conclusion, xlim ln x = +∞ and lim+ ln x = −∞
→+∞ x →0
There exists a vertical asymptote with equation VA ≡ x =0

No horizontal asymptote.
1) −∞ 2) 0 3) +∞ 4)
+∞
Lesson 2.3. Derivative of natural logarithmic

functions
Learning objectives
to differentiate it accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Definition of derivative.
࿌࿌ Differentiating a polynomial, rational/ irrational and
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen
81

skills
Answers
 x+h
ln  
ln ( x + h ) − ln x  x 
1. ( ln x ) h →0
' = lim = lim
h
h h →0
1
1  x+h  h h
= lim ln  =  lim ln 1 + 
h →0 h
 x  h →0  x 
h
Let u = ⇒ h = ux
x
If h → 0, u → 0
1
 h h 1
lim ln 1 + = lim ln (1 + u ) ux
h →0
 x u →0
1 1
= lim ln (1 + u ) u
u →0 x
1 1
= lim ln (1 + u ) u
x u →0
1 1
= ln lim (1 + u ) u
x u →0
1 1
= ln e = since lim (1 + u ) u e
x u →0
1
=
x
82
1
Thus, ( ln x ) ' =
x
2. ( ln = 1 u ' . Thus, ( ln u ) ' = u ' where u is
u)' = u' u
u u
another differentiable function.
Synthesis
1
( ln x ) ' =
; if u is another differentiable function of x
x
u'
then, ( ln u ) ' = .
u
2 ln x tan 2 x + 1 x
1. 2. 3. 2

x tan x x −1
2 x tan x − ln ( sin x ) 1
4. 2
5. 6. − tan x +
x −1 x 2
x
2
7. tan x −
1 − ln x
+ 1 8.
( )
−2 ln x + 1 + 1
2
3x 2 ( x + 1)
2
Lesson 2.4. Variation and curve sketching of

natural logarithmic functions
Learning objectives
to study the variation and sketch its curve perfectly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finding domain and limits at the boundaries of the
domain.
࿌࿌ Deducing relative asymptotes.
࿌࿌ Finding first and second derivative.
࿌࿌ Variation and concavity of a function.
࿌࿌ Sketch a curve in Cartesian plane given some points.
Teaching Aids
83

skills
Answers
1. f ( x ) = ln x . The domain is ]0, +∞[ .
lim f ( x ) = −∞ . There is a vertical asymptote x = 0

x → 0+
lim f ( x ) = +∞ . There is no horizontal asymptote

x →+∞
f ( x) ln x
lim= lim = 0 . There is no oblique
x →+∞ x x →+∞ x
asymptote.
1
2. f ( x ) =ln x ⇒ f ' ( x ) = . Since x ∈ ]0, +∞[ , f ' ( x ) is
x
always positive and hence f ( x ) = ln x increases on
1
its domain. Since f ' ( x = ) ≠ 0 , there is no extrema
x
(no maximum, no minimum).
1 1
3. f ' ( x ) = − 2 . f '' ( x ) is always negative
⇒ f '' ( x ) =
x x
and hence the concavity of f ( x ) = ln x is turning
1
down on its domain. Since f '' ( x ) = − 2 ≠ 0 , there is
x
no inflection points.
84
4. Completed table of variation

+∞
x 0 1 e
Sign of  + + + + +
f '( x)
Sign of  - - - - -
f '' ( x )
+∞
Variation
of f ( x ) 1
0
−∞
Concavity
of f ( x )
5. Intersection of f ( x ) with axes of co-ordinates:

There is no intersection of f ( x ) with y − axis since
this axis is an asymptote.
Intersection with yx − axis :
f ( x ) = 0 ⇔ ln x = 0 ⇒ ln x = ln1 ⇒ x = 1 . Then,
{(1, 0 )} .
f ( x ) ∩ ox =
6. Additional points
x 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1
y -2.3 -1.2 -0.7 -0.4 -0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
x 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.7 3.9

y 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4
Graph
y
VA ≡ x =0
y = ln x
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1
-2
-3
85
Synthesis
To sketch a function, follow the following steps:
࿌࿌ Find domain of definition.
࿌࿌ Evaluate limits at the boundary of domain and
deduce relative asymptotes.
࿌࿌ Find first derivative. Deduce maxima and draw
variation table.
࿌࿌ Find second derivative. Deduce inflection points and
draw concavity table.
࿌࿌ Find x and y intercepts.
࿌࿌ Find additional points.
࿌࿌ Sketch the curve.
For other function, you may need to study party and
periodicity. Also, you may need to find tangent lines at
remarkable points (maxima, inflection points, x and y
intercepts)
1. Domain of definition: ]−∞, 0[ ∪ ]0, +∞[

Vertical asymptote x = 0
f ( x ) decreases on interval ]−∞, 0[ and increases on
interval ]0, +∞[ .
Curve
86
2. Domain of definition: ]−1, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = −1
g ( x ) increases on its domain
Curve
3. Domain of definition: ]0, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = 0
h ( x ) increases on its domain
Curve
87
4. Domain of definition: ]−∞,1[ ∪ ]2, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = 1 and x = 2
k ( x ) decreases on interval ]−∞,1[ and increases on
interval ]2, +∞[
Curve
Lesson 2.5. Domain and range of logarithmic

Learning objectives
Given a logarithmic function with any base, learners should
be able to find the domain and range accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Domain of a natural logarithmic function.
࿌࿌ Range of a natural logarithmic function.
Teaching Aids
88

skills
Answers
1. Existence condition: x > 0
Hence, Domf= ]0, +∞[
Limit on boundaries
ln x ln x
lim+ = −∞ lim = +∞
x →0 ln 2 x →∞ ln 2
From limits on boundaries, we get that range of f ( x )
is ]−∞, +∞[ .
2. Existence condition: x > 0
Hence, Domg = ]0, +∞[
Limit on boundaries
ln x ln x ln x
lim+ = +∞ lim = lim = −∞
x →0 1 x →∞ 1 x →∞ − ln 2
ln ln
2 2
From limits on boundaries, we get that range of
g ( x ) is ]−∞, +∞[ .
Synthesis
Logarithm of a real number x with base a is the number
ln x
denoted log a x defined by log a x = , x ∈  +0 , a ∈  +0 \ {1}
ln a
89
By letting a = 2 , the curve of f ( x ) = log 2 x is the

following
4 y
3 VA ≡ x =0
y = log 2 x
2
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Figure 2.2: Curve of y = log 2 x

1
By letting a = , you get the curve of f ( x ) = log 1 x as
2 2
illustrated in figure 2.2.
4 y
3
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-1
-2
y = log 1 x
2
-3
VA ≡ x =0
-4
-5

2
90
1. ]0, +∞[ 2.
]−∞, −1[ ∪ ]1, +∞[
]−5, −2[ ∪ ]−2, 0[
3. ]−∞, −1[ ∪ ]4, +∞[ 4.
Lesson 2.6. Limit of logarithmic function with

any base
Learning objectives
be able to find limits and deduce its relative asymptotes
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Limit of natural logarithmic function.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen

skills
Answers
1. Domf= ]0, +∞[ and ln 3 > 0 ,
ln x xlim ln x −∞
lim= f ( ) x → 0+
x lim
= → 0+
= = −∞
x → 0+ ln 3 ln 3 ln 3
There is a vertical asymptote VA ≡ x = 0
ln x lim ln x +∞
lim
= f ( x ) lim
= x= →+∞
= +∞
x →+∞ x →+∞ ln 3 ln 3 ln 3
91
There is no horizontal asymptote

ln x
f ( x) lim
ln x x →+∞ x 0
lim = lim = = = 0
x →+∞ x x →+∞ x ln 3 ln 3 ln 3
There is no oblique asymptote
1 1
2. For 0 < < 1, ln < 0 ,
3 3
ln x xlim ln x −∞
lim+ f ( x ) = lim+
+
= →0 = = +∞
x →0 x →0 1 1 1
ln ln ln
3 3 3
There is a vertical asymptote VA ≡ x = 0
ln x xlim ln x +∞
lim f ( x ) = lim = →+∞ = = −∞
x →+∞ x →+∞ 1 1 1
ln ln ln
3 3 3
There is no horizontal asymptote
ln x
f ( x) lim
ln x x →+∞ x 0
lim = lim = = = 0
x →+∞ x x →+∞ 1 1 1
x ln ln ln
3 3 3
Synthesis
Figure 2.4 and figure 2.5, are helpful to note that
lim log 3 x = −∞ and lim log 3 x = +∞
x →0 x →+∞
lim log 1 x = +∞ and lim log 1 x = −∞ .

x →0 x →+∞
3 3
92

3
Generally, calculating limit of logarithmic function
with any base, for example log a x , from definition
ln x
log a x = , you get the following results:
ln a
−∞ if a > 1
࿌࿌ xlim f ( x) = 
+∞ if 0 < a < 1
+
→0
Thus, there is a vertical asymptote VA ≡ x = 0

+∞ if a > 1
࿌࿌ xlim f ( x) = 
→+∞
−∞ if 0 < a < 1
Then, there is no horizontal asymptote. In addition,
no oblique asymptote.
1. +∞ 2.
+∞ 3. +∞
−∞ 4.
93
Lesson 2.7. Logarithmic differentiation

Learning objectives
be able to find its derivative accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Differentiation of natural logarithmic functions.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1
ln x 1
1. f ( x ) = ⇒ f ' ( x ) =x =
ln 2 ln 2 x ln 2
1 2 /
 ln x 2 
/
( )x
x2 = = 2x 2
2.  =  2
 ln 2  ln 2 x ln 2 x ln 2
Synthesis
1
As conclusion, ( log a x ) ' = . Also, if u is another
x ln a
differentiable function of x, then
u'
( log a u ) ' =
u ln a
94
2x + 2 6
1. 2.
− 2
( x + 2 x + 1) ln10
2
( x − 4 x − 5) ln 2
3. −3 x 2 − 2 4. x sin x
−
( 2 x + 4 x − 16 ) ln 2
3
2 x ln 3cos x
Lesson 2.8. Further logarithmic differentiation

Learning objectives
Given a function containing more complicated products
and quotients, learners should be able to differentiate it
moderately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ The laws of logarithms,
࿌࿌ The derivative of logarithmic functions, and
࿌࿌ The differentiation of implicit functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen.

skills
95
Answers
x +1
1. y =
x −3
x +1
Taking ln on both sides gives ln y = ln
x −3
Applying laws of logarithms, we get
ln y= ln ( x + 1) − ln ( x − 3)
2. Differentiating with respect to x yields

1 dy 1 1
= − .
y dx x + 1 x − 3
dy  1 1 
= y
Rearranging gives − 
dx  x +1 x − 3 
dy  x + 1   1 1 
Substituting for y gives =  − 
dx  x − 3   x + 1 x − 3 
Synthesis
For functions containing more complicated products
and quotients, differentiation is often made easier if the
logarithm of the function is taken before differentiating.
And then apply the property of differentiation of implicit
functions.
1.
=
dy ( x − 2 )( x + 1)  1 + 1 − 1 − 1 
dx ( x − 1)( x + 3)  x − 2 x + 1 x − 1 x + 3 
=2.
dy ( 2 x − 1) x + 2  2 + 1 − 1 − 3 

3  2x −1

dx ( ) ( )
x − 3 x + 1  2( x + 1) x − 3 2 ( x + 1) 
dy 1 
3.
= 3θ sin θ cos θ  + tan θ − cot θ 
dθ θ 
3
4. dy x x ln 2 x  3 + 1 − 1 − cot x 
=
dx e sin x  x x ln 2 x 
dy 2 x 4 tan x  4 1 1 
=
5. 2x  + −2− 
dx e ln 2 x  x sin x cos x x ln 2 x 
96
Lesson 2.9. Variation and curves of logarithmic

functions with any base
Learning objectives
be able to study the variation and sketch its curve accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finding domain and limits at the boundaries of the
domain.
࿌࿌ Deducing relative asymptotes.
࿌࿌ Finding first and second derivative.
࿌࿌ Variation and concavity of a function.
࿌࿌ Sketch a curve in Cartesian plane given some points.
Teaching Aids

skills
97
Answers
1. f ( x ) = log 2 x
a) From Activity 2.6
lim f ( x ) = −∞
x → 0+
There is a vertical asymptote VA ≡ x =0

lim f ( x ) = +∞
→+∞
There is no horizontal asymptote. In addition,

 ln  1
b) f (=
x)  =  =
 ln 2  ln 2 ln 2
1
'( x)
For ln 2 > 0 , f= > 0 since x > 0
x ln 2
The function f ( x ) log x increases on its
1
domain f= '( x) ≠ 0 , for ∀x > 0 , no
x ln 2
extrema.
/
1  1
c) f '' ( x ) =   = − 2
 x ln 2  x ln 2
1
For ln 2 > 0 , f '' ( x ) = − 2
2
< 0 since x > 0
x ln 2
The concavity of function f ( x ) = log 2 x turns
downward on domain of f ( x ) .
1
f '' ( x ) =
− 2 ≠ 0 , for ∀x > 0 , no inflection
x ln 2
points.
d) Intersection of f ( x ) with axes of co-ordinates:
No intersection with y − axis since this axis is a
vertical asymptote.
Intersection with x − axis :
ln x
log 2 x = 0 ⇔ = 0 ⇔ ln x = 0 ⇒ x = 1 .
ln 2
Hence, f ( x ) ∩ ox = {(1, 0 )}
98
e) Additional points for f ( x ) = log 2 x

x 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
y -3.3 -1.7 -1.0 -0.5 -0.2 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9
x 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.7 3.9
y 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
Curve
y
VA ≡ x =0
y = log 2 x
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1
-2
-3
2. g ( x ) = log 1 x
2
a) From Activity 2.6
lim g ( x ) = +∞
x → 0+

lim g ( x ) = −∞
x →+∞
There is no horizontal asymptote. In addition,
/
  1
 ln x  x 1 2
( x )  1=
b) g '=  =
1
=
1 − x ln 2
,
 ln  ln x ln
 2 2 2
1
since ln = − ln 2
2
1
For ln 2 > 0 , =g '( x) < 0 since x > 0
− x ln 2
99
The function g ( x ) = log 1 x decreases on its

2
domain
1
g '( x)
= ≠ 0 , no extrema.
− x ln 2
/
 1  1
g '' ( x ) =
c) =  2
 − x ln 2  x ln 2
1
'' ( x )
2
For ln 2 > 0 , g= 2
> 0 since x > 0
x ln 2
The concavity of function g ( x ) = log 1 x turns
upward on domain of g ( x ) .
2
1
'' ( x )
g= 2
≠ 0 , no inflection points.
x ln 2
d) Intersection of f ( x ) with axes of co-ordinates
No intersection with y − axis since this axis is a
vertical asymptote.
Intersection with x − axis :
ln x
log 1 x = 0 ⇔ = 0 ⇔ ln x = 0 ⇒ x = 1 .
2 ln 2
Hence, f ( x ) ∩ ox = {(1, 0 )} .
e) Additional points for g ( x ) = log 1 x
2
x 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
y 3.3 1.7 1.0 0.5 0.2 -0.1 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -0.9
x 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.7 3.9
y -1.1 -1.2 -1.3 -1.4 -1.5 -1.6 -1.7 -1.8 -1.9 -2.0
100
Curve
y
3
VA ≡ x =0
1
y = log 1 x
2
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1
-2
-3
Synthesis
To sketch a function, follow the following steps:
࿌࿌ Find domain of definition.
࿌࿌ Evaluate limits at the boundary of domain and
deduce relative asymptotes.
࿌࿌ Find first derivative. Deduce maxima and draw
variation table.
࿌࿌ Find second derivative. Deduce inflection points and
draw concavity table.
࿌࿌ Find x and y intercepts.
࿌࿌ Find additional points.
࿌࿌ Sketch the curve.
For other function, you may need to study parity and
periodicity. Also, you may need to find tangent lines at
remarkable points (maxima, inflection points, x and y
intercepts).
101
1. Domain: ]−1, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = −1
f ( x ) increases on its domain
Curve
2. Domain: ]2, +∞[

g ( x ) increases on its domain
Curve
102
3. Domain: ]−∞, 0[ ∪ ]0, +∞[

h ( x ) increases on interval ]−∞, 0[ and decreases on
interval ]0, +∞[
Curve
4. Domain: ]0, +∞[

k ( x ) decreases on its domain
Curve
103

functions with base " e "
Learning objectives
Given an exponential function with base " e " , learners should
be able to find domain and range accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Domain of natural logarithmic function.
࿌࿌ Range of natural logarithmic function.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
We saw that the domain of f ( x ) = ln x is ]0, +∞[ and its

range is  . Since g ( x ) is the inverse of f ( x ) ,
the domain of g ( x ) is  and its range is ]0, +∞[ .
104
Synthesis
The domain of definition of y = e x is ]−∞, +∞[ and its
range is ]0, +∞[ as illustrated in figure 2.6.
y
5
y = ex
4
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1
Figure 2.6: Curve of y = ex
1)  \ {2,5} 2)  3) ]0, +∞[ 4) [ 4, +∞[

with base " e "
Learning objectives
Given an exponential function with base " e " , learners
should be able to find limit and deduce relative asymptote
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finding limits using table of values.
࿌࿌ Deduction of relative asymptotes.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator and instruments of geometry
105

skills
Answers
1. Completed table
x ex x ex
-1 0.36787944117144 1 2.7182818
-2 0.13533528323661 2 7.3890561
-5 0.00673794699909 5 148.4131591
-15 0.00000030590232 15 3269017.3724721
-30 0.00000000000009 30 10686474581524.5
2. From table in 1), when x takes values approaching

x
to −∞ , e takes value closed to zero. Hence,
lim e x = 0 .
x →−∞
There exists a horizontal asymptote y = 0 , no oblique

asymptote.
x
Also, when x takes value approaching to +∞ , e
increases without bound. Hence, xlim e x = +∞ .
→+∞
There is no horizontal asymptote.
106
3. Graph
7 y
y = ex
6
1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
-2
Synthesis
From the above figure, it is clear that
lim e x = 0 and xlim e x = +∞ .

x →−∞ →+∞
There exists horizontal asymptote: H . A ≡ y =
0.
ex ex
lim = 0, lim = +∞
x →−∞ x x →+∞ x
1.
3
e 2. 0 3. +∞
4. 0 5. 0
107

with base “e”
Learning objectives
Given an exponential functions with base " e " , learners should
be able to differentiate it correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Use the derivative of natural logarithmic function.
࿌࿌ Rule of differentiating inverse functions.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1
1. f ' ( x ) =
( f ) ( y)
−1 /
1
f ( x) = ln x but ( ln x ) ' =
e x ⇒ f −1 ( x ) =
x
1
f '( =
x) = ex
1
ex
Thus, ( e ) = e
x /
x
( f  g ) ' = f ' ( g ) g ' . Then, ( eu )

/
2. = u ' eu
Synthesis
( e ) ' = e and if u is another differentiable function of x,
x x
(e ) ' = u 'e .
u u
108
Or from the definition of differentiation,

df ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x)
= lim , thus,
dx h →0 h
( )
d ex
= lim
e x+h − e x
dx h →0 h
e x ( e h − 1)  eh − 1 
= lim = e x lim  
h →0 h h →0
 h 
  eh − 1  
= e x ln e  as lim   = ln e 

h →0
 h  
x x
= e= ln e e
d (ex )
(e ) =
Therefore, =
x '
dx
ex

2 x −1
1. 2e 2. 2 (e + e ) 2x −2 x
( x − 2) ex
3. (1 + tan x ) e 4.
2 tan x
( x − 1) x − 1

functions with base " e "
Learning objectives
For an exponential function with base " e " , learners should
be able to study the variation and sketch its curve accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Reflecting a curve about the first bisector.
࿌࿌ Properties of inverse functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pencil, calculator and instruments of geometry.
109

skills
Answers
When reflecting the curve of f ( x ) = ln x about the first
bisector, we obtain
y
3
g ( x ) = ex y=x
1
f ( x ) = ln x
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1
-2
-3
Figure 2.6: Reflection of y = ln x about first bisector
Synthesis
Since e is the inverse of ln x , the curve of g ( x ) = e is
x x
the image of the curve of f ( x ) = ln x with respect to the

first bisector, y = x . Then, the coordinates of the points
for f ( x ) = ln x are reversed to obtain the coordinates of
the points for g ( x ) = e x .
110
1. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[

Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
Curve
2. Domain: ]−∞, 0[ ∪ ]0, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = 0 and horizontal asymptote:
y=0
g ( x ) increases on interval ]1, +∞[
g ( x ) decreases on intervals: ]−∞, 0[ and ]0,1[
Curve
111
3. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[

h ( x ) increases on its domain
Curve
4. Domain: ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = −2 and horizontal
asymptote: y = 0
k ( x ) decreases on interval ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, −1[ and
increases on interval ]−1, +∞[
Curve
112

Learning objectives
Given an exponential functions with any base, learners should
be able to find the domain and range accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Domain of logarithmic function with any base.
࿌࿌ Range of logarithmic function with any base.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
We know that the domain of f ( x ) = log a x is ]0, +∞[ and

its range is  . Since g ( x ) is the inverse of f ( x ) , the
domain of g ( x ) is  and its range is ]0, +∞[ .
Synthesis
The domain of f ( x ) = a x with a > 0 and a ≠ 1 , is the set
of real numbers and its image is the positive real numbers.
1.  \ {−5, −2} 2.

]−∞, −3[ ∪ ]−2, +∞[
3. ]−∞, −1] ∪ ]3, +∞[ 4.
113

with any base
Learning objectives
be able to evaluate limit and deduce relative asymptotes
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finding limits using table of values.
࿌࿌ Deduction of relative asymptotes.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. a) Table of values
x 2x x 2x
-1 0.5 1 2
-2 0.25 2 4
-5 0.03125 5 32
-15 0.0000305176 15 32768
-30 0.0000000009 30 1073741824
b) From table in a), when x takes values
approaching to −∞ , 2 x takes values closed to zero.
lim 2 x = 0 .
Hence, x→−∞
114
There exists a horizontal asymptote y = 0 , no

oblique asymptote.
x
Also, when x takes values approaching to +∞ , 2
x
increases without bound. Hence, lim 2 = +∞ .
x→+∞
There is no horizontal asymptote.
2. a) Table of values
x x
x 1 x 1
   
2 2
-1 2 1 0.5
-2 4 2 0.25
-5 32 5 0.03125
-15 32768 15 0.0000305176
-30 1073741824 30 0.0000000009
b) From table in a), when x takes values approaching
x
to −∞ ,  1  increases without bound. Hence,
2
x
1
lim   = +∞ . There is no horizontal asymptote.
x→−∞ 2
  x
Also, when x takes values approaching to +∞ ,  1 
2
x
1
lim   = 0 .
takes values closed to zero. Hence, x→+∞
2
There exists a horizontal asymptote y = 0 , no oblique
asymptote.
Synthesis
x
If a > 1 , lim a = 0 and lim a = +∞
x
x →−∞ x →+∞
x x
If 0 < a < 1 , lim a = +∞ and lim a = 0
x →−∞ x →+∞
There is horizontal asymptote y = 0 .
No vertical asymptote since the domain is the set of real
numbers. In addition there is no oblique asymptote.
115
1. 1
4
e2
2. e 3.
4. e 5. ek
e k 6.

with any base
Learning objectives
be able to differentiate it accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Derivative of logarithmic function with any base.
࿌࿌ Rule of differentiating inverses functions.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1
1. f ' ( x ) =
( f ) ( y)
−1 /
1
f ( x) =
3x ⇒ f −1 ( x ) =
log 3 x but ( log 3 x ) ' =
x ln 3
1
f '( x)
= = 3x ln 3
1
x
3 ln 3
116
Thus, ( 3 ) = 3 ln 3
x x /
( f  g ) ' = f ' ( g ) g ' . Then, ( 3cos x ) = ( cos x ) ' ( 3cos x ) ( ln 3)

/
2.
Or ( 3cos x ) = − sin x ( 3cos x ) ( ln 3)

/
Synthesis
As conclusion, ( a x ) ' = a x ln a . Also, if u is another
differentiable function of x, we have ( a ) ' = u ' a ln a
u u
1 
1. a) −2 ( 0.3) ln ( 0.3) b) 10 x  + ln x ln10 
x
x 
c) sin x ( sin x + 2 x cos x ) d) x ( 4 ) ( 2 + ln 4 )
ln x
1 1
2. a) ln 2 b) e ( e + 1) c) d)
e
2 2

Learning objectives
Given an exponential function with base any base, learners
should be able to study the variation and sketch its curve
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Reflecting a curve about the first bisector.
࿌࿌ Properties of inverse functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pencil, calculator and instruments of geometry
117

skills
Answers
1. When reflecting the curve of f ( x ) = log 2 x about the
first bisector, we obtain
y
3
y=x
g ( x ) = 2x
2
1 f ( x ) = log 2 x
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1
-2
-3
Figure 2.8: Reflection of y = log 2 x about first bisector
118
2. When reflecting the curve of f ( x ) = log 1 x about the

2
first bisector, we obtain
y
3
y=x
x
1
g ( x) =  
2
2
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1
f ( x ) = log 1 x
2
-2
-3
Figure 2.9: Reflection of log 1 x about first bisector

2
Synthesis
As a x is the inverse of log a x , we can obtain a curve of
a x by symmetry with respect to the first bisector y = x .
If a = 2 , we have f ( x ) = 2 x .
x -4 -3.6 -3.2 -2.8 -2.4 -2 -1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4
y 0.06 0.08 0.11 0.14 0.19 0.25 0.33 0.44 0.57 0.76
x 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4

y 1.00 1.32 1.74 2.30 3.03 4.00 5.28 6.96 9.19 12.13 16.00
Curve: 16 y
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8 f ( x ) = 2x
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1
-2
Figure 2.10: Curve of 2 x
119
x
1 1
If a = , we have f ( x ) =  
2 2
x -4 -3.6 -3.2 -2.8 -2.4 -2 -1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0
y 16 12.13 9.19 6.96 5.28 4.00 3.03 2.30 1.74 1.32 1.00
x 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4

y 0.76 0.57 0.44 0.33 0.25 0.19 0.14 0.11 0.08 0.06
Curve:
16 y
15
14
13
12
11
x 10
1
f ( x) =   9
2
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 x
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1
-2
x
1
Figure 2.11: Curve of  
2
1. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[

Curve
120
2. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[

g ( x ) increases on interval ]0, +∞[ and decreases on
interval: ]0, +∞[
Curve
3. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[

h ( x ) decreases on its domain
Curve
121
4. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[

k ( x ) increases on interval ]−∞, −1[ and increases on
interval ]−1, +∞[
Curve
Lesson 2.18. Compound interest problems

Learning objectives
By reading text books or accessing internet, learners should
be able to use logarithmic and exponential functions to solve
compound interest problems accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Use of logarithmic and exponential functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and textbooks or internet if available.
122

skills
࿌࿌ Research
Answers
If P is the principal, n is the number of years, r is the
interest rate per period, k is the number of periods per
year, and A the total amount at the end of periods, then
kn
 r
A P 1 + 
=
 k
P 4000,=
Here,= r 0.06,=
k 4,=
n 5
Then,
4×5
 0.06 
 =4000 (1.015 ) =5387.42
20
A =4000 1 +
 4 
After 5 years there, will be 5,387.42 FRW on the account.
Synthesis
If P is the principal, n is the number of years, k is the
interest rate per period, k is the number of periods per
kn
 r
A P 1 + 
=
 k
123
1) 11,358.24 FRW 2) 7,007.08 FRW

3) Approximately 7.9 years 4) Approximately 6.3 years
5) Approximately 23.1 years
Lesson 2.19. Mortgage amount problems

Learning objectives
mortgage amount problems accurately.
Prerequisites
Teaching Aids

skills
࿌࿌ Research
Answers
The following formula illustrates the relationship:
rM
P= n
− nt
 r
1 − 1 + 
 n
124
Where
P = the payment , r= the annual rate ,
M = the mortgage amount , t = the number of years and
n = the number of payments per year
=
Here, P 800,= M 100000, = n 12,
= r 0.09 and we need t.
Now,
0.09 ×100000
800 = 12
−12 t
 0.09 
1 − 1 + 
 12 
750 750
⇔ (1.0075 ) =
−12 t
⇔ 800 = − +1
1 − (1.0075 )
−12 t
800
−750 + 800
750 ⇔ (1.0075 ) =
−12 t
⇔ 1 − (1.0075 ) =
−12 t
800 800
1
− 1 ⇔ (1.0075 ) =
750 −12 t
⇔ − (1.0075 ) =
−12 t
800 16
Take natural logarithm both sides
1 1
⇔ ln (1.0075 ) = ⇔ −12t ln (1.0075 ) =ln
−12 t
ln
16 16
ln ( 0.0625 )
⇔ −12t = ⇔ −12t = −371.06 ⇒ t = 30.92
ln (1.0075 )
Then, you have to make payments to pay off the mortgage
in approximately 30 years and 11 months. You would
have 370 payments of 800 FRW and the last payment
would be 850.40 FRW. The interest paid over the term of
the mortgage would be 216,850.40 FRW.
Synthesis
There is a relationship between the mortgage amount M,
the number of payments per year n, the amount of the
payment P, how often the payment is made t, and
the interest rate r. The following formula illustrates the
rM
n
relationship: P = − nt
 r
1 − 1 + 
 n
125
1. 2,400,000 FRW 2. 2,400,000 FRW

3. 12,719.89 FRW 4. 8.42%
Lesson 2.20. Population growth problems

Learning objectives
population growth problems accurately.
Prerequisites
Teaching Aids

skills
࿌࿌ Research
Answers
If P0 is the population at the beginning of a certain period
and r % is the constant rate of growth per period, the
Pn P0 (1 + r )
n
population n periods will be=
=
Here, P0 1, 000,
= r 0.5,
= n 5
P5 = P0 (1 + r ) = 1, 000 (1 + 0.5 ) = 1, 000 (1.5 ) = 7,593.75
5 5 5
126
Thus, the population of bacteria in flask at the start of day

5 is 7,593.75.
Synthesis
Pn P0 (1 + r ) .
n
population for n periods will be=
1. a) 4200 b) 4% c) 5109
2. a) 1,726,458.24 b) 2020
Lesson 2.21. Depreciation value problems

Learning objectives
depreciation value problems moderately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Use of logarithmic and exponential functions
Teaching Aids

skills
࿌࿌ Research
127
Answers
If V0 is the value at a certain time, and r % is the rate
of depreciation per period, the value Vt at the end of t
Vt V0 (1 − r ) .
t
periods is=
Here, V0 = 5 , r = 0.5 since the number of
2.3 ×1030 , t =
bacteria halves every second.
Then,
2.3 ×1030 (1 − 0.5 )

5
V5 =
=2.3 ×1030 ( 0.5 ) =2.3 ×1030 × 0.03125
5
=0.071875 ×1030 =7.2 ×1028

Thus, 7.2 ×1028 bacteria were left after 5 seconds.
Synthesis
Depreciation (or decay) is negative growth. If V0 is the
value at a certain time, and r % is the rate of depreciation
per period, the value Vt at the end of t periods is
Vt V0 (1 − r ) .
t
=
1. V = x ( 0.75 )
t
2. 19 years
Lesson 2.22. Earthquake problems

Learning objectives
earthquake problems.
Prerequisites
Teaching Aids
128

skills
࿌࿌ Research
Answers
I
The formula M = log determines the magnitude of an
S
earthquake, where I is the intensity of the earthquake
and S is the intensity of a “standard earthquake.”
Here,
I1 I I1
=8 log
= , 6 log 2 10 8
I
S S = S ⇒ 100 = 1
I1 I2 10 6
I2 I2
=108 = , 106 S
S S
So, the earthquake will be a hundred times stronger.
Synthesis
I
The magnitude of an earthquake is given by M = log
S
where I is the intensity of the earthquake and S is the
intensity of a ‘’standard earthquake’’
1. 5
2. 2.6
3. a) 39.8 times more intense b) 7.2
4. 1.26 times more intense
129
Lesson 2.23. Carbon-14 dating problems

Learning objectives
carbon-14 dating problems accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Use of logarithmic and exponential functions
Teaching Aids

skills
࿌࿌ Research
Answers
A formula used to calculate how old a sample is by
N 
ln  f 
 N0  × t
carbon-14 dating = is: t 1
− 0.693 2
Nf
where is the percent of carbon-14 in the sample
N0
compared to the amount in living tissue, and t 1 is the
2
half-life of carbon-14 ( 5, 730 ± 30 years).
ln ( 0.10 )
t
Then,= = 18,940 years old
× 5700
−0.693
130
Synthesis
Carbon dating is used to work out the age of organic
material — in effect, any living thing. The technique
hinges on carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of the element
that, unlike other more stable forms of carbon, decays
away at a steady rate. The half-life of a substance is the
amount of time it takes for half of that substance to decay.
A formula to calculate how old a sample is by carbon-14
dating is:
N 
ln  f 
=t  N0  × t
1
− 0.693 2
Nf
N0
2
1. 8,260 years
2. 9,953 years
3. 0.239 mg
4. 3.2 per minutes per gram
5. 3,870 years
6. a) A common rule of thumb is that a radioactive
dating method is good out to about 10 half-lives.
Given a Carbon-14 half-life of 5730 years, you
can see that Carbon-14 dating is (theoretically)
good out to around 60,000 years (more-or-less).
In fact, due to fluctuations in the carbon amount
in the atmosphere, modern Carbon-14 dating
needs to be correlated to dates determined by
analysis of tree-ring records (dendrochronology).
131
b) A skull does not have very much (if any) carbon

in it after 73 million years. It would not be
dated using Carbon-14 dating. In fact, the value
of 73 million years is not arrived at by directly
testing the skull. Minerals containing radioactive
elements are dated and the age of the skull would
be assumed to be of the same age as the strata in
which it was discovered.
Summary of the unit
1. Logarithmic functions
࿌࿌ Domain of definition and range:
The Natural logarithm of x is denoted as ln x or log e x
and defined on positive real numbers, ]0, +∞[ , its range
is all real numbers.
∀x ∈ ]1, +∞[ , ln x > 0 and ∀x ∈ ]0,1[ , ln x < 0
The equation ln 1 has, in interval ]0, +∞[ , a unique

solution, a rational number
2.718281828459045235360.... . This number is denoted
by e.
Hence ln x =1 ⇔ x =e .
x
 1
=
Generally e lim 1 + 
x →+∞
 x
࿌࿌ Limits on boundaries:
Logarithmic function f ( x ) = ln x being defined on
]0, +∞[ , lim ln x = +∞ and lim+ ln x = −∞ .
x →+∞ x →0
132
From xlim ln x = +∞ , we deduce that there is no horizontal

→+∞
asymptote.
From lim+ ln x = −∞ , we deduce that there exists a vertical
x →0
asymptote with equation VA ≡ x = 0
࿌࿌ Derivative of natural logarithmic functions or logarithmic
derivative:
1
and ( ln x ) > 0
'
x ∈  +0 , ( ln x ) =
'
x
Also, if u is differentiable function at x then,
u'
( ln u ) ' =
u
With certain functions containing more complicated
products and quotients, differentiation is often made
easier if the logarithm of the function is taken before
differentiating.
࿌࿌ Domain and limits on boundaries of a logarithmic
function with any base:
Logarithm function of a real number x with base a is
a function f denoted f ( x ) = log a x and defined by
ln x
log a x = , x ∈  +0 , a ∈  +0 \ {1}
ln a
∀x ∈  +0 , log a x = y ⇔ x = a y
−∞ if a > 1
lim+ f ( x ) = 
x →0
+∞ if 0 < a < 1
+∞ if a > 1
lim f ( x ) = 
x →+∞
−∞ if 0 < a < 1
There is no horizontal asymptote nor oblique asymptote.
࿌࿌ Logarithmic Differentiation:
1
If f ( x ) = log a x , then f ' ( x ) =
x ln a
133
Also, if u is another differentiable function in x , then

u'
( log a u ) ' =
u ln a
2. Exponential functions
Exponential function with base “e”
࿌࿌ Domain and range of exponential functions with base
"e"
The domain of definition of y = e x is ]−∞ + ∞[ and its
range is ]0, +∞[ .
Then, ∀x ∈ ]0, +∞[ , y ∈ ]−∞, +∞[ = x ey .
: y ln x ⇔=
࿌࿌ Limit of exponential functions with base “e”
lim e x = 0 and xlim e x = +∞

x →−∞ →+∞
There exists horizontal asymptote: H . A ≡ y =

0
࿌࿌ Derivative of exponential functions with base “e”
∀x ∈ , (e ) ' = e
x x
If u is another differentiable function at x ,
(e ) ' = u 'e
u u
Remarks
1. ∀y > 0, y =eln y
x x ln a
In particular, a x = eln a means a = e .
x
Hence, to study the function y = u v is the same as to

v ln u
study the function y = e where u and v are two other
functions.
2. Whenever an expression to be differentiated contains a
term raised to a power which is itself a function of the
variable, then logarithmic differentiation must be used.
For example, the differentiation of expressions such
134
1− x 2
as x , (1 − x ) , x x + 2, ( x )
x sin x
and so on can only be
achieved using logarithmic differentiation.
3. Applications
a) Compound interest problems
If P is the principal, n is the number of years, r is the
interest rate per period, k in the number of periods per
kn
 r
= A P 1 +  .
 k
b) Population growth problems
Pn P0 (1 + r ) .
n
population after n periods will be=
c) Depreciation value problems
Depreciation (or decay) is negative growth. If V0 is the
value at a certain time, and r % is the rate of depreciation
per period, the value Vt at the end of t periods is
Vt V0 (1 − r ) .
t
=
d) Earthquake problems
Charles Richter defined the magnitude of an earthquake to
I
be M = log where I is the intensity of the earthquake
S
(measured by the amplitude of a seismograph reading
taken 100 km from the epicentre of the earthquake) and
S is the intensity of a ‘’standard earthquake’’ (whose
−4
amplitude is 1 micron = 10 cm ).
e) Carbon-14 dating problems
Carbon dating is used to work out the age of organic
material — in effect, any living thing. By measuring the
ratio of the radio isotope to non-radioactive carbon, the
135
amount of carbon-14 decay can be worked out, thereby

giving an age for the specimen in question.
Through research, scientists have agreed that the half-
14
life of C is approximately 5700 years.
A formula to calculate how old a sample is by carbon-14
dating is:
N 
ln  f 
=t  N0  × t
1
− 0.693 2
Nf
N0
2
1. ]1, +∞[ 2.
]0,1[ ∪ ]1, +∞[
3. ]−4,1[ ∪ ]2, +∞[ 4.
 \ 2 − 3, 2 + 3 { }
5. ]0,1[ ∪ ]1, +∞[ 6.
 \ {−2, −1, 0}
 \ {1}
7.  8.
9. 0 +∞
10.
11. 0 +∞
12.
13. 1 14. 0
15. +∞ 16. 0
17. +∞ 18. +∞
19. 2 20. e
3
1
21. 22. 0
3 2
e
136
2 x 1 x x
23. x e 24.  tan + cot 
2 2 2
1 x2 + a2
25. 26.
x ln x x2 + a2
2e x −2 x 2 + 1
27. 2 x 28.
e + 2e x + 1 x2 + 1
x
29. x ln x 30. ( cos x ) ln ( cos x ) − x tan x 
x
x
e
31. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[
f ( x ) increases on intervals ]−∞, −2[ and ]0, +∞[ , it
decreases on interval ]−2, 0[
Curve
32. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[

No asymptote
f ( x ) decreases on interval ]−∞, 0[ , it increases on
interval ]0, +∞[ .
137
Curve
y
5
4
f ( x ) = 2 x −4
2
1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
33. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[

Vertical asymptote x = 1 and horizontal asymptote
y=0
Curve
34. Domain: ]0, +∞[

Vertical asymptote x = 0 and horizontal asymptote
y=0
f ( x ) increases on interval  0, e  and decreases on
interval  e , +∞  .
 
138
Curve
35. a) f ( t ) = 1, 000, 000 ( 0.9 ) b) t = 109.27 min

t
f ( t ) 75, 000 × e0.98083t b) 2,942, 490

36. a)=
37. $3,315.53
38. Monthly payment is $550.32. Interest is $123,115.20
39. $72,537.23
40. a) f ( t ) = 3t b) 4.239 ×10
28
t
1
41. a) f ( t ) = 100, 000   b) 97.65625
2
42. a) 7.3 b) 125,892,451 as greater as A0
43. 8.43
44. a) 3.16 ×10−3 mol b) 12,589 times more acidic
l
45. 1,000,000 times more intense
46. 70dB
139
Taylor and Maclaurin’s
Unit 3
Expansions
Key unit competence

Use Taylor and Maclaurin’s expansion to solve problems
about approximations, limits, …
Extend the Maclaurin’s expansion to Taylor series.

∞
∑ a ( x − c) .
n
Power series: Infinite series of the form n
n =0
Taylor series of function f ( x ) at point x0 : The infinite
∞
f ( n ) ( x0 )
∑ ( x − x0 ) .
n
series of the form
n =0 n!
Maclaurin series: The special case of the Taylor series when
x0 = 0 .
Lagrange remainder: The remainder function in Taylor series.

The problem statement is
“Suppose that we need to complete the table below.
Angle, x 00 10 20 30 40 50
sin x
141
For x = 00 is very easy since this angle is a remarkable

angle. But, what about other angles, 10 , 20 ,30 , 40 ,50 ? How
can we find their sine without using sine button on scientific
calculator?
To solve this problem, we need the Maclaurin series of sin x
and then x will be replaced by its value, remembering that all
angles must be expressed in radian.
List of lessons
1 Finite series 1
2 Infinite series 1
3 Test for convergence of series 1
4 Power series 1
5 Taylor and Maclaurin series 2
6 Taylor series by using Maclaurin series 1
7 Calculation of limits 1
8 Estimation of the number e 1
9 Estimation of the number π 1
10 Estimation of trigonometric number of an 1
angle
11 Estimation of an irrational number 1
12 Estimation of a natural logarithm number 1
13 Estimation of roots of equations 1
Total periods 14
142
Taylor and Maclaurin’s Expansions
Lesson development
Lesson 3.1. Finite series
Learning objectives
Given a finite series, learners should be able to sum that
series accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Terms of a series.
࿌࿌ General term of a series.
࿌࿌ Sigma notation.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. uk = f ( k ) − f ( k + 1)
, u1 f (1) − f ( 2 )
For k = 1 =
, u2 f ( 2 ) − f ( 3 )
For k = 2 =
, u3 f ( 3) − f ( 4 )
For k = 3 =
, u4 f ( 4 ) − f ( 5 )
For k = 4 =
, u5 f ( 5 ) − f ( 6 )
For k = 5 =

For k= n − 1 , un −1= f ( n − 1) − f ( n )
For k = n , un = f ( n ) − f ( n + 1)
143
2. Adding obtained terms we have

u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + u5 + ... + un −1 + un =
= f (1) − f ( 2 ) + f ( 2 ) − f ( 3) + f ( 3) − f ( 4 ) + f ( 4 )
− f ( 5 ) + f ( 5 ) − f ( 6 ) + .... + f ( n − 1) − f ( n ) + f ( n ) − f ( n + 1)
= f (1) − f ( n + 1)
Thus, adding these terms, on the right hand side, nearly
all the terms cancel out leaving just f (1) − f ( n + 1)
and on the left hand side, is the required sum of the
n
series. Thus, ∑u
k =1
n = f (1) − f ( n + 1) .
Synthesis
As conclusion, the sum of the series u1 , u2 , u3 ,..., un is
n
given by ∑u
k =1
n = f (1) − f ( n + 1) where f ( k ) is a
function of k.
1 1 1
1. 1 − 2. −
n +1 2 4n + 2
1 4 3 3 11 2 3 1 1 1 3
3. n + n + n + n 4.  − − + 
4 2 4 2 2  n +1 n + 2 2 
Lesson 3.2. Infinite series

Learning objectives
Given an infinite series or a repeating decimal, learners should
be able to find the sum of infinite series or find a rational
number represented by the repeating decimal accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Evaluating limits
Teaching Aids
144

skills
Answers
7 7 7 7 7
1. S n = + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n + ...
10 10 10 10 10
1 17 7 7 7 7 
S=n  + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n + ... 
10 10  10 10 10 10 10 
1 7 7 7 7 7
⇒ S n= 2
+ 3 + 4 + 5 + ... + n +1 + ...
10 10 10 10 10 10
2. Subtracting, we have
7 7 7 7 7
S n = + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n + ...
10 10 10 10 10
1 7 7 7 7 7
− Sn = − 2 − 3 − 4 − 5 − ... − n +1 − ...
10 10 10 10 10 10
1 7 7
S n − S n = − n +1
10 10 10
9 7 7 
⇒ Sn = 1 − n 
10 10  10 
7 10  7  7 7 
⇒ Sn = × 1 − n  ⇒ Sn = 1 − n 
10 9  10  9  10 
3. Taking limit as n → +∞ .
7 7  7
lim S n= lim 1 − n =
n →∞ 9
n →∞
 10  9
145
Synthesis
It is impossible to add up infinitely many numbers,
thus, we will deal with infinite sums by limiting process
involving sequences.
An infinite series is an expression of the form +∞
u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + uk + ... or in sigma notation ∑ uk . The
k =1
terms u1 , u2 , u3 ,... are called terms of the series.
To carry out this summation process, we proceed as
follows:
Let sn denote the sum of the first n terms of the series.

Thus,
s1 = u1
s2= u1 + u2
s3 = u1 + u2 + u3

n
sn = u1 + u2 + u3 +  + un = ∑ uk
k =1
The number sn is called the nth partial sum of the series

and the sequence {sn }n =1 is called the sequence of partial
+∞
sums.
1 2 1 1 3 1 2 1
1. a) n + n b) n + n + n
2 2 3 2 6
1 4 1 3 1 2 1 3 2
c) n + n + n d) n + n2 + n
4 2 4 3 3
3 5 49
2. a) b) c)
11 6 396
146
Lesson 3.3. Tests for convergence of series

Learning objectives
Given a series and by using comparison test, limit comparison
test, the ratio test or the nth root test, learners should be able
to test for convergence accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Evaluating limits.
࿌࿌ Compare two expressions.
࿌࿌ Compare real numbers.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
3n +1 + 1
un +1 5n +=1 3n +1 + 1 5n 3n × 3 + 1
lim
1. a) n→∞ = lim lim × = lim
un n→∞ 3n + 1 n→∞ 5n × 5 3n + 1 n→∞ 5 ( 3n + 1)
5n
 1 1
3n  3 + n  3+ n
 = 3  3 3+ 0 3
= lim lim = =
n →∞  1  n→∞  1  5 (1 + 0 ) 5
5 × 3n 1 + n  5 × 1 + n 
 3   3 
1
n n
n
n u= lim = lim =
n0 1 n
lim
b) n→∞ n n→∞ =
3 n→∞ 3 3 3
147
1
2. Taking , if we add 1 to the denominator, we
2n − 1
1
get and then by comparison methods for rational
2n
1 1
numbers, > since the numerators are the
2n − 1 2n
same and denominator 2n > 2n − 1
Synthesis
Comparison test
∞
Let ∑a
n =1
n be a series with positive terms;
∞
a) ∑a
n =1
n converges if there exists a convergent series
∞
∑b
n =1
such that an ≤ bn for all n > N , where N is
n
some positive integer.

∞
b) ∑a
n =1
n diverges if there exists a divergent series
∞
∑c
n =1
n such that an ≥ cn for all n > N , where N is
some positive integer.
Limit comparison test
∞ ∞
If the series ∑ an and ∑b
n =1
n are two series with positive
n =1
an
terms, and lim is finite, both series converge or diverge.
n →∞ b
n
The ratio test
∞
Let ∑u
n =1
n be a series with positive terms and let
u
lim = L , then;
n +1
n →∞ u
n
a) the series converges if L < 1 .
b) the series diverges if L > 1 .
c) the series may or may not converge if L = 1 (i.e. the
test is inconclusive).
148
th
The n root test
∞
Let ∑ un be a series with positive terms and let lim n un = L ,
n =1 n →∞
then;
a) the series converges if L < 1 .
b) the series diverges if L > 1 .
c) the test is inconclusive L = 1 .
1. Converges 2. Converges 3. Converges

4. Diverges 5. Converges 6. Converges
Lesson 3.4. Power series

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define a power
series and to find radius of convergence accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Test for convergence of series.
Teaching Aids

skills
149
Answers
xn
( −1)
n +1
1. un =
n
nth root test:
xn xn n xn x
lim un = lim n ( −1)
n +1
n = lim n = lim = lim 1
= x
n →∞ n →∞ n n →∞ n n →∞ n n n →∞
n n
The series is convergence for x < 1 (and divergence

for x > 1 )
xn
2. un = and
n!
un +1 x n +1 n! x
lim =lim × n =lim =0 < 1
n →∞ un n →∞ ( n + 1) ! x n →∞ n + 1
for all x. Therefore, the series is absolutely convergence.
Synthesis
Power series is like an infinite polynomial. It has the form
∞
∑ a ( x − c) = a0 + a1 ( x − c ) + a2 ( x − c ) + ... + an ( x − c ) + ...
n 2 n
n
n =0
࿌࿌ The power series converges at x = c . Here, the radius

of convergence is zero.
࿌࿌ The power series converges for all x , i.e ]−∞, +∞[ .
Here, the radius of convergence is infinity.
࿌࿌ There is a number R called the radius of convergence
such that the series converges for all c − R < x < c + R
and the series diverges outside this interval.

2 1
1. −3 < x < −1, R =1 2. − < x < 0, R =
3 3
1
3. −2 < x < −1, R = 4. −1 < x < 3, R =2
2
5. All x , R → ∞ 6. −1 < x < 1, R =1
7. All x, R → ∞ 8. −8 < x < −2, R =3
9. =x 3,=
R 0 10. All x, R → ∞
150
Lesson 3.5. Taylor and Maclaurin series

Learning objectives
Using power series, learners should be able to give general
form of a Taylor and Maclaurin series without errors.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Power series
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. f ( x ) =c0 + c1 ( x − a ) + c2 ( x − a ) + c3 ( x − a ) + c4 ( x − a ) + ... + cn ( x − a ) + ...
2 3 4 n
f ( a ) = c0
2. f ' ( x ) =
c1 + 2c2 ( x − a ) + 3c3 ( x − a ) + 4c4 ( x − a ) + ... + ncn ( x − a ) + ...
2 3 n −1
f ' ( a ) = c1
3. f ' ( x ) = 2 × c2 + 3 × 2 × c3 ( x − a ) + 4 × 3 × c4 ( x − a ) + ... + n ( n − 1) cn ( x − a ) + ...

2 n−2
f '' ( a )
f '' ( a )= 2!c2 ⇒ c2=
2!
4. f ''' ( x ) = 3 × 2 × c3 + 4 × 3 × 2 × c4 ( x − a ) + ... + n ( n − 1)( n − 2 ) cn ( x − a ) + ...
n −3
f ''' ( a )
f ''' ( a ) = 3 × 2 × c3 = 3!c3 ⇒ c3 =
3!
151
5. f ( ) ( x ) = 4 × 3 × 2 × c4 + ... + n ( n − 1)( n − 2 )( n − 3) cn ( x − a )
iv n−4
+ ...
f (iv ) ( a ) = 4 × 3 × 2 × c4 = 4!c4 ⇒ c2 =
f ( iv )
(a)
4!
6. Now, we can see the pattern. If we continue
to differentiate and substitute x = a , we obtain
f( ( a ) = n ( n − 1)( n − 2 )( n − 3) ...1× cn
n)
or using
factorial notation; f ( n ) ( a ) = n !cn
f (n) ( a )
Solving we get c = n
n!
7. Now,
f '(a) f '' ( a ) f ''' ( a )
f ( x=
) f (a) + ( x − a) + ( x − a) + ( x − a)
2 3
1! 2! 3!
f (iv ) ( a ) f (n) ( a )
( ) ( x − a ) + ...
4 n
+ x − a + ... +
4! n!
Using sigma notation, we can write,
∞
f (n) ( a )
f ( x) ∑ ( x − a)
n
=
n =0 n!
Synthesis
As conclusion, the Taylor series for f ( x ) is given by
∞
f ( n ) ( x0 )
f ( x) ∑ ( x − x0 ) and the Maclaurin series is
n
=
n =0 n!
given by
∞
f (n) ( 0 ) n
f ( x) = ∑ x
n =0 n!
f ' ( 0) f '' ( 0 ) 2 f ''' ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0) n
n
= f ( 0) + x+ x + x + ... + x + ...
1! 2! 3! n!

a) 6 − 11( x + 2 ) + 6 ( x + 2 ) − ( x + 2 ) + ...
2 3
( −1) ( −1)
n n
∞ ∞
∑ ( x − 2) ∑ ( 2 x − 1)
n n
b) c)
n =0 2 k +1
n =0 k !e
( −1)  x − π 2 n + ∞ ( −1)
n n 2 n +1
∞
 π
d) ∑   ∑ x− 
= ( 2n )! 2  4  n 0 ( 2n + 1)!
n 0= 2 4
152
Lesson 3.6. Taylor series by using Maclaurin

series
Learning objectives
By using Maclaurin series ( x0 = 0 ) without necessary using
Taylor’s formula, learners should be able to find the Taylor
series for other functions accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Maclaurin series
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. a) sin x
=f ( x ) sin
= x f ( 0) 0
=f ' ( x ) cos
= x f ' ( 0) 1
f '' ( x ) =
− sin x f '' ( 0 ) =
0
f ''' ( x ) =
− cos x f ''' ( 0 ) =
−1
=f ( 4) ( x ) sin
= x f ( 4) ( 0 ) 0

Since the derivatives repeat in a cycle of four, we can
write the Maclaurin series as follows:
1 0 −1 0
sin x =
0+ x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + ...
1! 2! 3! 4!
x3 x5 x 7
=x − + − + ...
3! 5! 7!
∞
x 2 n +1
= ∑ ( −1)
n
n =0 ( 2n + 1)!
153
b) cos x
=f ( x ) cos
= x f ( 0) 1
f '( x) =
− sin x f ' ( 0) =
0
f '' ( x ) =
− cos x f '' ( 0 ) =
−1
=f ''' ( x ) sin
= x f ''' ( 0 ) 0
=f ( 4) ( x ) cos
= x f ( 4) ( 0 ) 1

Since the derivatives repeat in a cycle of four, we can
write the Maclaurin series as follows:
0 −1 0 1
cos x =
1+ x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + ...
1! 2! 3! 4!
2 4 6
x x x
1
=− + − + ...
2! 4! 6!
2n
n x
∞
= ∑ ( −1)
n =0 ( 2n ) !
Alternative method
d
Since cos x = ( sin x ) , we can differentiate the Maclaurin
dx
series for sin x obtained in a) to get one for cos x . That,
is,
d d  x3 x5 x 7 
x
cos = ( sin x=)  x − + − + ... 
dx dx  3! 5! 7! 
2 4 6
x x x
1
=− + − + ...
2! 4! 6!
2n
n x
∞
= ∑ ( −1)
n =0 ( 2n ) !
c) ln (1 + x )
f ( x) =
ln (1 + x ) f ( 0) =
0
1
=f '( x) = f ' ( 0) 1
1+ x
1
f '' ( x ) =
− f '' ( 0 ) =
−1
(1 + x )
2
2
=f ''' ( x ) = f ''' ( 0 ) 2
(1 + x )
3
6
f ( 4) ( x ) =
− f ( 4) ( 0 ) =
−6
(1 + x )
4
154
Now,
1 −1 2 −6 4
ln (1 + x ) =0 + x + x 2 + x3 + x + ...
1! 2! 3! 4!
x 2 x3 x 4
=x − + − + ...
2 3 4
n
n −1 x
∞
= ∑ ( −1)
n =1 n
2. From results in 1),
( 2x) ( 2x) ( 2x)
3 5 7
sin 2 x =
2x − + − + ...
3! 5! 7!
4 4 8 7
=2 x − x3 + x 5 − x + ...
3 15 315
( 2 x ) + ( 2 x ) − ( 2 x ) + ...
2 4 6
cos 2 x =
1−
2! 4! 6!
2 4
1 − 2 x 2 + x 4 − x 6 + ...
=
3 45
( 2x) ( 2x) ( 2x)
2 3 4
ln (1 + 2 x ) 2x −
= + − + ...
2 3 4
8
=2 x − 2 x 2 + x 3 − 4 x 4 + ...
3
Synthesis
As conclusion, in calculating the limit of some functions,
find the Maclaurin series for the transcendental functions
contained in the given function, simplify and then evaluate
the limit.
1 ( x − 3) ( x − 3) n ( x − 3)
2 n
1. a) − + +  + ( −1) +
3 32
33
3n +1
x x2 x n −1
b) 1 + + +  + +
2! 3! n!
1 1 1
c) 1 − x 2 + x 4 −  + ( −1)
n +1
x 2n−2 + 
3! 5! ( 2n − 1)!
π2 π4 π 2n
2 ( ) 4 ( ) ( ) 2n ( x − 2) + 
2 4 n 2n
d) 1 − x − 2 + x − 2 −  + −1
4 2! 4 4! 4 ( 2n ) !
155
∞
22 n −1 2 n ∞
x n+2
2. a) 1 + ∑ ( −1) b) ∑
n
x
n =1 ( 2n ) ! n =0 k !
1 3 1 6 5 2
c) 1 − x − x − ... d) 1 + 2 x + x + ...
2 8 2
Lesson 3.7. Calculation of limits

Learning objectives
Given a function involving transcendental functions and by
using Maclaurin series, learners should be able to evaluate
its limit at a given point correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Maclaurin series of some functions like
e x , sin x, cos x, tan x, ln x,...
࿌࿌ Limits concepts.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
9
1. cos 4 x = 1 − 8 x 2 and sin 3= x 3x − x3
2
 9 
1 − (1 − 8 x 2 ) + x  3 x − x 3 
2. 1 − cos 4 x 2+ x sin 3 x = 2
 2 
x x
156
9 9
1 − 1 + 8 x 2 + 3 x 2 − x 4 11x 2 − x 4
= 2 = 2 = 11 − 9 x 2
2 2
x x 2
1 − cos 4 x + x sin 3 x  9 
Then lim 2
= lim 11 − x 2  = 11
x →0 x x →0
 2 
Synthesis
As conclusion, find the Maclaurin series for the
transcendental functions contained in the given function,
simplify and then evaluate the limit.
1 1
1) − 2) 2 3) 4) 0
2 2
Lesson 3.8. Estimation of the number e

Learning objectives
Given number e and by using Maclaurin series of e x , learners
should be able to estimate this number to some decimal
places perfectly.
Prerequisites
Maclaurin series of e x
Teaching Aids

skills
157
Answers
x 2 x3 x 4 x5 x 6 x 7 x8 x9 x10 x11 x12 xn
e x =+
1 x+ + + + + + + + + + + + ... + + ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8! 9! 10! 11! 12! n!
Putting x = 1 , we have
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
e =1 + 1 ++ + + + + + + + + + + ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8! 9! 10! 11! 12!
Since we need this number to 8 decimal places, we will
−8
stop when we reach the decimal term less than 10 .
1 1
Here, 2 ×10−9 < 10−8 , so we will stop at
=
12! 12!
Then,
e ≈ 2 + 0.5 + 0.1666667 + 0.04166667 + 0.00833333 + 0.00138889
+ 0.00019841 + 0.00002480 + 0.00000275 + 0.00000027
+ 0.00000003 + 0.00000000 ≈ 2.71828182
Synthesis
By putting x = 1 in the development of e , we can easily
estimate the value of the number e to desired decimal
places.
e ≈ 2.7182
1. e ≈ 2.71 2.
3. e ≈ 2.718281 4.
e ≈ 2.7182818284
Lesson 3.9. Estimation of the number π

Learning objectives
Given number π and by using Maclaurin series of arctan x ,
learners should be able to estimate this number to some
decimal places perfectly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Maclaurin series of arctan x .
࿌࿌ Change degrees to radians.
࿌࿌ Find trigonometric number of an angle.
Teaching Aids
158

skills
Answers
1. Let f ( x ) = arctan x
1
f '( x) = 2
⇒ f ' ( 0) = 1
x +1
−2 x
f '' ( x=) ⇒ f '' ( 0=) 0
( x + 1)
2 2
6 x2 − 2
f ''' ( x ) = 3 ⇒ f ''' ( 0 ) =
−2
( x + 1)
2
−24 x3 + 24 x
( x)
( 4)
f = ( 0) 0
⇒ f ( 4)=
( x + 1)
2 4
120 x 4 − 240 x 2 + 24
f ( x)
= ( 5)
⇒ f (5) ( 0 ) 24
=
(x + 1)
2 5
−720 x5 + 2400 x3 − 720 x

=f ( 6) ( x ) = ⇒ f ( 6) ( 0 ) 0
( x2 + 1)
6
5040 x 6 − 25200 x 4 + 15120 x 2 − 720

f (7) ( x ) = ⇒ f (7) ( 0 ) =
−720
( )2 7
x + 1
2 3 24 5 720 7
Then, arctan x =
x− x + x − x + ...
3! 5! 7!
159
Or
2 n +1
1 1 1 n x
arctan x = x − x 3 + x 5 − x 7 + ... + ( −1) + ...
3 5 7 2n + 1
2 n +1
n x
The general term is ( )
− 1
2n + 1
3 3 π
2. tan x= ⇒ x= arctan ⇒ x=
3 3 6
Synthesis
By using the series
2 n +1
1 1 1 n x
arctan x = x − x 3 + x 5 − x 7 + ... + ( −1) + ... ,
3 5 7 2n + 1
π
and x = ⇒ π =6 x we get that
6
 3 5
 3  3  3
7
 3
2 n +1

         
 3  3   3   3  n  3  
π 6 −
= + − +  + ( −1) + 
 3 3 5 7 2n + 1 
 
 
or
3 5 7 2 n +1
 3  3  3  3
       
3 3  3  3  3 
−6 +6 −6 + ... + ( −1) 6 
n
π 6
= + ...
3 3 5 7 2n + 1
we can easily estimate the number π .
1. π ≈ 3.141 2.
π ≈ 3.14159
π ≈ 3.141592653
3. π ≈ 3.1415926 4.
160
Lesson 3.10. Estimation of trigonometric number

of an angle
Learning objectives
Given an angle and by using Maclaurin series of trigonometric
functions, learners should be able to estimate the trigonometric
number of that angle accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Maclaurin series of trigonometric functions
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
x3 x5 x 7 x 2 n +1
+ − + ... + ( −1)
n
1. sin x = x − + ...
3! 5! 7! ( 2n + 1)!
π
2. If x = , we get
4
3 5 7 2 n +1
π  π  π  π 
  
π π 4 4 4     
n  4 
sin = − + − + ... + ( −1) + ...
4 4 3! 5! 7! ( 2n + 1)!
π
Since we need sin to 4 decimal places, we will
4 −4
stop when we reach the decimal term less than 10 .
161
7 7
π  π 
   
4 4
Here,   = −5
3 ×10 < 10 −4
, so we will stop at
7! 7!
Then,
3 5 7
π  π  π 
π π 4 4 4
sin =−   +   −  
4 4 3! 5! 7!
= 0.7854 − 0.0807 + 0.0024 − 0.0000
= 0.7071
Remember that on the right hand side π is replaced

by 3.1415... not 1800
Synthesis
x being expressed in radian, we can approximate the
value of any trigonometric number using the series of
1. 0.866 2.
0.017452
3. 0.4226 4.
−0.70711
Lesson 3.11. Estimation of an irrational number

Learning objectives
Given an irrational number and by using Maclaurin series of
(1 + x ) , learners should be able to estimate correctly that
m
irrational number to some decimal places accurately.

Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Maclaurin series of (1 + x ) .
m
Teaching Aids
162

skills
Answers
1. 1, 4,9,16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121,...
2. 2,8,18,32, 50, 72, 98, 128, 162, 200, 242,...
3. Take 49 and 50. Their ratio is 0.98, closed to 1.
We can also take 121 and 128. If we extend the
sequence, we can get other two numbers, 289 and
288. Their ratio is 1.003.
4. Now take 289 and 288, try to transform 2 . Knowing
that 288= 2 ×144 , we have
289 × 2 ×144 17 2 ×144 17 288 17 1
=2 = = = 1−
289 ×144 12 289 12 289 12 289
Synthesis
Using the Maclaurin series of (1 + x ) for x < 1 , we can
m
estimate any irrational number like 2, 3, 3

5, ...
Procedure:
Suppose that we need to estimate the value of n
a to 6
decimal places.
1. Write down a sequence of natural numbers to the
power n (as we need nth root).
163
2. Multiply each term in obtained sequence from 1)

by the radicand (here radicand is a).
3. Take two numbers from sequence in 1) and
another from sequence in 2) such that their ratio is
closed to 1.
Using the obtained numbers from 3), transform the
radicand so that it differs little from 1, then use expansion
of (1 + x ) to get
n n
a.
1. 3 ≈ 1.732 2.
5 ≈ 2.2361
3. 3 3
2 = 1.259921 4. 4 = 1.587401
Lesson 3.12. Estimation of natural logarithm of a

number
Learning objectives
Given a positive real number and by using Maclaurin series
of ln (1 + x ) , learners should be able to estimate a natural
logarithm of that number accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Maclaurin series of ln (1 + x ) and ln (1 − x ) .
Teaching Aids

skills
164
Answers
n
x 2 x3 x 4 n −1 x
1. ln (1 + x ) =x − + − + ... + ( −1) + ...
2 3 4 n
2. Replacing x with − x in result obtained in 1), we get
x 2 x3 x 4 xn
ln (1 − x ) =
−x − − − − ... − − ...
2 3 4 n
3. Subtracting result obtained in 2) from result obtained
in 1), we get
n
x 2 x3 x 4 n −1 x
ln (1 + x ) =x − + − + ... + ( −1) + ...
2 3 4 n
x 2 x3 x 4 xn
− ln (1 − x ) =x + + + + ... + + ...
2 3 4 n
x3 x5 x 2 n +1
ln (1 + x ) − ln (1 − x ) = 2 x + 2 + 2 + ... + 2 + ...
3 5 2n + 1
1+ x  x3 x5 x 2 n +1 
Then, ln = 2  x + + + ... + + ... 
1− x  3 5 2n + 1 
Synthesis
As conclusion, the relation
1+ x  x3 x5 x 2 n +1 
ln = 2  x + + + ... + + ... 
1− x  3 5 2n + 1 
2 n +1
∞
x
= 2∑
n = 0 2n + 1
can helps us to estimate ln of any positive number where

1+ x
ln is equated to that number for finding the value of
1− x
x in the series.
ln 0.8 ≈ −0.223
1. ln 3 ≈ 1.0986 2.
3. ln 7 ≈ 1.94591 4.
ln 0.2 ≈ −1.61
165
Lesson 3.13. Estimation of roots of equations

Learning objectives
Given an equation and by using Maclaurin series, learners
should be able to estimate the roots of that equations
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Maclaurin series of transcendental functions
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
x2
1. ln (1 + x ) =x −
2
x2
2. The equation ln (1 + x ) + x =0 becomes x − +x=0
2
x2
or 2 x − 0
=
2
x2  x
3. 2 x − =0 ⇒ x  2 −  =0
2  2
x
x = 0 or 2 − = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or x = 4
2
4. If x = 0 , ln (1 + 0 ) + 0 = 0 ⇔ 0 = 0 TRUE
If x = 4 , ln (1 + 4 ) + 0 = 0 ⇔ ln 5 = 0 FALSE
Hence, S = {0}
166
Synthesis
The nth order Maclaurin polynomial is helpful to estimate
the roots of a given equation involving transcendental
functions.
 10 10  1 
S = 
1. S = − ,  2.
 5 5  2
 4
3. S = 0, 
 7
Summary of the unit
1. Generalities on series
࿌࿌ Definitions
A finite series is an expression of the form
n
u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un or in sigma notation ∑u

k =1
k ,
where the index of summation, k , takes consecutive
integer values from the lower limit, 1, to the upper limit,
n . The terms u1 , u2 , u3 ,..., un are called terms of the series
and the term un is the general term.
n
To obtain ∑ uk , the method of difference is usually used i.e.

k =1
n
∑u n = f (1) − f ( n + 1) where uk = f ( k ) − f ( k + 1) , with

k =1
f ( k ) a function of k .
࿌࿌ Convergence and divergence of a series
Let {sn } be the sequence of partial sums of the series
+∞
∑u
k =1
k . If the sequence {sn } converges to a limit S , then
167
the series is said to converge and S is called the sum of

+∞
the series. We denote this by writing S = ∑ uk .
k =1
If the sequence of partial sums of a series diverges, then

the series is said to diverge. A divergent series has no
sum.
Comparison test
∞
Let ∑a
n =1
n
be a series with positive terms.
∞
a) ∑a
n =1
n converges if there exists a convergent series
∞
∑b
n =1
such that an ≤ bn for all n > N , where N is some
n
positive integer.
∞ ∞
b) ∑a n
diverges if there exists a divergent series ∑c
n =1
n
n =1
such that an ≥ cn for all n > N , where N is some

positive integer.
Limit comparison test

∞ ∞
If the series ∑ an and ∑b
n =1
n are two series with positive
n =1
an
terms, and lim is finite, both series converge or diverge.
n →∞ bn
The ratio test
∞
Let ∑u
n =1
n
be a series with positive terms and let
un +1
lim = L , then,
n →∞ un
a) the series converges if L < 1 ,
b) the series diverges if L > 1 ,
c) the series may or may not converge if L = 1 (i.e., the
test is inconclusive).
168
The nth root test

∞
Let ∑u
n =1
n be a series with positive terms and let
lim n un = L , then,
n →∞
a) the series converges if L < 1 ,

b) the series diverges if L > 1 ,
c) the test is inconclusive L = 1 .
2. Power series
Power series is like an infinite polynomial. It has the form
∞
∑ a ( x − c) = a0 + a1 ( x − c ) + a2 ( x − c ) + ... + an ( x − c ) + ...
n 2 n
n
n =0
Here, c is any real number and a series of this form is called

a power series centred at c .
∞
f ( x) ∑ a ( x − c)
n
Let= n be the function defined by this power
n =0
series. f ( x ) is only defined if the power series converges, so

we will consider the domain of the function f to be the set
of x values for which the series converges. There are three
possible cases:
࿌࿌ The power series converges at x = c . Here, the radius of
convergence is zero.
࿌࿌ The power series converges for all x , i.e ]−∞, +∞[ . Here,
the radius of convergence is infinity.
࿌࿌ There is a number R called the radius of convergence
such that the series converges for all c − R < x < c + R
and the series diverges outside this interval.
3. Taylor and Maclaurin series

If f ( x ) is a function defined on the open interval ( a, b ) ,
and which can be differentiated ( n + 1) times on ( a, b ) ,
then the equality
∞
f(
n)
( x0 )
f ( x) ∑ ( x − x0 ) + Rn +1 ( x )
n
=
n =0 n!
169
for any values of x and x0 in ( a, b ) is called Taylor’s

formula Rn +1 ( x ) is called the remainder function.
The resulting function (without Rn +1 ( x ) ) is called the Taylor
expansion of f ( x ) with respect to about the point x = x0 of
order n .
One of the most common forms of the remainder function is
the Lagrange form:
( x − x0 ) f ( n+1) x + θ x − x
n +1
=Rn +1 ( x ) ( 0 ( 0 )) where 0 < θ < 10 .

( n + 1)!
If lim Rn +1 ( x ) = 0 for some terms in
n →∞
∞
f(
n)
( x0 )
f ( x) ∑ ( x − x0 ) + Rn +1 ( x ) , then the infinite
n
=
n =0 n!
series
∞
f ( n ) ( x0 )
f ( x0 ) + ∑
f ( x) = ( x − x0 )
n
n =1 n!
is called the Taylor series for f ( x ) .
A Maclaurin series is a Taylor series with x0 = 0
Note that if f ( x ) is a polynomial of degree, then it will have
utmost only n non-zero derivatives; all other higher-order
derivatives will be identically equal to zero.
The following series are very important. All of them are
Maclaurin series ( x0 = 0 ) and, it is possible to find the Taylor
series for other functions by using these formulae without
necessarily using Taylor’s formula.
x x 2 x3 xn
a) e =1 + x + + +  + + 
2! 3! n!
x 3
x 5
x 2 n −1
( )
n −1
b) sin x = x − + +  + −1 +
3! 5! ( 2n − 1)!
2n
x2 x4 n x
c) cos x = 1 − + +  + ( −1)
2! 4! ( 2n ) !
170
d) If −1 < x < 1 , then
m ( m − 1) m ( m − 1)( m − 2 ) x 3 m ( m − 1)( m − 2 ) (
(1 + x )
m
=1 + mx + x2 + + +
2! 3! n!
m ( m − 1) m ( m − 1)( m − 2 ) x 3
m ( m − 1)( m − 2 ) ( m − n + 1) x n
+ x2 + + + +
2! 3! n!
Particularly, if x < 1 , then

1
= 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 +  + ( −1) x n + 
n
1+ x
If −1 < x ≤ 1 , then
( −1) x n
n −1
x 2 x3
ln (1 + x ) =x − + +  + +
2 3 n
1 3 5 2 13 1 4 5 3 37 2
1. a) n + n + n b) n + n + n + 15n
3 2 6 4 2 4
1 1 1 1 37 
c) −  + + − 
3  n + 4 n + 5 n + 6 60 
1 3 7 1 1 1 1
d) n3 + n 2 + n e) −  − − 
3 2 6 2  n +1 n + 2 2 
233 50 11
2. a) b) c)
990 99 999
3. a) − 7 < x < 1 , r =2 b) −1 < x < 1, r =

1
2 2
1 −2 < x < 2, r =2
c) −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, r = d)
e) −2 ≤ x < 2, r =2 f) 3 3 3
− < x < ,r =
2 2 2
171
( x − 1) ( x − 1) ( x − 1)
2 3 4
4. a) ( x − 1) − + − + ...
2 3 2
b) 1 − ( x − 1) + ( x − 1) − ( x − 1) + ...
2 3
 
2
π  π
3

  x−  x−  
2  π  4  4
c) 1+  x −  − − − ...
2   4 2 6 
 
 
2 4
 1  1
x−  x− 
2 2
5. 1− π 2  +π 4  + ...
2! 4!
5 ( x − 1) + 6 ( x − 1) + 4 ( x − 1) + ( x − 1)
2 3 4
6.
( x − 1) ( x − 1)
3 4
( x − 1) e + ( x − 1)
2
7. e+ e+ e
2 6
x4 x6 x3 3x5
8. a) − + b) x + +
3 45 2 8
2 x3
c) x − x +
3
d) x − x + x
6
2
x 2 x3  x3 x5  ∞
x 2 n −1
9. x − + − ... ; 2  x + 2∑
+ + ...  =
2 3  3 5  n =1 2n − 1
2 3
10. ln (1 + x ) =x − x + x . The absolute value
2 3
of the remainder term in Lagrange form is
6x4 x4
= where 0 < c < x . The maximum
(1 + c ) 4 (1 + c )
4 4
4!
value of the remainder term is obtained where c = 0
4
x4
and so, equals x . We must then have < 5 ×10−4
4 4
and so x < 0.211 .
11. a) sin π = 0 b) cos e
2 x4 x6
12. x − + − ...
3! 5!
172
1
− 2
1 v2  2
1 v2 3  v2 
13. γ= = 1 − 2  1+
= +   + ...
v2  c  2 c2 8  c2 
1− 2
c
And so
 1 v 2 3  v 2 2  1 2 3 2  v2 
2
K = 1 + + + ... − 1 mc = mv + mv  2  + ...
2
 2 c 2 8  c 2   2 8 c 
 
1 2
This is approximately K = mv if v << c since the
2
neglected terms are small.
x2 5x4 1
14. 1 − + + ... ;
2 24 2
x3 x5 1
15. x − + + ... ;
3 10 3
16. −1 + 2
x 2 x3 x 4 x x 2 x3
17. x − + − + ... and 1 − + − + ...
2 3 4 2 3 4
x 3x 2
18. 1 − + + ...
2 8
2 4
19. 1 + x + x + ...
2 3
20. 1 + 11x + 49 x + 179 x + ...
6 36 216 1296
7 x 3 27 x 5 7
21. x − + + ... , limit is −
6 40 6
2 4
x x
22. 1 + x + − + ...
2 8
θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5
23. e =1 + iθ − − i + + i + ... ,
iθ
2! 3! 4! 5!
iθ θ2 θ4  θ3 θ5 
e =1 − + + ... + i  θ − + + ... 
2! 4!  3! 5! 
Substituting θ = π gives
eiπ =cos π + i sin π =−1 ⇒ eiπ + 1 =0
173
x 2x2
24. a) 1 + − + ...
3 9
1 1
b) 3
n3 + 1= n 3 1 + . In a) put x = 3 ,
n 3
n
3 1  1 2 
n3 + 1= n 3 1 +3
= n 1 + 3 − 6 + ... 
n  3n 9n 
1 2
n
=+ 2
− 5 + ...
3n 9n
and,
3 1 2
n3 + 1 − n = n +2
− 5 + ... − n
3n 9n
1 2
= 2 − 5 + ...
3n 9n
1
≈ 2 when n is large
3n
1
c) Use the limit comparison test with the series
3n 2
174
Unit 4 Integration
Key unit competence

Use integration as the inverse of differentiation and as the
limit of a sum then apply it to find area of plane surfaces,
volumes of solid of revolution, lengths of curved lines.
Primitive function of function f ( x ) : Is a function F ( x )

such that F ' ( x ) = f ( x ) .
Integration: Process of finding primitive functions (or
anti derivative functions).
Indefinite integrals: Primitive functions.
Definite integrals: Primitive functions evaluated at a given
closed interval.
Improper integrals: Definite integrals involving infinity limits
or a discontinuous point in the interval of
integration.
Volume of revolution: Volume obtained when a curve of a
function or a surface between two curves
is revolved around an axis.

The problem statement is; “Suppose a student differentiated a
function f ( x ) and found 3 x 2 + 6 x + 10 . The question are what
is f ( x ) and how can we obtain function f ( x ) ?” Here, we
175
need f ( x ) such that f ' ( x ) = 3 x 2 + 6 x + 10 , we can separate

say ( x3 ) 3=
x 2 , ( 3 x 2 ) 6=
' '
x, (10 x ) 10 and
'
the terms and=
then f ( x ) =x 3 + 3 x 2 + 10 x . Since derivative of a constant is
zero, we can write f ( x ) =x + 3 x + 10 x + c, c ∈  .
3 2
But this is a simple problem. That is why, in general, the

answer for this problem will be found by integration where
we write f ( x=
) ∫ ( 3x + 6 x + 10 ) dx .
2
List of lessons
1 Differentials 2
2 Definition of indefinite integrals 1
3 Properties of integrals 1
4 Integration by substitution 1
5 Integration of rational function where 2
numerator is expressed in terms of
derivative of denominator
6 Integration of rational function where degree 2
of numerator is greater or equal to the
degree of denominator
denominator is factorised into linear factors
denominator is a quadratic factor
9 Integral of the form 2
∫ sin mx cos nx dx, ∫ cos mx cos nx dx, ∫ sin mx sin nx dx
10
∫ sin 2
m
Integral of the form x cos n x dx
11
∫ tan 2
m
Integral of the form x sec n x dx
Integral containing sin x, cos x, tan x on
12 2
denominator
176
Integration
Integral containing sin 2 x, cos 2 x on

13 2
denominator
14 Integral containing n
ax + b 2
15 Integral containing ax 2 + bx + c 2
16 Integration by parts 2
17 Integration by reduction formulae 2
18 Integration by Maclaurin series 1
19 Definition of definite integrals 1
20 Properties of definite integrals 1
21 Improper integrals: Infinite limits of 1
integration
22 Discontinuous integrand 1
23 Calculation of area of plane surface 2
24 Calculation of volume of solid of revolution 2
25 Calculation of arc length of curved lines 2
Total periods 42
Lesson development
Lesson 4.1. Differentials

Learning objectives
Given a function, learners should be able to find differential
of that function and the percentage error perfectly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Differentiation of a function
Teaching Aids
177

skills
Answers
π
a) If y= sin x, x= , ∆x= 0.006 then,
3
π  1
=dy cos
= xdx cos =  dx ( 0.006
= ) 0.003
3 2
Thus, the change in the value of sin x is approximately
0.003 .
π  π 3
b) sin  + 0.006  ≈ sin + 0.003 = + 0.003 =0.869
3  3 2
Synthesis
As conclusion,
Differential dy is given by dy = f ' ( x ) dx for y = f ( x )
Whenever one makes an approximation, it is wise to try
and estimate how big the error might be. Relative change
∆x ∆x
in x is and percentage change in x is 100 × .
x x
4
df
1. a) = ( 2 x − 3) dx b) df = − 2
dx
x + 4x + 4
3
c) df = − dx
8 2− x
±10
1.75% 4.
2. +2 3.
178
Integration
Lesson 4.2. Definition of indefinite integrals

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define indefinite
integrals rightfully.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Derivative of a function
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen

skills
Answers
x2
a) x 3 + c, c ∈  b) + c, c ∈ 
2
1
c) 2 x , c ∈  d) + c, c ∈ 
x
Synthesis
As conclusion, the function F ( x ) is an indefinite
integral of f ( x ) if F ' ( x ) = f ( x ) .
2 x3 + 2 x 2 + 3x + c
1. 2 x 2 − 5 x + c 2.
1 4 1 3 1 2
3. 3 x 3 − 12 x 2 + 16 x + c
x + x + x + c 4.
4 3 2
8
5. 5x + c 6. − x3 + 9 x 2 − 9 x + c
3
179
2 5 4 5 4 3
7. x − x 3 − 5 x + c 8. x − x + x+c
5 5 3
1
9. x 4 − 2 x3 + 6 x 2 − 8 x + c
4
Lesson 4.3. Properties of integrals

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to use properties
of indefinite integrals accurately.
Prerequisites
Integrals of simple functions.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. ∫ f (=
x ) dx ∫ cos
= xdx sin ( x ) + c
d ∫ f ( x ) dx d sin ( x ) + c 
= = cos x
dx dx
d
f ( x ) dx = f ( x )
dx ∫
Observation:
180
Integration
2. Differential of f ( x ) is df = cos xdx
∫=
df ∫ cos =xdx sin x + c
( x) f ( x) + c
Observation: ∫ df=
3x 2
3. ∫ 3x=
dx
2
+ c and
 x2  3x 2 3x 2
3∫ x dx = 3  + k  = + 3k = +c
 2  2 2
Observation: ∫ k f ( x ) dx = k ∫ f ( x ) dx , k ∈ 
∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ g ( x ) dx= ∫ ( x + 3x − 1) dx + ∫ ( x + 2 x + 2 )
3 2
4.
x 4 3x 2 x3
= + − x + + x2 + 2x + c
4 2 3
4 3 2
x x 5x
= + + + x+c
4 3 2
= ∫ ( x + 3 x − 1 + x + 2 x + 2 )dx
∫  f ( x ) + g ( x ) dx
3 2
= ∫ ( x + x + 5 x + 1)dx
3 2
x 4 x3 5 x 2
= + + + x+c
4 3 2
Observation:
∫  f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx ± ∫ g ( x ) dx
d
5. cos ( 2 x + 3) = − ( 2 x + 3) 'sin ( 2 x + 3) = −2sin ( 2 x + 3)
dx
1
∫ − sin ( 2 x + 3=
)  dx cos ( 2 x + 3) + c
2
6. Hence;
1
∫ f ( ax + b= ) dx F ( ax + b ) + c
a
a , b, c ∈  , a ≠ 0
181
Synthesis
1. The derivative of the indefinite integral is equal to the
function to be integrated.
d
f ( x ) dx = f ( x )
dx ∫
2. The integral of differential of a function is equal to the
sum of that function and an arbitrary constant.
( x)
∫ df= f ( x) + c
3. Each constant function may be pulled out of integral

sign.
∫ k f ( x ) dx k ∫ f ( x ) dx, k ∈ 
=
4. The indefinite integral of the algebraic sum of two

functions is equal to the algebraic sum of the indefinite
integrals of those functions.
∫  f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx ± ∫ g ( x ) dx
5. If F ( x ) is a primitive function of f ( x ) , then, the
integral
1
∫ f ( ax + b=
) dx
a
F ( ax + b ) + c a , b, c ∈  , a ≠ 0
1. 4 ∫ f ( x ) dx = 4 ( x + 2 x + c ) = 4 x + 8 x + k
2 2
2. 2 ∫  g ( x ) − = 2
g ( x ) dx − ∫ 6dx 
5 ∫
6  dx
5 
2
g ( x ) dx − 6 ∫ dx 
5 ∫
=

2 3
=
5
(x − 3x 2 − 4 x + k − 6 x )
2 3
=
5
(x − 3 x 2 − 10 x + k )
182 2 3 6 2 2
= x − x − 4x + k
5 5 5
2 3 6 2
= x − x − 4x + c
5 5
Integration
2
g ( x ) dx − 6 ∫ dx 
5 ∫
=

2 3
=
5
( x − 3x 2 − 4 x + k − 6 x )
2 3
=
5
( x − 3 x 2 − 10 x + k )
2 3 6 2 2
= x − x − 4x + k
5 5 5
2 3 6 2
= x − x − 4x + c
5 5
3. ∫  f ( x ) + 3g ( x ) dx =∫ f ( x ) dx + 3∫ g ( x ) dx
= x 2 + 2 x + c + 3 ( x3 − 3x 2 − 4 x + k )
= x 2 + 2 x + c + 3 x 3 − 9 x 2 − 12 x + 3k
= 3 x 3 − 8 x 2 − 10 x + d
4. d ∫  2 f ( x ) − 3 g ( x )  dx =2 f ( x ) − 3g ( x )
dx
= 2 ( 2 x + 2 ) − 3 ( 3x 2 − 6 x − 4 )
= 4 x + 4 − 9 x 2 + 18 x + 12
−9 x 2 + 22 x + 16
=
Lesson 4.4. Integration by substitution

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to find integrals
by substitution method correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Differentiation of a function.
Teaching Aids
183

skills
Answers
u = 5 x + 2 ⇒ du = 5dx
du 1 u
∫e dx = ∫ eu
5 x+2
=e +c
5 5
1 u 1 5 x+2
5∫
= e du = e +c
5
Synthesis
Integration by substitution is based on rule for
differentiating composite functions. Substitution means
to let f ( x ) be a function of another function.
In∫ f ( x ) dx , let x be x ( t ) ; thus, dx = x ' ( t ) dt and then
we get ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ( t ) ) x ' ( t ) dt that is a formula of
integration by substitution.
184
Integration
x x e +1 1 x3
1. a) e − + c b) e +c
e +1 3
1
1 1 2
c) e 2 x + 2e x + x + c d)
− ex + c
2 2
1 3cos 2 x
e) sin ( e ) + c f)
x
e sin 2 x + c
3
1
g) sin ( ln x ) + c h) ( 4 x3 − 12 ) + c
3
36
2. 100 m
Lesson 4.5. Integration of rational functions

where numerator is expressed in
terms of derivative of denominator
Learning objectives
Given a rational function where numerator is expressed in
terms of derivative of denominator, learners should be able
to find primitive function moderately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Derivative of ln  g ( x )  .
࿌࿌ Derivative of arctan  g ( x )  .
Teaching Aids

skills
185
Answers
1
1. We see that (1 − x 2 ) ' =−2 x ⇒ x =− (1 − x 2 ) ' . So, we
2
can write
1
x
−
2
(1 − x2 ) '
∫ dx = ∫ dx
(1 − x ) 2 2
(1 − x2 )
2
1 (1 − x ) '
2
2 ∫ (1 − x 2 )2
= − dx
/
1  1 g'
= +c since   =− 2
2 (1 − x )
2
 g g
2. We see that
1 2
( 3x 2
− 3x + 1) ' = 6 x − 3 = 3 ( 2 x − 1) ⇒ 2 x − 1 =
3
( 3x − 3x + 1) '
So, we can write
1 2
2x −1 3
( 3x − 3x + 1) '
∫ 3x2 − 3x + 1 ∫ 3x 2 − 3x + 1 dx
dx =
1 ( 3x − 3x + 1) '
2
= ∫ dx
3 3x 2 − 3x + 1
1 u'
= ln 3x 2 − 3x + 1 + c since ( ln
= u)'
3 u
Synthesis
The following basic integration formulae are most helpful:
u' u' 1 u'
∫ u=
dx ln u + c , ∫u 2
dx =− + c and
u
∫ u=2
+1
dx arctan u + c
1 1
1. − + c 2. 2 + c
2 ( x + 2 x + 3)
2
2 (1 − x )
1 1
3. − −
+ c 4. +c
6 ( 2 x + 5) 4 ( x + 2 x + 5)
3 2 2
186
Integration

where degree of numerator is greater
or equal to the degree of denominator
Learning objectives
Given an irrational function where degree of numerator is
greater or equal to the degree of denominator, learners should
be able to find primitive function accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Long division of polynomials.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. 2 x + 4= 2 + 26 ; 2 x + 26 ln 5 x − 3 + c
5 x − 3 5 25 x − 15 5 25
3
2. x − 3 x + 2 = 1 + 1 − 3 x ; x − ln ( x 2 + 1) − arctan x + 1 + c
2
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 2
2
3. x + 1 = x + 1 + 2 ; x + x + 2 ln x − 1 + c
2
x −1 x −1 2
x3 + 2 x − 4 4 x2 2x
4. 2
= x − 2
; − 2 2 arctan +c
x +2 x +2 2 2
187
Synthesis
f ( x)
If we want to find ∫ g ( x ) dx when the degree of f ( x )
is greater than the degree of g ( x ) , we proceed by long
f ( x) r ( x)
division to find ∫= dx ∫ q ( x ) dx + ∫ dx where
g ( x) g ( x)
q ( x ) is the quotient, r ( x ) the remainder and then
integrate the new expression on the right hand side.
1. 1 x 2 − 1 ln ( x 2 + 1) − 2 arctan x + c
2 2
1 2
2. − ln x − 1 − ln x + 2 + x + c
3 3
1 13 1
3. ln x − ln 3 x − 2 − x + c
6 54 9
1 3
4.
3
(
x + a 3 ln x3 − a 3 + c )
5. 1 x 2 − 26 ln x + 3 + 63ln x + 4 − 7 x + c
2

where denominator is factorised into
linear factors
Learning objectives
Given an irrational function where denominator is factorised
into linear factors, learners should be able to find primitive
function accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Factorise completely a polynomial.
Teaching Aids
188
Integration

skills
Answers
1. x + 2 x = x ( x + 2 )
2
x−2 A B A ( x + 2 ) + Bx
2
=+ = 2
x + 2x x x + 2 x + 2x
x − 2= A ( x + 2 ) + Bx
Solving, we get
 A = −1

B = 2
Then,
x−2 1 2
2
=− +
x + 2x x x+2
x−2 dx 2
And ∫x2
+ 2x
dx = −∫ + ∫
x x+2
dx
=− ln x + 2 ln x + 2 + c
( x + 2)
2
= ln x + ln ( x + 2 ) + =
2
c ln +c
x
2
2. x + 3 x + 2 = ( x + 1)( x + 2 )
x A B A ( x + 2 ) + B ( x + 1)
2
= + =
x + 3x + 2 x + 1 x + 2 x 2 + 3x + 2
x= A ( x + 2 ) + B ( x + 1)
189
Solving we get,
 A = −1

B = 2
Then,
x 1 2
2
=
− +
x + 3x + 2 x +1 x + 2
Therefore;
x dx 2
∫x 2
+ 3x + 2
−∫
dx =
x +1
+∫
x+2
dx
=− ln x + 1 + 2 ln x + 2 + c
( x + 2)
2
= ln x + 1 + ln ( x + 2 ) + c=
2
ln +c
x +1
3. 2 A B
2
= +
x −1 x −1 x +1
2 A ( x + 1) + B ( x − 1)
2
=
x −1 x2 −1
2= A ( x + 1) + B ( x − 1)
Solving, we get
A =1 2 1 1
 = −
 B = −1
2
x −1 x −1 x +1
2 dx dx
Then, ∫ 2 = dx ∫ −∫
x −1 x −1 x +1
x −1
= ln x − 1 − ln x + 1 + c= ln +c
x +1
4. 2x − 3
2
x −x−2
x2 − x − 2 = ( x − 2 )( x + 1)
2x − 3 A B A ( x + 1) + B ( x − 2 )
2
= + =
x − x − 2 x − 2 x +1 x2 − x − 2
3 A ( x + 1) + B ( x − 2 )
2x − =
190
Integration
Solving, we get
 1
 A = 3 2x − 3 1 5
 = +
x − x − 2 3 ( x − 2 ) 3 ( x + 1)
2
B = 5
 3
Finally,
2x − 3 dx 5
∫x 2
=
−x−2
dx ∫ 3 ( x − 2 ) + ∫ 3 ( x + 1) dx
1 5 1
ln ( x − 2 )( x + 1) + c
5
= ln x − 2 + ln x + 1 +=
c
3 3 3
Synthesis
For integration of rational function where denominator is
factorised into linear factors, before integrating, note that
to each factor ax + b occurring once in the denominator
of a proper rational fraction, there corresponds a single
A
partial fraction of the form where A is a constant
ax + b
to be found, but to each factor ax + b occurring n
times in the denominator of a proper rational fraction,
there corresponds a sum of n partial fractions
A1 A2 An
+ + ... + where An are constants
ax + b ( ax + b ) 2
( ax + b )
n
to be found, and then integrate the new expression.
( x + 2) + c
2
x −1
1. ln + c 2.
ln
x +1 x +1
x−2 x
3. ln 3
+ c 4.
ln x + 1 − +c
x x +1
3x 12 − 5 x
ln ( x + 1) ( x − 2 ) +
3 5
5. 3ln x − 2 − + c 6. +c
x−2 x−2
191

denominator is a quadratic factor
Learning objectives
Given an irrational function where denominator is a
quadratic factor, learners should be able to find primitive
function correctly.
Prerequisites  b  b 2 − 4ac 
2
2
Use of the relation ax + bx +=
c a  x +  − .
 2a  4a 2 
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. Relation to be used;
2
 b  b 2 − 4ac 
2
ax + bx +=
c a  x +  − 
 2a  4a 2 
dx a 1,=
,= b 3,=
c 2
∫x 2
+ 3x + 2
dx dx
∫x 2
+ 3x + 2
=∫

2
3 1
 x +  −
 2 4
dx dx
∫ x 2 + 3x + 2 = ∫  3 2 1
x+  −
 2 4
3
Let u = x + ⇒ du = dx
2
192
Integration
dx du du
∫x 2
=
+ 3x + 2 ∫=1 ∫ 1
2
u2 − 2
u − 
4 2
dx 1 x−k
Using the formula= ∫ x 2 − k 2 2k ln x + k + d , we have
1
u−
dx du 1 2 +d
∫= 2
x + 3x + 2 ∫=
1
2
1
ln
1
u2 −   2× u+
2
  2 2
3 1
x+ −
2 2= x +1
= ln + d ln +d
3 1 x + 2
x+ +
2 2
dx , a= 1, b = −4, c =
4
2.
∫x − 4x + 4
 4  ( −4 ) − 4 × 4
2 2
= ( x − 2)
2 2
x − 4x + 4 =  x −  −
 2 4
dx dx
∫ x 2 − 4 x + 4 = ∫ ( x − 2 )2
Let u = x − 2 ⇒ du = dx
dx du
∫ x2 − 4 x + 4 = ∫ u 2
u' 1
Using the formula ∫ 2 du =− + d , we have
u u
dx du 1 1
∫x 2
− 4x + 4
=∫ 2 =− + d =−
u u x−2
+d
dx , a= 1, b = −6, c =
18
3.
∫x 2
− 6 x + 18
6  ( −6 ) − 4 ×18
2 2

= ( x − 3) + 9
2 2
x − 6 x + 18 =  x −  −
 2 4
dx dx
∫x 2
− 6 x + 18
=∫
( x − 3) + 9
2
Let u = x − 3 ⇒ du = dx
dx du du
∫x 2
=
+ 3x + 2 ∫=
u +9 ∫ u
2 2
+ 32
193
dx 1 x
∫ x 2 + k 2 k arctan k + d , we have
Using the formula =
dx du 1 u 1 x −3
∫x 2
=
+ 3x + 2 ∫u=2
+3 2
3
arctan =
3
+d
3
arctan
3
+d
Synthesis
dx
For the integral of the form ∫ ax 2 + bx + c ,
࿌࿌ If b 2 − 4ac =
0 , then,
dx 1 dx b
∫ ax 2
= ∫
+ bx + c a  b 
2 and we let u= x +
2a
x+ 
 2a 
࿌࿌ If b 2 − 4ac > 0 , then,
dx 1 dx . We let
∫ ax 2
= ∫
+ bx + c a  2
b  b 2 − 4ac
x+  +
 2a  4a 2
b b 2 − 4ac
u=
x+ , k 2 =2
2a 4a
and use the standard integral
dx 1 x−k
∫ x 2 − k 2 2k ln x + k + d
=
࿌࿌ If b 2 − 4ac < 0 , then,

dx 1 dx . We let
∫ ax 2
= ∫
+ bx + c a  2
b  b 2 − 4ac
x+  −
 2a  4a 2
b b 2 − 4ac and use the standard
u =x + , − k2 =
2a 4a 2
dx 1 x
∫ x 2 + k 2 k arctan k + d
integral =
1. 2 arctan  2 x + 1  + c
 
7  7 
2. − 1 arctan ( 3 x + 1) + 1 ln ( 9 x 2 + 6 x + 2 ) + c
9 18
194
Integration
3. − 2 arctan 2 x + 3ln x − 2 + c
( )
2
4. 1 ln ( x 2 + 2 ) − ln 2 x + 1 + c
2
Lesson 4.9. Integrals of the form

∫ sin mx cos nx dx, ∫ cos mx cos nx dx, ∫ sin mx sin nx dx
Learning objectives
Given integrals of the form
∫ sin mx cos nx dx, ∫ cos mx cos nx dx, ∫ sin mx sin nx dx , learners
should be able to find primitive function accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Identities:
1
sin A cos
= B sin ( A − B ) + sin ( A + B ) 
2
1
sin A sin
= B cos ( A − B ) − cos ( A + B ) 
2
1
cos A cos
= B cos ( A − B ) + cos ( A + B ) 
2
Teaching Aids

skills
195
Answers
1 1 1
1. sin 2 x cos x = ( sin x + sin 3x ) = sin x + sin 3x
2 2 2
1 1  1 1
⇒ ∫ sin 2 x cos xdx = ∫  2 sin x + 2 sin 3x dx =
− cos x − cos3x + c
2 6
1 1 1
2. sin x sin 5 x = ( cos 4 x − cos 6 x ) = cos 4 x − cos 6 x
2 2 2
 1 1  1 1
⇒ ∫ sin x sin 5 xdx =∫  cos 4 x − cos 6 x dx = sin 4 x − sin 6 x + c
2 2  8 12
1 1 1
3. cos 2 x cos 3 x = ( cos x + cos 5 x ) = cos x + cos 5 x
2 2 2
1 1  1 1
⇒ ∫ cos 2 x cos3xdx =∫  cos x + cos5 x dx = sin x + sin 5 x + c
2 2  2 10
1 1 1
4. sin x sin 3=x cos ( −2 x ) − cos 4 =
x  cos 2 x − cos 4 x
2 2 2
1 1
x sin 3 x sin 4 x
sin = cos 2 x sin 4 x − cos 4 x sin 4 x
2 2
1 1 1 1
= ( sin 2 x + sin 6 x ) −  ( sin 0 + sin 8 x )
2  2  2 2 
1 1 1
= sin 2 x + sin 6 x − sin 8 x
4 4 4
1 1 1 
⇒ ∫ sin x sin 3 x sin 4 x dx= ∫  4 sin 2 x + 4 sin 6 x − 4 sin 8x  dx
1 1 1
− cos 2 x + cos8 x − cos 6 x + c
=
8 32 24
Synthesis
To evaluate the integral of the form ∫ sin mx cos nxdx
or ∫ cos mx cos nxdx or ∫ sin mx sin nxdx , we express the
product into sum by using the corresponding identities:
1
sin A cos
= B sin ( A − B ) + sin ( A + B ) 
2
1
sin A sin
= B cos ( A − B ) − cos ( A + B ) 
2
1
cos A cos
= B cos ( A − B ) + cos ( A + B ) 
2
And then integrate the new expression.
196
Integration
1 1 1 1
1. − cos x − cos 5 x + c 2. cos x − cos 5 x + c
2 10 2 10
1 1 1 2
3. − sin 6 x + x + c 4. sin x + c
12 2 2
1 1 1 1
5. sin 6 x + x + c 6. sin 6 x + sin 8 x + c
12 2 12 16
Lesson 4.10. Integrals of the form ∫ sin m x cos n x dx

Learning objectives
Given an integral of the form ∫ sin m x cos n x dx , learners
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Derivative of cos x and sin x .
࿌࿌ Identity cos 2 x + sin 2 x =
1.
࿌࿌ Identity cos
= 2 x cos x − sin 2 x .
2
࿌࿌ Identity sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x .

Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. u =
cos x ⇒ du =
− sin xdx
u3 cos3 x
∫ sin x cos xdx =∫ cos x sin xdx =−∫ u du =− 3 + c =− 3 + c
2 2 2
197
1 1
∫ sin ∫ 2 (1 − cos 2 x ) 2 (1 + cos 2 x )dx
2
2. x cos 2 xdx =
1
= ∫ (1 + cos 2 x − cos 2 x − cos 2 2 x )dx
4
1
=
4∫
(1 − cos2 2 x )dx
1  1  1
= ∫ 1 − (1 + cos 4 x ) dx, since cos 2 x = (1 + cos 2 x ) ⇒ c
4  2  2
1  1  1 1
∫ 1 − (1 + cos 4 x ) dx, since cos x = (1 + cos 2 x ) ⇒ cos 2 x = (1 + cos 4 x )
2 2
=
4  2  2 2
1  1 1 
= ∫ 1 − − cos 4 x dx
4  2 2 
1 1 1  1 1
= ∫  − cos 4 x dx =
4 2 2 
x − sin 4 x + c
8 32
Synthesis
To integrate an integral of the form ∫ sin m x cos n x dx , we
have two cases:
a) If m or n is odd, save one cosine factor (or one sine
factor) and use the relation cos 2 x = 1 − sin 2 x (or
sin 2 x = 1 − cos 2 x ). Let u = sin x ⇒ du = cos xdx (or
let u = cos x ⇒ du = − sin xdx ).
b) If m and n are even, we use the identities:
1 1
2
sin= x (1 − cos 2 x ) and cos=
2
x (1 + cos 2 x ) .
2 2
1 1
1. − cos 4 x + c 2. sin 5 2 x + c
4 10
1 1 1
3. cos3 x − cos x + c 4. − sin 3 4 x + sin 4 x + c
3 12 4
1 1
5. cos 6 x − cos 4 x + c
6 4
1 1 1
6. − cos8 2 x + cos 6 2 x − cos 4 2 x + c
16 6 8
198
Integration
Lesson 4.11. Integrals of the form ∫ tan

m
x sec n x dx
Learning objectives
Given an integral of the form ∫ tan m x sec n x dx , learners
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Derivative of sec x .
࿌࿌ Identity sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x .
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. u =tan x ⇒ du =(1 + tan 2 x ) dx =(1 + u 2 ) dx
du
⇒ dx = 2
1+ u
u2
∫ tan xdx = ∫
2
du
1+ u2
 1 
= ∫ 1 − 2 
du
 1+ u 
=u − arctan u + c
tan x − arctan ( tan x ) + c
=
= tan x − x + c
199
2. u= sec x ⇒ du= sec x tan xdx

du du
= dx =
sec x tan x u tan x
tan x tan xdx ∫ ( tan x )
2
∫ tan xdx ∫=
5 4 2
= tan xdx
∫ ( sec x − 1) tan xdx

2 2
=
∫ ( sec x − 2sec 2 x + 1) tan xdx

4
=
du
∫ (u − 2u 2 + 1) tan x
4
=
u tan x
u 4 − 2u 2 + 1
=∫ du
u
 1
= ∫  u 3 − 2u +  du
 u
4
u sec4 x
= − u 2 + ln u + c = − sec2 x + ln sec x + c
4 4
Synthesis
∫ tan
m
Integration of the form x sec n x dx , is in two types:
2
a) If the power of secant is even, save a factor of sec x
and use sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x to express the remaining
factors in term of tan x . Then substitute u = tan x .
b) If the power of tangent is odd, save a factor of
2
sec x tan x and use tan
= x sec 2 x − 1 to express the
remaining factors in terms of sec x . Then substitute
u = sec x .
1 1  1 − sin x  1
1. sec 2 x + c 2. ln   + sec x tan x + c
2 4  1 + sin x  2
1 3 1 1
3. sec x + c 4. − sec3 x + sec5 x + c
3 3 5
1 1 5 1
5. tan 3 x + c 6. tan x + tan 3 x + c
3 5 3
200
Integration
Lesson 4.12. Integrals containing sin x, cos x, tan x

on denominator
Learning objectives
Given a function containing sin x, cos x, tan x on denominator,
learners should be able to find primitive function moderately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Identities
x x x
2 tan 1 − tan 2 2 tan
= sin x = 2 , cos x = 2 , tan x 2
2 x 2 x 2 x
1 + tan 1 + tan 1 − tan
2 2 2
from double angle formulae.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
x x x x x
2 tan 1 − tan 2 2 tan + 1 − tan 2 + 1 + tan 2 2 tan
sin x + cos
= x +1 2 + = 2 +1 2 2 = 2
2 x 2 x 2 x
1 + tan 1 + tan 1 + tan 1 + ta
2 2 2
x x x x x x
2 tan 1 − tan 2 2 tan + 1 − tan 2 + 1 + tan 2 2 tan + 2
sin x + cos
= x +1 2 + = 2 +1 2 2 = 2 2
x x x x
1 + tan 2 1 + tan 2 1 + tan 2 1 + tan 2
2 2 2 2
201
x
1 + tan 2
1 2
=
x
sin x + cos x + 1 2 tan + 2
2
x x du dx 2du
Let u =tan ⇒ arctan u = ⇒ 2
= ⇒ dx =
2 2 1+ u 2 1+ u2
1 1+ u2 2du
∫ sin x + cos x + 1 ∫ 2u + 2 × 1 + u 2
= dx
du
=∫
u +1
= ln u + 1 + c
x
= ln tan + 1 + c
2
Synthesis
To find an integral containing sin x, cos x, tan x on
denominator, use the formulae
x x x
2 tan 1 − tan 2 2 tan
=sin x = 2 , cos x = 2 , tan x 2
2 x 2 x 2 x
1 + tan 1 + tan 1 − tan
2 2 2
x x
and let u =
tan ⇒ arctan u =
2 2
 x 
 3 tan − 2 
2
1. 2 arctan  1 tan x  + c 2. arctan  2
+c
3  3 2 5  5 
 
1  2 tan x + 1  1  x
3. arctan   + c 4. 2 arctan  2 tan 2  + c
3  3 
 x 
 3 tan + 4  1
2 2
5. arctan   + c 6. − +c
11 11 x
  tan − 2
  2
202
Integration
2 2
Lesson 4.13. Integrals containing sin x, cos x on
denominator
Learning objectives
Given an integral containing sin 2 x, cos 2 x on denominator,
learners should be able to find primitive function accurately.
Prerequisites
1 tan x
࿌࿌ Identities cos x = and sin x = .
1 + tan 2 x 1 + tan 2 x
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
We know that sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x or sec x =± 1 + tan 2 x .

Then,
1 tan x
cos x = ± and sin x = ±
1 + tan 2 x 1 + tan 2 x
1 1 1
Now, = = = 1 + tan 2 x
2
cos x  1 
2
1
± 2
 1 + tan 2 x
 1 + tan x 
1
= ∫ (1 + tan 2 x ) dx
∫ cos2 x dx
du
u tan x ⇒ =
Let = x arctan u ⇒ dx =
1+ u2
203
1 du
∫ cos2 x ∫
dx = (1 + u 2
) 1+ u2 ∫
= du = u + c = tan x + c
Synthesis
2 2
To integrate an integral containing sin x, cos x on
1
denominator, use identities cos x = and
1 + tan 2 x
tan x
sin x = u tan x ⇒ =
and let = x arctan u
1 + tan 2 x
1 3 1 2
1) tan x + tan x + c 2) tan 5 x + tan 3 x + tan x + c
3 5 3
2 1 1 3
3) − cot x − cot 3 x − cot 5 x + c 4) tan 7 x + tan 5 x + tan 3 x + tan x + c
3 5 7 5
Lesson 4.14. Integrals containing n

ax + b
Learning objectives
Given an integral containing n ax + b , learners should be able
to find primitive function accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Properties of radicals.
Teaching Aids

skills
204
Integration
Answers
u 2 = 3x − 1 ⇒ u =3x − 1
2udu
⇒ 2udu = 3dx ⇒ dx =
3
2udu 2 2
∫ 3x − 1=
dx ∫ u = ∫ u du
3 3
3
2u 2
( )
3
= + c= 3x − 1 + c
9 9
2 2
( )
2
= 3x − 1 3x − 1 += c ( 3x − 1) 3x − 1 + c
9 9
Synthesis
n
For integral containing n
ax + b , a ≠ 0 , let u= ax + b
2
1. 1 ( 2 x + 1) 6 x + 3 + c 2. (5x − 2) 5x − 2 + c
2
3 25
3. 3 3 ( 8 x + 1)2 + c 4. 2
+c
16 3 2 − 3x
1
5. 1 ( 2 x + 5)
3
+ c 6. ( 3x − 8) 3x − 8 + c
3 4
7. 4 2 x + 3 + c 8. 4
+c
3 1 − 3x
Lesson 4.15. Integrals containing ax 2 + bx + c
Learning objectives
Given an integral containing ax 2 + bx + c , learners should
be able to find primitive function accurately.
Prerequisites  b  b 2 − 4ac 
2
2
࿌࿌ Use of the relation ax + bx +=
c a  x +  − .
 2a  4a 2 
Teaching Aids
205

skills
Answers
The relation to be used is
2
 b  b 2 − 4ac 
2
ax + bx += c a  x +  − 
 2a  4a 2 
dx
1. ∫
x2 − 2x + 1
( −2 ) − 4 × 1
2
x − 2 x + 1 = ( x − 1) − ( x − 1)
2 2 2
=
4
Let u = x − 1 ⇒ du = dx
dx du du
∫ x 2 − 2=x +1
∫= ∫
u 2 u
u'
Using formula ∫ = du ln u + d , we have
u
dx du
∫ x2 − 2 x + 1 ∫ u= ln u + d= ln x − 1 + d
=
dx
2. ∫ 2
x − 5x + 6
5  ( −5 ) − 4 × 6 
2 2 2
2  5 1
x − 5 x + 6 = x −  − = x −  −
 2 4  2 4
5
Let u = x − ⇒ du = dx
2
206
Integration
dx du
∫ 2
x − 5x + 6
=∫
1
u2 −
4
dx
Using formula ∫ x ±k2 2
= ln x + x 2 ± k 2 + d ,
we have
dx du
∫ 2
x − 5x + 6
=∫
1
u2 −
4
2
1 5  5 1
= ln u + u 2 − + d = ln x − +  x −  − + d
4 2  2 4
2 x − 5 + 2 x2 − 5x + 6
= ln +d
2
= ln 2 x − 5 + 2 x 2 − 5 x + 6 + e
dx
3. ∫ 2
x − 6 x + 18
( −6 )
2
− 4 ×16
x − 6 x + 18 = ( x − 3)
2 2
−
4
=( x − 3) + 9
2
Let u = x − 3 ⇒ du = dx
dx du
∫ x2 − 5x + 6 = ∫ u 2 + 9
Using formula dx
∫ = ln x + x 2 ± k 2 + d ,
2 2
x ±k
we have
dx du
∫ x 2 − 6 x + 18
=∫
u2 + 9
= ln u + u 2 + 9 + d
( x − 3)
2
= ln x − 3 + +9 +d
= ln x − 3 + x 2 − 6 x + 18 + d
207
Synthesis
dx
For the integrals of the form ∫
ax 2 + bx + c
,
2
first, transform ax + bx + c in the form
 b  b 2 − 4ac 
2
a  x +  −  and then;
 2a  4a 2 
࿌࿌ If b 2 − 4ac =
0 , then
dx 1 dx b
∫ ax 2 + bx + c =∫ b and we let u= x +
a 2a
x+
2a
࿌࿌ If b 2 − 4ac > 0 , then
dx 1 dx
∫ ax 2 + bx + c = a ∫ 2
 b  b 2 − 4ac
 x +  +
 2a  4a 2
b b 2 − 4ac
We let u = x + , k 2 =2 finally, use the integral
2a 4a
dx
∫ x 2 ± k 2 = ln x + x ± k + d
2 2
࿌࿌ If b 2 − 4ac < 0 , then

dx 1 dx
∫ ax 2 + bx + c
=
a
∫ 2
 b  b 2 − 4ac
 x +  −
 2a  4a 2
b b 2 − 4ac
We let u =
x+ , k2 =
− and use the
2a 4a 2
integral
dx
∫ 2
x ±k 2
= ln x + x 2 ± k 2 + d
x +1
1. ln x + 1 + x 2 + 2 x + 5 + c 2. arcsin +c
5
x −3
3. ln x + 2 + x 2 + 4 x + 2 + c 4. arcsin +c
2
208
Integration
5. 2 x − 1 x − x 2 + 1 arcsin ( 2 x − 1) + c
4 8
Lesson 4.16. Integration by parts

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to integrate by
parts accurately.
Prerequisites
Product rule differentiation.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. d f= d d
( x ) e x ( x − 1) + ( x − 1) e x
dx dx dx
= e x + ( x − 1) e x = xe x
∫ xe dx =( x − 1) e
x x
2. From 1), +c
, v ex ,
u x=
3. Let=
∫ udx ∫ vdx = ∫ xdx ∫ e dx

x
∫ uvdx = ∫ xe dx
x
Thus, while
From 2) we have
∫ uvdx = ∫ xe dx =( x − 1) e
x x
+c
209
Let us find ∫ udx ∫ vdx :

x2 x
∫ udx ∫ vdx = ∫ xdx ∫ e=
x
dx e +c
2
Therefore, ∫ uvdx ≠ ∫ udx ∫ vdx
Synthesis
Integration by parts use the formula ∫ udv
= uv − ∫ vdu
The following table can be used:
u v'
Logarithmic function Polynomial function
Polynomial function Exponential function
Polynomial function Trigonometric function
Exponential function Trigonometric function
Trigonometric function Exponential function
Inverse trigonometric Polynomial function
function
1 1 1
1. x sin 2 x + cos 2 x + c 2. ( 3 x − 1) e + c
3x
2 4 9
1 1 1
3. sin 4 x − x cos 4 x + c 4. x 3 ( 3ln x − 1) + c
16 4 9
1
5. ( x + 1) e + c 6. − ( 2 x + 1) e −2 x + c
2x
Lesson 4.17. Integration by reduction formulae

Learning objectives
Given integral I m and by using integration by parts, learners
should be able to find a reduction formula for I m rightfully.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Integration by parts.
210
Integration
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
∫= ∫x
m m
=Im x cos bx dx, J m sin bx dx
For J m = ∫ x m sin bx dx , let u = x ⇒ du = mx dx

m m −1
1
dv =sin bx dx ⇒ v =− cos bx
b
x m cos bx  1 
Jm =− − ∫  − cos bx  mx m −1dx
b  b 
x m cos bx m
⇒ Jm =
− + ∫ cos bxx m −1dx
b b   
I m−1
m
x cos bx m
⇒ Jm =
− + I m −1
b b
− x m cos bx
− x m cos bx + mI m −1 ⇒ bJ m − mI m −1 =
⇒ bJ m =
Synthesis
Knowing integral I m , we can establish a general relation,
integration by parts, which will help us to reduce the
power and find I m −1 , I m − 2 , I m −3 , ..., I 0 .
211
1. 1 x n e ax − n I n −1
a a
tan n −1 x
2. I n
= − I n − 2 and
n −1
tan 4 x tan 2 x
∫ tan x dx =
5
I5 = − + ln sec x + c
4 2
1 n −1
3. I n =− sin n −1 x cos x + I n−2
n n
1 n −1
4. I n
= cos n −1 x sin x + I n−2
n n
5. I n x ( ln x ) − nI n −1
n
=
Lesson 4.18. Integration by Maclaurin series

Learning objectives
Using Maclaurin series, learners should be able to find
primitive functions of some functions accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Maclaurin series of a function.
Teaching Aids

skills
212
Integration
Answers
1 1 1
1. ln (1 + x ) = x − x 2 + x 3 − x 4 + ...
2 3 4
 1 1 1 
2. ∫ ln (1 + x ) dx = ∫  x − x 2 + x3 − x 4 + ...  dx
 2 3 4 
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
= x − x + x − x + ... + c
2 6 12 20
Synthesis
For some integrals, we proceed also by Maclaurin series
of the function to be integrated.
 9 9  3 3 9
∫e dx = ∫ 1 − 3x + x 2 − x3 + ...  dx = x − x 2 + x3 − x 4 + ... + c
−3 x
1.
 2 2  2 2 8
 1 1 5  1 1 1 6
∫ sin xdx= ∫  x − 6 x
3
2. + x + ...  dx= x 2 − x 4 + x + ... + c
120  2 24 720
 1 1 1 6  1 1 1 7
3. ∫ cos xdx = ∫ 1 − x 2 + x 4 − x + ...  dx = x − x3 + x5 − x + ... + c
 2 24 720  6 120 5040
 1 2 5  1 2 1 4 1 6
∫ tan xdx= ∫  x + 3 x
3
4. + x + ...  dx= x + x + x + ... + c
15  2 12 45
 1 1 1  1 1 1
5. ∫ 1 + x dx = ∫ 1 + x − x 2 + x3 + ...  dx = x + x 2 − x3 + x 4 + ... + c
 2 8 16  4 24 64
Lesson 4.19. Definite integrals

Learning objectives
By the end of this lesson, learners should be able to define
definite integrals.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Indefinite integrals.
Teaching Aids
213

skills
Answers
1 3
1. F ( x )= ∫(x − 2 x + 3) dx =
2
x − x 2 + 3x + c
3
1 3  1 
2. F (1) − F (=
−1)  (1) − (1) + 3 (1) + c  −  ( −1) − ( −1) + 3 ( −1) + c 
2 3 2
3  3 
1 3  1 
F (1) − F (=
−1)  (1) − (1) + 3 (1) + c  −  ( −1) − ( −1) + 3 ( −1) + c 
2 3 2
3  3 
1   1 
=  −1 + 3 + c  −  − −1 − 3 + c 
3   3 
1 1
= +2+c+ +4−c
3 3
20
=
3
Synthesis
The area of the strip between xi −1 and xi is
approximately equal to the area of a rectangle with
width l = ∆x and length L = f ( xi ) i.e. as illustrated in
figure 4.1.
n n
The total area A is
= ∑ Si =i 1
∑ f ( x ) ⋅ ∆x
i −1
i
or
n
=A lim ∑ f ( xi ) ⋅ ∆x ; this is known as Sum of Riemann.
n →∞
i =1
214
Integration
Figure 4.1: Definite integral of the function
We define the definite integrals of the function f ( x )

with respect to x from a to b to be
b
b
∫ f ( x ) dx =  F ( x=
a
)
a
F ( b ) − F ( a ) .Where F ( x ) is the
anti-derivative of f ( x ) .
3
1. 9 2. 5 3. −2 4.
2 6 4
46
5. 3 6. 4 7. 25 8. 145
Lesson 4.20. Properties of definite integrals

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to use properties
of definite integrals accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Definition of definite integrals.
Teaching Aids
215

skills
Answers
0
0  x3 
0
1. ∫ f (=
x ) dx ∫ = x dx =  9 2
−3 −3
 3  −3
−3
−3 −3  x3 
∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫
2
x dx =   = −9
0 0
 3 0
0 −3
Observation: ∫ f ( x ) = −∫ f ( x ) dx
−3 0
2
2 1 3  8 8 16
2. ∫−2 x dx =  3 x  −2 = 3 + 3 = 3
2
0 2
0 2 1 3  1 3  8 8 16
∫−2 x dx + ∫0 x dx =  3 x  −2 +  3 x  0 = 0 + 3 + 3 − 0 = 8
2 2
Observation:
2 0 2
∫=
x dx ∫ x 2 dx + ∫ x 2 dx
2
−2 −2 0
216
Integration
Synthesis
࿌࿌ Permutation of bounds: If f ( x ) is defined on ( a, b )
except may be at a finite number of points, then
b a
∫ a
f ( x)dx = − ∫ f ( x)dx
b
࿌࿌ Chasles relation: For any arbitrary numbers a and b

and any c ∈ [ a, b ]
b c b
∫=
f ( x)dx ∫
a a
f ( x)dx + ∫ f ( x)dx
c
࿌࿌ Positivity: Let f be a continuous function on interval

I = [ a, b ] the elements of I
b
If f ≥ 0 on I and if a ≤ b then ∫ a
f ( x) dx ≥ 0
Also, if f ( x) ≤ g ( x) on [ a, b ] , then,
b b
∫a
f ( x)dx ≤ ∫ g ( x)dx
a
7 1 2 1
1. 4 2. 3. π 4. π −1
3 32 2
Lesson 4.21. Improper integrals, Infinite limits of

integration
Learning objectives
Given an improper integral with infinite limits, learners
should be able to determine whether it converges or diverges
correctly.
Prerequisites
Teaching Aids
217

skills
Answers
n
n dx 1  1 
1. lim ∫
n →+∞ 0 2
x +4
= lim  arctan  x  
n →+∞
2  2 0
1  1 
= lim  arctan  n  
n →+∞ 2
  2 
1
= π
4
−4
−4 xdx 1 
→−∞ ∫n
2. nlim = lim 3x 2 + 1
n →−∞  3
1 + 3x 2
 n
− 3n 2 + 1 + 7
= lim
n →−∞ 3
= −∞
Synthesis
We define the improper integral as
+∞ n b b
∫a
f ( x)dx = lim ∫ f ( x)dx or
a
n →+∞ ∫−∞
f ( x)dx = lim ∫ f ( x)dx
n →−∞ n
If the limit exists, we say that the integral converges,

otherwise it diverges.
218
Integration
1
1) Convergent to π 2) Convergent to
2
1 1
3) Convergent to π 4) Convergent to
4 2
5) divergent 6) Convergent to 0
Lesson 4.22. Discontinuous integrand

Learning objectives
Given an improper integral with discontinuous integrand,
learners should be able to determine whether it converges or
diverges correctly.
Prerequisites
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. Since this function is a rational function, the
denominator cannot be zero. Then, x − 1 ≠ 0 or
x ≠ 1. Thus, considering the given interval, the given
function is discontinuous at x = 1 .
219
2. Since this function is a rational function, the

denominator cannot be zero. Then, x 2 − 3 x − 10 ≠ 0
or x ≠ −2 and x ≠ 5 . Thus, considering the given
interval, the given function is discontinuous at
x = −2 .
3. Since there is natural logarithm, then, x > 0 also
ln x ≠ 0 or x ≠ 1 . Thus, considering the given interval,
the given function is discontinuous at x = 1 .
Synthesis
For a function f ( x) which is continuous on the
interval [ a, b[ , we define the improper integral as
b t
∫ f ( x ) dx = lim ∫ f ( x ) dx .
a
t →b
a
Also, if f ( x) is continuous on the interval ]a, b ] , we
b b
have the improper integral ∫ f ( x ) dx = lim ∫ f ( x ) dx .
t →a
a t
If f ( x) is a continuous function for all real numbers x in
the interval ]a, b[ , except for some point c ∈ ]a, b[ , then,
b c b
∫=
f ( x)dx ∫
a a
f ( x)dx + ∫ f ( x)dx
c
t b
= lim ∫ f ( x)dx + lim ∫ f ( x)dx
t →c a t →c t
1. Diverges
2. a) converges to 3 b) diverges
c) diverges d) converges to 5 + 5 5 2
220
Integration
Lesson 4.23. Calculation of area of plane surfaces

Learning objectives
Given two functions and by using integration, learners should
be able to find the area between two curves in a given interval
precisely.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Curve sketching.
࿌࿌ Definite integrals.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. Curve
x 0 4
f ( x) 0 4
221
y
f ( x) = x
5
1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
2. Curve with shaded region
3. We see that the shaded region is a triangle whose

base is 4 units and height is 4 units. Then, we know
the area of a triangle with base B and height H is
B× H
A= . Then, the area of the shaded region
2
4× 4
is= A = 8 sq. units .
2
4 4 2 4
4. ∫0 f ( x ) dx = ∫0 xdx =  x 
2
 0
42
=
2
=8
222
Integration
5. Results in 3) and 4) are the same.
Synthesis
Given function f ( x ) which lies above the x -axis, the
area enclosed by the curve of f ( x ) and x -axis in
interval [ a, b ] is given by;
b
A = ∫ f ( x ) dx
a
Figure 4.2: Area enclosed by a curve of a function and x-axis
The area between two functions f ( x) and

g ( x) where f ( x) ≤ g ( x) in [ a, b ] is given by
b b b
∫a [ g ( x) − f ( x)]dx = ∫a g ( x)dx − ∫a f ( x)dx
y
g ( x)
x
a 0 b
f ( x)
Figure 4.3: Area between two curves
223
2 1
1. a) sq. units b) 1 sq. units c) 33 sq. units
3 2 3
4
d) sq. units e) 9 sq. units
3
16 5 5
2) a sq. units 3) 143 sq. units
15 6
4) 3.75 sq. units 5) 4 2 sq. units
6) a) Graph
32
Area is sq. units
3
b) Graph
355
Area is sq. units
6
224
Integration
Integration
Lesson 4.24. Calculation of volume of a solid of

revolution
Learning objectives
Given a function and by using integration, learners should be
able to find the volume of a solid obtained when a curve of a
function is revolved around an axis precisely.
Prerequisites
Curve sketching.
Definite integrals.
Teaching Aids

Critical thinking
Communication
Self confidence
Cooperation, interpersonal management and life
skills
Peace and values education
Inclusive education
Answers
1. y = 2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
a) The region enclosed by the curve y = 2 for
0 ≤ x ≤ 3 and x − axis
y
3
y=2
2
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
225
225
b) The region for which the area in (a) is rotated

3600 about the x-axis
c) Solid of revolution obtained in (b) is a cylinder

of radius 2 and height 3.
Volume of cylinder is
( 2 ) ( 3) 12π cubic units
2
π r 2 h π=
=
x =3 3
Volume V δlim
d) = =
x →0
∑π y δ x x =0
2
∫π y
2
dx
0
3 3
π ( 2 ) dx ∫ 4= π [ x ]0 12π cubic units
2
∫=
3
= π dx 4=
0 0
e) The results obtained in (c) and (d) are equal.

2. y = 2 x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5
a) The region enclosed by the curve y = 2 x for
0 ≤ x ≤ 5 and x − axis
226
Integration
b) The region for which the area in (a) is rotated

3600 about the x-axis
c) Solid of revolution obtained in (b) is a cone of

radius 10 and height 5.
Volume of cone is
1 2 1 500
π (10 ) ( 5 )
2
= πr h = π cubic units
3 3 3
x =5 5
Volume V lim
d) = = ∑ π y 2δ x
δ x →0
x =0
∫π y
2
dx
0
5 5
π ( 2 x ) dx ∫ 4π x
2
∫=
2
= dx
0 0
5
 x3  500
= 4= π  π cubic units
 3 0 3
e) The results obtained in (c) and (d) are equal.
Synthesis
The volume of the solid of revolution bound by the curve
f ( x ) about the x − axis calculated from x = a to x = b ,
b
is given V = π ∫a f ( x )dx .
2
227
y
f ( x)
Volume
x
0 a b
Figure 4.4: Volume of revolution
32π 373π
1. a) cubic units b) cubic units
5 14
1296π
c) cubic units
5
3π
2. a) cubic units b) 8π cubic units
5
c) 2π cubic units
1
1)
243
( )
85 85 − 8 cubic units
2) 1 80 10 − 13 13 cubic units
( )
27
1
3) 17 cubic units
6
4)
27
(
13 13 + 80 10 − 16 cubic units )
228
Integration
Lesson 4.25. Calculation of arc length of a curved

surface
Learning objectives
Given a function and by using integration, learners should be
able to find arc length of a curve in a given interval precisely.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Definite integrals.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
Figure 4.5: Arc length of a curved line
229
1. ( ∆l ) = ( ∆x ) + ( ∆y )
2 2 2
( ∆x ) + ( ∆y )
2 2
∆l =
( ∆x ) + ( ∆y ) ( dx ) + ( dy )
2 2 2 2
2. ∆l = ⇒ dl =
( dx ) + ( dy )
2 2
=dl
 ( dy )2 
( dx ) 1 +
2
= 
( dx )
2

 
2
 dy 
= 1 +   dx
 dx 
We recognise the ratio inside the square root as the
dy
derivative, = f ' ( x ) , then we can rewrite this as
dx
2
dl
= 1 +  f ' ( x )  dx
3
3 1
But f ( x ) =( x − 1) 2 ⇒ f ' ( x ) = ( x − 1) 2 , then,
2
2
3 1

dl =1 +  ( x − 1) 2  dx
2 
9
= 1+ ( x − 1) dx
4
4 + 9x − 9
= dx
4
9x − 5
= dx
4
5 9x − 5 5 9x − 5
3. ∫ dl = ∫ 2 4
dx ⇒ l =∫2 4
dx
1 5
2 ∫2
= 9 x − 5 dx
5
1 5 1 3

=  ( 9 x − 5) 2 
But ∫2 9 x − 5 dx
2  27 2
230
Integration
Then,
5
1  3

=l  ( 9 x − 5 ) 2

27  2
1 
) 2 
3 3
= ( 45 − 5 ) (
2 − 18 − 5
27  
1  3 3

=  ( 40 ) 2 − (13) 2 
27  
=
1
27 ( ( 40 ) − (13)
3 3
)
=
1
27 ( 40 × ( 40 ) − 13 × (13)
2 3
)
=
1
27 ( 4 ×10 × ( 40 ) − 13 × (13)
2 2
)
1
=
27
( )
80 10 − 13 13 units of length
Synthesis
Arc length of a curve of function f ( x ) in interval ]a, b[
b
1 + [ f '( x) ] dx .
2
=
is given by L ∫a
85 85 − 8
1) units of length
243
80 10 − 13 13
2) units of length
27
3) ln ( )
2 + 1 units of length
14
4) units of length
3
231
Summary of the unit
1. Differentials
The exact change, ∆y , in y is given by
∆y f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x ) .
=
But if the change ∆x is small, then we can get a good
approximation to ∆y by using the fact that ∆y is
∆x
dy
approximately the derivative . Thus,
dx
∆y dy
∆y= ∆x ≈ ∆x= f ' ( x ) ∆x
∆x dx
If we denote the change of x by dx instead of ∆x , then the

change ∆y in y is approximated by the differential dy , that
is, ∆y ≈ dy =f ' ( x ) dx
Whenever one makes an approximation, it is wise to try and
estimate how big the error might be.
∆x
Relative change in x is
x
∆x
Percentage change in x is 100×
x
2. Indefinite integrals
Integration can be defined as the inverse process of
differentiation.
If y = f ( x ) then
dy dy
=f ' ( x ) ⇔ ∫ dx =f ( x ) + c
dx dx
Or equivalently
dy
∫ dx dx= y+c
This is called indefinite integration and c is the constant of

integration.
232
Integration
3. Basic integration formula

Exponential functions
x n +1
∫ x=
n
1. dx + c, n ≠ −1
n +1
∫ e dx=
x
2. ex + c
ax
∫a=
x
3. dx +c
ln a
Rational functions
1 dx 1 x
1. ∫ x=
dx ln x + c 2. ∫ a 2 + x 2 a arctan a + c
=
dx 1 x dx 1 x−a
3. − ∫ 2 2 = arccot + c 4.
a +x a a ∫
= 2 2
ln
x − a 2a x + a
+c
dx 1 a+x
5. =
∫ a 2 − x 2 2a ln a − x + c
Irrational functions
dx x
1. ∫ = arcsin + c
a2 − x2 a
dx x
2. − ∫ =arccos + c
a2 − x2 a
dx x + x2 + a2
3. ∫ 2
= ln +c
x + a2 a
dx x + x2 − a2
=
4. ∫ x2 − a2 ln
a
+c
dx 1 x
5. ∫ = arc sec + c
x x2 − a2 a a
dx 1 x
6. − ∫ = arc csc + c
x x2 − a2 a a
Trigonometric functions
1. ∫ sin x dx = ∫ cos x=
− cos x + c 2. dx sin x + c
∫ sec x= ∫ csc x dx =
2
3. 2
dx tan x + c 4. − cot x + c
233
5. ∫ tan x dx = − ln cos x + c 6.
∫ cot x dx = ln sin x + c
x π
7. ∫ sec=
xdx
ln sec x + tan x=
+ c ln tan  + 
2 4
x
8. ∫ csc=
xdx ln csc x − cot x=
+ c ln tan
2
9. ∫ sec x tan x=dx sec x + c
10. ∫ csc x cot x dx =

− csc x + c
4. Non-basic integration
I) Integration by substitution
In evaluating ∫ f ( x ) dx when f ( x ) is not a basic function:
g '( x)
if f ( x ) = g ' ( x ) g ( x ) or f ( x ) = or
g ( x)
f ( x ) = h ( g ( x ) ) g ' ( x ) , you let u = g ( x ) .
II) Integration by parts
To integrate a product of functions, try the formula for
dv du
integration by parts ∫ u dx = uv − ∫ v dx .
dx dx
dv
An effective strategy is to choose for the most complicated
dx
factor that can readily be integrated. Then we differentiate
the other part, u, to find du .
dx
The following table can be used:
u v′
Logarithmic function Polynomial function
Polynomial function Exponential function
Polynomial function Trigonometric function
Exponential function Trigonometric function
Trigonometric function Exponential function
Inverse trigonometric function Polynomial function
Applying the method of integration by parts, the power
of integrand is reduced and the process is continued till
we get a power whose integral is known or which can
234
Integration
be easily integrated. This process is called Reduction

formula.
III) Integration by partial fractions
Remember that:
P ( x)
A rational function is a function of the form f ( x ) = ,
Q ( x)
where P ( x ) and Q ( x ) are polynomials.
A proper rational function is a rational function in which
the degree of P ( x ) is strictly less than the degree of
Q ( x) .
The problem of integrating rational functions is really the
problem of integrating proper rational functions since
improper rational functions (i.e. those in which the
degree of P ( x ) is greater than or equal to the degree
of Q ( x ) ) and can always be rewritten as the sum of a
polynomial and a proper rational function.
The integrals of proper rational functions are found by
partial fraction expansion of the integrand into simple
fractions.
There are 4 types of simple fractions:
A
a) Fractions of the type .
x−a
The integrals of such fractions are easily found:
A
∫ x − a=
dx A ln x − a + c
A
b) Fractions of the type n , where n is a natural
( x − a)
number greater than 1.
The integrals of such fractions are easily found:
A A
∫ ( x − a )n dx = A∫ ( x − a ) dx = 1 − n ( x − a ) + c
−n 1− n
235
Ax + B 2
c) Fractions of the type , where p − 4q < 0
2
x + px + q
The integrals of such fractions are found by completing
the square in the denominator and subsequent
substitution which lead to rational integrals of the form
du du du
∫ u 2 + k 2 or ∫ u 2 − k 2 or ∫ k 2 + u 2 .
Ax + B
d) Fractions of the type n ,
( x 2 + px + q )
where p 2 − 4q < 0 and n is a natural number greater than 1.
Integration of this type of fraction will not be considered in
this course.
Expansion of proper rational functions in partial fractions is
achieved by first factoring the denominator and then writing
the type of partial fraction (with unknown coefficients in the
numerator) that corresponds to each term in the denominator:
(i) if the denominator contains ( x − a ) , then the partial
A
fraction expansion will contain ;
x−a
if the denominator contains ( x − a ) , then the partial
n
(ii)
fraction expansion will contain
A B C Z
+ + + ... +

( x − a)
n
( x − a)
n −1
( x − a)
n−2
( x − a)
(iii) if the denominator contains (x 2
+ px + q ) where
p 2 − 4q < 0 , then the partial fraction expansion will
Ax + B
contain 2.
x + px + q
The unknown coefficients (A, B, etc.) are then found
by one of two ways: by inserting concrete values of ,
or by using the method of undetermined coefficients.
236
Integration
4. Integration of irrational functions

dx
a) Integrals of the form ∫
ax 2 + bx + c
The integrals of such fractions are found by completing
the square in the denominator and subsequent
substitution which leads to irrational integrals of the form
du du du
∫ 2
u +k 2
or ∫
2
u −k 2
or ∫ k + u2 2
px + q
b) Integrals of the form ∫ ax 2 + bx + c
dx
The numerator is written as the sum of two parts. One

part is the derivative of radicand and the other part is a
constant only, i.e.
d
px + q ( ax 2 + bx + c )
dx
∫ ax 2 + bx + c dx k1 ∫ dx ax 2 + bx + c dx + k2 ∫ ax 2 + bx + c
=
px 2 + qx + r
c) Integrals of the form ∫
ax 2 + bx + c
dx
The numerator is written as the sum of three parts.

One part is the same as radicand, the second part is
derivative of radicand and the last part is a constant
only, i.e.
d
px 2 + qx + r ax 2 + bx + c ( ax 2 + bx + c )
dx
∫ k1 ∫
dx = dx + k2 ∫ dx dx + k3 ∫
ax 2 + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c
5. Integration of trigonometric functions

dx
a) Integrals of the form ∫ a sin x + b cos x + c
x
You can use t-formulae by letting t = tan .
2
dx dx
b) Integrals of the form ∫ 2 or ∫
a + b cos x a + b sin 2 x
Here also you can use t-formulae
237
In integrating the trigonometric functions containing

product or power, transforming product or power into
sum (or difference) leads to basic integration.
6. Definite integration
Remember that integrals containing an arbitrary constant c in
their results are called indefinite integrals since their precise
value cannot be determined without further information.
a) Definite integrals are those in which limits are applied.
b
If an expression is written as  F ( x )  , ‘b’ is called the
a
upper limit and ‘a’ the lower limit.
The operation of applying the limits is defined as:
b
 F ( x=
) a F ( b ) − F ( a )
For example the increase in the value of the integral
3
f ( x ) as x increases from 1 to 3 is written as ∫ f ( x ) dx .

1
The definite integral, from x = a to x = b, is defined as

the area under the curve between those two values.
b
This is written as ∫ f ( x ) dx
a
b) The mean value of a function y = f ( x ) over the range

]a, b[
is the value the functions would have if it were
constant over the range but with the same area under the
graph. The mean value of y = f ( x ) over the range ]a, b[
b
1
is f ( x ) = f ( x ) dx .
b − a ∫a
c) The root mean square value (R.M.S. value) is the square
root of the mean value of the square of y.
The r.m.s. value from x = a to x = b is given by;
b
∫ f ( x ) dx
2
R.M .S . = a
b−a
238
Integration
d) Improper integral
b
The definite integral ∫ a
f ( x)dx is called an improper
integral if one of two situations occurs:
࿌࿌ The limit a or b (or both bounds) are infinites.
࿌࿌ The function f ( x) has one or more points of
discontinuity in the interval [ a, b ] .
Let f ( x) be a continuous function on the interval [ a, +∞[
or ]−∞,b ] .
We define the improper integral as
+∞ n
∫a
f ( x)dx = lim ∫ f ( x)dx
n →+∞ a
b b
Or ∫
−∞
f ( x)dx = lim ∫ f ( x)dx respectively.
n →−∞ n
If these limits exist and are finite, then we say that

the improper integrals are convergent, otherwise, the
integrals are divergent.
Let f ( x) be a continuous function for all real numbers.
+∞ c +∞
By Chasles theorem ∫−∞
= f ( x)dx ∫
−∞
f ( x)dx + ∫
c
f ( x)dx
If for real number c , both integrals on the right side are
+∞
convergent, then we say that the integral ∫−∞
f ( x)dx is
also convergent; otherwise it is divergent.
7. Applications
Integration has many applications, some of which are listed
below:
a) The area between two functions f ( x) and g ( x) where
f ( x) ≤ g ( x) in [ a, b ] is given by
b b b
∫ [ g ( x) − f ( x)]dx = ∫
a a
g ( x)dx − ∫ f ( x)dx
a
b) Volume
The volume of a solid of revolution can be found using
one of the following methods:
࿌࿌ disc method,
239
࿌࿌ washer method, and

࿌࿌ shell method.
In any of the methods, when finding volume, it is
necessary to integrate along the axis of revolution; if
the region is revolved about a horizontal line, integrate
by x , and if the region is revolved about a vertical line,
integrate with respect to y .
(i) Disc method
The volume of the solid of revolution bound by the curve
f ( x ) about the x − axis calculated from x = a to x = b ,
b
is given by π ∫ y 2 dx .
a
Volume of the solid generated by revolution of the area

bound by the curve y = f ( x ) about the y − axis is given
b
by π ∫ x dy .
2
a
If the axis of revolution is the line parallel to x − axis (say
y = k ) , the volume will be
b
π ∫ ( y − k ) dx
2
(ii) Washer method

If the region bound by outer radius yU = g ( x) (on top)
and inner radius yL = f ( x) and then lines x = a , x = b is
revolved about x − axis , then the volume of revolution is
([ g ( x)] − [ f ( x)] ) dx
b 2 2
given
= by: V π ∫
a
(iii) Shell method

The volume of the solid generated by revolving the region
y f ( x ) ≥ 0, L ≤ a ≤ x ≤ b ,
between the curve x − axis,=
about a vertical line x = L is
 shell   shell 
b
V = 2π ∫    dx
a
radius   height 
240
Integration
HINT for shell method:

Regardless of the position of the axis of revolution (horizontal
or vertical), the steps for implementing the shell method are
the following:
࿌࿌ Draw the region and sketch a line segment across it,
parallel to the axis of revolution. Label the segment’s
height or length (shell height) and distance from the axis
of revolution (shell radius).
࿌࿌ Find the limits of integration for the thickness variable.
 shell   shell 
࿌࿌ Integrate the product 2π    with respect
 radius   height 
to the thickness variable ( x or y ) to find the volume.
࿌࿌ Length of arc of the curve y = f ( x ) between the points
whose abscissas are a and b is
b 2
 dy 
=s ∫
a
1 +   dx
 dx 
࿌࿌ The work done by a variable force F ( x ) in the direction
of motion along the x − axis over the interval [ a, b ] is
b
W = ∫ F ( x ) dx .
a
Hook’s law says that the force required to hold a stretched
or compressed spring x units beyond its equilibrium position
pulls back with a force F ( x ) = kx where k is constant called
spring constant (or force constant).
241
2
1. a) x + 9 x + 125ln x − 5 − 64 ln x − 4 + c
2
b) x3 + x 2 − 5 x + 18ln x + 3 + c
c) − 16 − 2 ln x − 2 + 5 ln x + 1 + c
x−2 3 3
1
d) ln x − 1 − ln ( x + 1) + tan x + c
2 −1
2
3
e) 4 ln x + 2 − ln ( x + 2 x + 2 ) + tan ( x + 1) + c
2 −1
2
1 3
f) ln ( x 2 + 1) − ln x + 1 − +c
2 x +1
g) x sin x + cos x + c
5 4x  1
h) e x− +c
4  4
x2
i) ( 2 ln x − 1) + c
4
j) cos 3 x ( 2 − 9 x 2 ) + 2 x sin 3 x + c
27 9
e ax
k) ( b sin bx + a cos bx ) + c
a 2 + b2
e ax
l) ( a sin bx − a cos bx ) + c
a 2 + b2
2. a) 4 b) 10 c) ln 2
3 9
d) π e) 2 f) 1
4 2
5
3. To be proved 4. 20
6
5. 4 6. 16
3
242
Integration
7. 56π 8.
32π
27 3
9. 208π
15
π π π
10. a) b) c)
30 6 2
5π 11π 19π
d) e) f)
6 30 30
24π
11. a) 48π b)
5 5
1
12. a)=kt ln a − x − ln a + 3 x
2a
a ( e 2 akt − 1) a
b) x = c) x → ,t → ∞
3e 2 akt
−1 3
13. 0.632 N o
14. 7.26
15. 1.17J
16. 9
5
17. a) 30 N / m b) 60 J c) 1.5 m
18. a) 926, 640 b) 0.468
243
Differential
Unit 5
Equations
Key unit competence

Use ordinary differential equations of first and second
order to model and solve related problems in Physics,
Economics, Chemistry, Biology.

Differential equation (D.E): Equation that involves a
function and its derivatives.
First order differential equation: Differential equation
containing only first derivatives apart from
dependent variable.
Second order differential equation: Differential equation
containing second derivatives (and
possibly first derivative also).
Particular solution: A solution found at particular values.

Let the number of organisms at any time t be x ( t ) . The rate
 dx 
at which new organisms are produced written as  
 dt 
is proportional to the number of organism present at time, t.
245
dx
The differential equation is = k x . k is the constant of
dt
proportionality. The problem is to think about what this
situation means.
Here, if the number doubles in one day, then the second
day there are twice as many available reproduce, so the
organisms will double again on the second day and so on.
This tells us what solution we are looking for.
List of lessons
1 Definition and classification 1
2 Differential equations with separable 1
variables
3 Simple homogeneous equations 2
4 Linear equations 2
5 Particular solution 1
6 Second order differential equations: 1
Definition
7 Second order differential equations with 1
constant coefficient: two distinct real roots
8 Characteristic equation has a double root 1
9 Characteristic equation has complex roots 1
10 Non-homogeneous linear differential 2
equations of the second order with constant
coefficients
Non-homogeneous linear differential
11 equations of the second order with the right 2
hand side r ( x ) = Pe
αx
12 Non-homogeneous linear 2
differential equations of the second
=r ( x ) Peα x cos β x + Qeα x sin β x
13 Application: Newton’s law of cooling 2
14 Application: Electrical circuits 2
Total periods 21
246
Differential Equations
Lesson development
Lesson 5.1. Definition and classification

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define and
classify given differential equations correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Differentiation
Teaching Aids
skills
Answers
dy
1. On differentiation; =A
dx
2
dy  dy 
The given equation becomes= y x + 
dx  dx 
Order of the highest derivative is 1.
dy
2. On differentiation; − A sin x + B cos x
=
dx
Again differentiating:
d2y
− ( A cos x + B sin x ) =
= −y
dx 2
d2y
Or +y=0
dx 2
247
dy
3. On differentiation 2 y= 2 Ax + B
dx
2
d2y  dy 
Again differentiating 2 y 2 + 2   = 2A
dx  dx 
On differentiating again:
d 3 y dy d 2 y dy d 2 y
y 3 + +2 0
=
dx dx dx 2 dx dx 2
d3y dy d 2 y
Or y 3 + 3 = 0
dx dx dx 2
Synthesis
An equation involving a differential coefficient i.e.
dy d 2 y dr
, , and so on is called a “differential equation”.
dx dx 2 dt
Order of the differential equation is the highest derivative
of function that appears in a differential equation and is
said to be the order of differential equation.
Given a function with arbitrary constants, you form
differential equation by eliminating its arbitrary
constants using differentiation.

2 2
 dy  dy 2 d 2 y  dy  dy
2
1. a) y   + 2 xy − y =
0 b) xy 2
+ x  − y = 0
 dx  dx dx  dx  dx
d2y dy d2y dy
c) 2
− 4 + 3 y = 0 d) − 2 + 2y = 0
dx dx dx 2
dx
dy
e) = − tan ( x + 3)
dx
2. a) This DE has order 2 (the highest derivative
appearing is the second derivative) and degree 1
(the power of the highest derivative is 1).
b) This DE has order 1 (the highest derivative
appearing is the first derivative) and degree 4 (the
power of the highest derivative is 4).
248
c) This DE has order 2 (the highest derivative

appearing is the second derivative) and degree 3
(the power of the highest derivative is 3).
d) order 2; degree 1
e) order 2; degree 1
f) order 3; degree 1
g) order 2; degree 1
h) order 2; degree 3
Lesson 5.2. Differential equations with separable

variables
Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to identify
and solve differential equations with separable variables
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Integration
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. dy =x ⇒ ydy = y 2 x2
xdx ⇒ ∫ ydy =
∫ xdx ⇒ = +k
dx y 2 2
2 2
Or y= x + 2k ⇒ y = x + c, c ∈ 
2 2
249
2. dy = x 2 y 3 ⇒ dy = x 2 dx ⇒ dy3 =
dx y 3 ∫ y ∫ x 2 dx
y −2 x3 1 x3
∫ x dx ⇒ −2 =3 + k ⇒ − 2 y 2= 3 + k , k ∈ 
⇒ ∫ y dy =
−3 2
Synthesis
To solve the integral dy = g ( x ) h ( y ) , we write it in the

dx
dy
separated form = g ( x ) dx and integrate.
h( y)

3 3
1. y 2 = cx , c ∈  2. x − y =c , c∈
3. arctan y= x + c , c ∈ 
4. tan −1 y = x − ln 1 + x + c , c ∈ 
Lesson 5.3. Simple homogeneous equations

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to identify and
solve simple homogeneous equations accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Integration
Teaching Aids

skills
250
Answers
( tx ) + ( tx )( ty )
2
1. f (tx=
, ty )
ty ) t 2 x 2 + t 2 xy
f (tx,=
, ty ) t 2 ( x 2 + xy )
f (tx=
f (tx, ty ) = t 2 f ( x, y )
The value of n is 2.
y
2. z = ⇒ y = zx
x
dy dz
= z+x
dx dx
dy dz
= f ( x, y ) becomes z + x f ( x, y )
=
dx dx
But f ( x, y ) = f (1, z )
3. f ( tx, ty ) = f ( x, y )
1  y
But t = , then f 1,  = f ( x, y ) ⇒ f (1, z ) = f ( x, y )
x  x
dz
Then, z + x = f (1, z )
dx
Separating variables, we have
dz dz dz dx
x
= f (1, z ) − z ⇒ x dx ⇒
= =
dx f (1, z ) − z f (1, z ) − z x
Synthesis
A function f ( x, y ) is called homogeneous of degree n if
f (tx, ty ) = t n f ( x, y ) for all suitably restricted x, y and t.
The differential equation M ( x, y ) dx + N ( x, y ) dy =
0 is
said to be homogeneous if M and N are homogeneous
functions of the same degree.
251
dy
This equation can be written in the form = f ( x, y ) .
dx
− M ( x, y )
Where f ( x, y ) = is clearly homogeneous of
N ( x, y )
y
degree 0. We solve this equation by letting z = .
x

2 2
1. x − y =c , c ∈  2. x 2 + y 2 =
cx , c ∈ 
=
3. y 2 x 2 ( cx 2 − 4 ) , c ∈ 
( y − x) + 2 ( y − x) = 2x + c ,
2
4. ∈
Lesson 5.4. Linear differential equations

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to identify and
solve linear differential equations accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Integration
Teaching Aids

skills
252
Answers
1. y = uv
dy dv du
= u +v
dx dx dx
dy dv du
2. Now, + py = q becomes u + v + p ( uv ) =q
dx dx dx
dv du dv du
3. u + v + p ( uv ) =
q ⇒ u + p ( uv ) + v = q
dx dx dx dx
 dv  du
⇒ u  + pv  + v = q
 dx  dx
dv
If + pv = 0 , dv + pvdx =
0 ⇒ dv = − pvdx
dx
dv
Separating variables, we have = − pdx
v
dv
Integrating both sides, we have ∫ = ∫ − pdx
v
− ∫ pdx
ln v = − ∫ pdx + c ⇒ ln v= ln e + ln k
ln ke ∫ ke ∫
− pdx − pdx
⇒ ln v = ⇒v =
Take v = e ∫
− pdx
 dv  du
4. Now, the equation u  + pv  + v =q becomes
 dx  dx
− pdx du dv
e ∫ = q since + pv is assumed to zero.
dx dx
− pdx du du q
e ∫ =q ⇒ =
dx dx e − ∫ pdx
du
q e∫ q e ∫ dx
pdx pdx
⇒ = ⇒ du =
dx
Integrating both sides gives
∫ pdx dx ⇒ u =q e ∫ pdx dx
⇒ ∫ du =
∫ q e ∫
253
Synthesis
dy
The general solution to the equation + py = q where
dx
p and q are functions in x or constants, is y = uv where
u = ∫ q e∫ dx and v = e ∫ .
pdx − pdx
Short cut method:

dy
The solution of + py =
q is simply given by formula
dx
y = e ∫ ∫ qe ∫ dx .
− pdx pdx

2
x c −
x
1. y= + 2. y = x 2 − 2 + ce 2
2 x
3. y =( x + 1) e x + c ( x + 1) 4.
=y cos x + c cos 2 x
Lesson 5.5. Particular solution

Learning objectives
Given a differential equation and initial condition, learners
should be able to find a particular solution for that differential
equation accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Integration
Teaching Aids
skills
254
Answers
dy
1. = x+4
dx
⇒ dy = ( x + 4 ) dx ⇒ ∫ dy = ∫ ( x + 4 ) dx
x2
⇒y= + 4x + c
2
2. If x = 2 then y = 4
22
⇒ 4= + 4 × 2 + c ⇒ 4 =10 + c ⇒ c =−6
2
x2
New solution is y = + 4x − 6
2
Synthesis
If we want to determine a function, y ( x ), such that the
given equation is satisfied for y ( x0 ) = y0 or y |x = x0 = y0 ,
this equation is referred to as an initial value problem for
the obvious reason that out of the totality of all solution
of the differential equation, we are looking for the one
solution which initially (at, x0 ) has the value y0 .
y cos x − 2 cos 2 x 2.  π
1. = = y tan  tan −1 x + 
 4
1 2 2
3. y = 4. y =x − 2 ln x + 3
1 − x2
1 2x 1
ey
5. = e +
2 2
255
Lesson 5.6. Second order differential equations:

Definition
Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define a second
order differential equation accurately.
Prerequisites
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
Answer may vary; here are some.
1. Second order differential equation with degree greater
than 1 is of the form
n k
 d2y   dy 
 2  + p ( x)  + q ( x) y =
r ( x),
 dx   dx 
where p ( x) , q( x) and r ( x) are functions of x alone
(or perhaps constants) and n, k ∈  with n=1.
2. Second order differential equation with degree 1 is of
the form
k
 d2y   dy 
 2  + p ( x)  + q ( x) y =
r ( x),
 dx   dx 
256
where p ( x) , r ( x) and r ( x) are functions of x alone

(or perhaps constants) and k ∈  .
Synthesis
The general second order linear differential equation is
d2y dy
of the form 2
+ p ( x) + q ( x) y = r ( x ) or more
dx dx
simply, y ''+ p ( x ) y '+ q ( x ) y =
r ( x) ;
where p ( x) , q( x) and r ( x) are functions of x alone (or
perhaps constants).
Lesson 5.7. Second order differential equations

with constant coefficient: two distinct
real roots
Learning objectives
Given a second order differential equations with constant
coefficient where characteristic equation has two distinct
real roots, learners should be able to find its general solution
perfectly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Solving quadratic equation.
Teaching Aids

skills
257
Answers
dy dy
1. y '+ ky =⇒
0 −ky ⇒
= −kdx
=
dx y
dy
⇒∫
y ∫
= −kdx ⇒ ln y =
−kx
ln e − kx ⇒ y =
⇒ ln y = e − kx
2. y ''+ py '+ qy =
0
( −k )
2
e − kx ⇒ y ' =
But y = −ke − kx and y '' = e − kx
y ''+ py '+ qy =
0 becomes
( −k ) e − kx + p ( −ke − kx ) + qe − kx =
2
0
⇒ ( −k ) − kp + q  e − kx =
2
0
 
This relation is true if ( −k ) − kp + q =
− kx
0 since e
2
cannot be zero.
Then ( −k ) − kp + q =
2
0 . Putting m = −k , we have
m 2 + mp + q =0
Thus, the solution of y '+ ky =
0 is also a solution of
0 if m satisfy the auxiliary equation
y ''+ py '+ qy =
m 2 + mp + q =0 for m = −k .
Therefore, the solution of the form e mx is the solution
of y ''+ py '+ qy =
0.
Synthesis
In solving homogeneous linear equation of second order
0 , we first determine its characteristic
y "+ py '+ qy =
equation which is m 2 + mp + q =0.
If m1 and m2 are solutions of the characteristic
equation, then the general solution of y "+ py '+ qy =
0 is
− p ± p 2 − 4q
=y c1e m1 x
+ c2 e m2 x
where m1 , m2 = .
2
258
1. = =y c1e −2 x + c2 e x
y c1e3 x + c2 e5 x 2.
3. = =y c1e −3 x + c2 e −7 x
y c1e5 x + c2 e −6 x 4.
Lesson 5.8. Characteristic equation with a double

root
Learning objectives
coefficient where characteristic equation has one double root,
learners should be able to find its general solution correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Solving quadratic equation.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. Characteristic equation:
m 2 + 2m + 1 =0
∆= 4− 4= 0
2
Thus, m1 =m2 =− =−1
2
d2y dy
One of solutions of 2
+2 + y =0 is y1 = e − x
dx dx
259
−x
2. y2 = xy1 ⇒ y2 = xe
−x
Since y2 = xe , then
dy2 d ( xe )
−x
= = e − x − xe − x
dx dx
d 2 y2 d ( e − xe )
−x −x
= = −e − x − e − x + xe − x =−2e − x + xe − x
dx 2 dx
2
Substituting y by y2 = xe − x in d y2 + 2 dy + y = 0 yield
dx dx
( ) ( )
−2e − x + xe − x + 2 e − x − xe − x + xe − x = −2e − x + xe − x + 2e − x − 2 xe − x + xe − x
e − x + xe − x ) + 2 ( e − x − xe − x ) + xe − x =
−2e − x + xe − x + 2e − x − 2 xe − x + xe − x = 0
We note that y2 = xe − x is also a solution of
d2y dy
2
+2 + y =0
dx dx
y1 e− x 1
The ratio = = −x
is not constant, thus,
y2 xe x
−x
y1 = e − x and y2 = xe are linearly independent
and=y c1e − x + c2 xe − x is the general solution of
d2y dy
2
+2 + y = 0
dx dx
( c1 and c2 being arbitrary constants).
Synthesis
In solving homogeneous linear equation of second
order y "+ py '+ qy =0 , if the characteristic equation
m 2 + mp + q =0 has a double root equal to m , the
general solution of equation y ''+ py '+ qy = 0 will be
=y c1e mx + c2 xe mx .
1. =y c1e3 x + c2 xe3 x 2.
=y c1e −3 x + c2 xe −3 x
1
x
y
3. = ( c1 + c2 x ) e4 x 4.
y ( c1 + xc2 ) e 6
=
260
Lesson 5.9. Characteristic equation with complex

roots
Learning objectives
coefficient where the characteristic equation has complex
roots, learners should be able to find its general solution
correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Solving quadratic equation in complex numbers.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. Characteristic equation is m 2 − 4m + 25 =
0
∆ = 16 − 100 = −64 ∆ = ±8i
4 + 8i 4 − 8i
m1= = 2 + 4i m2= = 2 − 4i
2 2 2
d y dy
a) The basis of 2
− 4 + 25 y = 0 are
dx dx
y1 = c1e( 2+ 4i ) x and y2 = c2 e( 2− 4i ) x
( 2+ 4i ) x
=
b) Its general solution is y c1e + c2 e( 2− 4i ) x
( 2+ 4i ) x
2. y c1e
= + c2 e( 2− 4i ) x
261
⇔
= ⇔ y e 2 x ( c1e 4ix + c2 e −4ix )
y c1e 2 x + 4ix + c2 e 2 x − 4ix =
=⇔ y e 2 x c1 ( cos 4 x + i sin 4 x ) + c2 ( cos 4 x − i sin 4 x ) 
⇔
= y e 2 x ( c1 + c2 ) cos 4 x + ( c1 − c2 ) i sin 4 x 
y e 2 x ( c1 + c2 ) cos 4 x + e 2 x ( c1 − c2 ) i sin 4 x
⇔=
⇔= y e 2 x ( c1 + c2 ) cos 4 x + ( c1 − c2 ) i sin 4 x 
3. Real basis are y1 = Ae 2 x cos 4 x and y2 = Be 2 x sin 4 x
=
4. General solution is y e 2 x ( A cos 4 x + B sin 4 x )
Synthesis
If the characteristic equation has complex roots, α ± i β
is y e ( A cos β x + B sin β x ) ,
αx
=
then, the general solution
where α and β are respectively ,real and imaginary part
of root of characteristic equation.
1. y e ( c1 cos3t + c2 sin 3t=

= −2 x
y e−2 x ( c1 cos x + c2 sin x )
) 2.
3. y e ( c1 cos x + c2 sin x ) 4.
x
= y = −eπ − 2 x sin 3x
2 2 x 2 − 52x
5. =y e − e
9 9
Lesson 5.10. Non- homogeneous linear differential

equations of the second order with
constant coefficients
Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to identify a
non-homogeneous linear differential equation of the second
order with constant coefficients and solve it where possible
correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Solving homogeneous differential equation of second
order.
262
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
dy y
1. − = e x ( x + 1) is a linear differential
dx x + 1
equation of 1st order.
dy dv du
Let y= u ⋅ v , then = u + v .
dx dx dx
Substituting in the given equation, we get
dv du u ⋅ v
u +v − = e x ( x + 1)
dx dx x + 1
dv u ⋅ v du
Or u − +v = e x ( x + 1)
dx x + 1 dx
 dv v  du
⇔ u − +v = e x ( x + 1)
 dx x + 1  dx
dv v
Taking − = ln v ln ( x + 1) or
0, you get =
dx x + 1
v= x + 1 .
dv v  dv v  du
As − = 0, u − +v = e x ( x + 1)
dx x + 1  dx x + 1  dx
du du
( x + 1)= e x ( x + 1) ⇔ = e x or u= e + c .
x
dx dx
The solution of the given equation is then,
( x + 1) ( e x + c ) or y =( x + 1) e + c ( x + 1)
x
y=
263
2 2
2. d y − 4 dy = 5 y ⇔ d y − 4 dy − 5 y = 0
dx 2 dx dx 2 dx
is homogeneous linear equation of second order.
Characteristic equation
m 2 − 4m − 5 =0 ∆= 16 + 20= 36
4−6 4+6
m1 = = −1, m2 = = 5
2 2
General solution is=y c1e − x + c2 e5 x
d2y dy
3. 2
− 4 − 5y = x is non-homogeneous
dx dx
linear equation of second order.
At this level, it is impossible for most learners to
solve this type of equation.
[General solution is given by y= y + y* .
From 1) Complementary solution is=y c1e − x + c2 e5 x .
∗
Let y= Ax + B be particular solution of the given
equation.
∗ ''
Then y ∗ ' = A and y = 0 .
∗
Putting y= Ax + B and its derivatives in
d2y dy
2
− 4 − 5y =
x , gives
dx dx
0 − 4 A − 5 ( Ax + B ) =
x ⇔ −5 Ax − 4 A − 5 B =x
Identifying the coefficients, we get
−5 A =1 and − 4 A − 5 B = 0
1 4
Or A = − and B = .
5 25
1 4
Thus, particular solution is y ∗ = − x+
5 25
−x 5x 1 4
The general solution is y = c1e + c2 e − x +
5 25
Synthesis
The general solution of the second order non-homogeneous
linear equation y ''+ py '+ qy =r ( x) can be expressed in
264
the form y= y + y* where y ∗ is any specific function

that satisfies the non-homogeneous equation, and
y c1 y1 + c1 y1 is a general solution of the corresponding
=
homogeneous equation y″ + py′ + qy = 0 .

r ( x ) = Peα x
Learning objectives
Given a differential equation of second order where the right
hand side is of the form r ( x ) = Peα x , learners should be able
to find its general solution correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Solving homogeneous differential equation of second
order..
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
2
1. Characteristic equation: m − 2m + 1 =0
∆= 4− 4= 0
2−0
m
=1 m=
2 = 1 y c1e x + c2 e x
=
2
265
2. The right hand side can be written as e x = 1e1x .

P = 1 and α = 1
α = 1 , is double root of characteristic equation, so
k =2
y* = Ax 2 e x , Q ( x ) = A as P = 1 on right hand side,
Q ( x ) has degree zero.
y*/ 2 Axe x + Ax 2 e x
3. =
y*/ / =2 Ae x + 2 Axe x + 2 Axe x + Ax 2 e x

⇒ 2 Ae x + 2 Axe x + 2 Axe x + Ax 2e x − 4 Axe x − 2 Ax 2e x + Ax 2e x =
ex
⇒ 2 A + 2 Ax + 2 Ax + Ax 2 − 4 Ax − 2 Ax 2 − Ax 2 = 1
⇒ −2 Ax 2 + 2 Ax 2 + x ( 2 A + 2 A − 4 A ) − 2 A =1
1
2 A =1 ⇒ A =
2
1
Thus, y* = x 2 e x
2
Synthesis
If the right hand side of the equation y ''+ py '+ qy =
r ( x)
is r ( x) = Peα x where P is a polynomial, we take the
particular solution to be
y* = x k Qn ( x)eα x , Qn = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n − 2 + ..... + an
Here, k- is the number of roots of the associated
homogeneous equation equal to α .
α ; coefficient of x in eα x on the right hand side,
n; degree of Q( x) , the same as degree of P( x) on right
hand side.
3 cases arise
࿌࿌ If α is not a root of characteristic equation k = 0
࿌࿌ If α is a simple root of characteristic equation k = 1
࿌࿌ If α is a double root of characteristic equation k = 2
Note that the simple root or double root in the last 2
cases must be real numbers.
266

3x
5e3 x x 2x e
1. y =c1e −3 x + c2 xe −3 x + 2. c1e + c2 e +
36 2
1 2x 1
−x −2 x
3. y =c1e + c2 e + e 4. y =c1e x + c2 e 2 x + e3 x
4 2
2
x
5. y =( c1 + c2 x ) e3 x + e3 x
2

= r ( x ) Peα x cos β x + Qeα x sin β x
Learning objectives
Given differential equations of second order where the right
=
hand side is of the form r ( x ) Peα x cos β x + Qeα x sin β x ,
learners should be able to find its solution correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Solving homogeneous differential equations of the
second order.
Teaching Aids

skills
267
Answers
1. Characteristic equation: m 2 + 4 =0
m1 = 2i, m2 = −2i
=y c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x
2. The right hand side of the given equation is written
=
as cos 2 x 1e0 x cos 2 x + 0e0 x sin 2 x
P 1,=
= Q 0,= α 0,= β 2,
α + β i =0 + 2i =2i is a root of characteristic
equation, so r = 1
Highest degree of P and Q is zero since=P 1,= Q 0
and y x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x )
*
Then,=u A= , v B=
y*/ A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x + x ( −2 A sin 2 x + 2 B cos 2 x )
3. =
= A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x + 2 x ( − A sin 2 x + B cos 2 x )
y*// =
−2 A sin 2 x + 2 B cos 2 x − 2 A sin 2 x + 2 B cos 2 x
=n 2 x + 2 B cos 2 x − 2 A sin 2 x + 2 B cos 2 x + 2 x ( −2 A cos 2 x − 2 B sin 2 x )
=4 ( − A sin 2 x + B cos 2 x ) + 4 x ( − A cos 2 x − B sin 2 x )
⇒ 4 ( − A sin 2 x + B cos 2 x ) + 4 x ( − A cos 2 x − B sin 2 x ) + 4 x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2
B cos 2 x ) + 4 x ( − A cos 2 x − B sin 2 x ) + 4 x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x ) =
cos 2 x
⇒ −4 A sin 2 x + 4 B cos 2 x − 4 x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x ) + 4 x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x )
+ 4 B cos 2 x − 4 x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x ) + 4 x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x ) =
cos 2 x
⇒ −4 A sin 2 x + 4 B cos 2 x =
cos 2 x
A = 0
−4 A = 0 
 ⇒ 1
4 B = 1  B=
 4
 1  1
y* = x  0 cos 2 x + sin 2 x  = x sin 2 x
 4  4
268
Synthesis
If the right hand side of the equation y ''+ py '+ qy =
r ( x)
is r ( x) Peα x cos β x + Qeα x sin β x where P and Q are
=
polynomials, two cases arise:
࿌࿌ If α + i β is not a root of characteristic equation, the
particular solution is
= y* Ueα x cos β x + Veα x sin β x
࿌࿌ If α + i β is a root of characteristic equation, the
particular solution becomes,
= y* x Ueα x cos β x + Veα x sin β x 
In all cases, U and V are polynomial for which their degree
is equal to the highest degree of P and Q.
1
x x
1. y =c1e + c2 xe + ( x cos x + cos x − sin x )
2
2. y =c1e x + c2 xe x − e x ( x sin x + 2 cos x )
x −x 1 3 
3. y =c1e + c2 e − 10  5 cos 3 x + x sin 3 x + 5cos x 
 
4. y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x − x cos x + sin x ln sin x
5. y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x − cos x ln sec x + tan x
Lesson 5.13. Applications: Newton’s law of cooling

Learning objectives
By reading textbooks or accessing internet, learners should be
able to use differential equations to solve problems involving
Newton’s law of cooling accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Solving differential equations
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator, library or internet if available and pen
269

skills
࿌࿌ Research
Answers
To formulate a model, we need to know something about
how a liquid cools.
Experimental evidence shows that the rate at which
temperature changes is proportional to the difference
in temperature between the liquid and the surrounding
(ambient) air. If T is the temperature of the liquid at time
t then in this case;
dT
= −k (T − 20 ) where k is the constant of proportionality
dt
and the negative sign shows that the temperature is
reducing.
When coffee is made, its temperature is 900 C . So
T = 900 C when t = 0 .
In formulating this model, we assume that;
࿌࿌ The temperature throughout the coffee is uniform.
࿌࿌ The temperature of surrounding air is constant.
࿌࿌ The rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the
temperature of the body above that of the surrounding
air.
270
Synthesis
Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate at which an
object cools is proportional to the difference between the
temperature at the surface of the body, and the ambient
air temperature.
Thus, if T is the surface temperature at time t and Ta
dT
is the ambient temperature, then = −λ (T − Ta ) where
dt
λ > 0 is some experimentally determined constant of
proportionality, and T0 is the initial temperature.
Lesson 5.14. Applications: Electrical circuits

Learning objectives
By reading textbooks or accessing internet, learners should
be able to use differential equations in solving electrical
circuit problems accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Solving differential equations.
࿌࿌ Alternating current.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator, library or internet if available and
pen

࿌࿌ Research
skills
271
Answers
 di 
a) Rearranging E − L   = Ri , gives di = E − Ri
 dt  dt L
and separating the variables, we get
di dt
=
E − Ri L
Integrating both sides gives:
di dt 1 t
∫ E − Ri= ∫ L ⇒ − R ln ( E − Ri )= L
+c
1
When t = 0 , i = 0 , thus − ln E =
c
R
Thus, the particular solution is:
1 t 1
− ln ( E − Ri ) = − ln E
R L R
Rearranging gives:
1 1 t
⇔− ln ( E − Ri ) + ln E =
R R L
1 E − Ri t
⇔ − ln =
R E L
1 E t E Rt
⇔ ln = ⇔ ln =
R E − Ri L E − Ri L
from which
Rt Rt
E E − Ri −
eL ⇔
= e L
=
E − Ri E
Rt Rt
− −
⇔ E − Ri =
Ee ⇒ Ri =E − Ee
L L
E −
Rt

=
Therefore, i 1 − e 
L
R 
E E
b) i = (1 − e − 3 ) ≈ 0.95
R R
E E
c) i =
R
(1 − e − 2 ) ≈ 0.86 i.e. 86%
R
272
Synthesis
In the R−L series circuit shown in figure 5.1, the supply
p.d., E, is given by
di
= VR + VL , VR = iR and VL = L
E
dt
di di
Hence E= iR + L . From which E − L = iR
dt dt
Figure 5.1: R-L series
E −
Rt

The corresponding solution = is i 1 − e  which
L
R 
represents the law of growth of current in an inductive
circuit as shown in figure 5.2
i
E
R
E −
Rt

=i 1 − e 
L
R 
0 Time t
Figure 5.2: Law of growth of current

The growth of the current in the RL circuit is the
L
current’s steady-state value. The number t = is the
R
time constant of the circuit. The current gets to within
5% of its steady-state value in 3 times constant.
273
1. P indicates number of rabbits, t time in months.

Differential equation:
dP
= 0.7 P , P = 10 when t = 0
dt
2. To be proved
dT
3. a)= k (1 − 32.2 )
dt
T ( 0 ) 34.8,
= = T (1) 34.1
T is temperature in o C , t is time hours after 2:30
a.m. and k is constant.
Assume that the rate of temperature change
is proportional to the difference between body
temperature and room temperature. Assume room
temperature is constant.
T 32.2 + 2.6e −0.31t
b) =
c) 0:33 a.m. ( t = −117 minutes )
t
−
4. (a) Q = Qo e CR (b) 9.30C , 5.81C
5. 273.3 N , 2.31 rads
Summary of the unit
1. Definition and classification

An equation involving one or more differential coefficients i.e.
dy d 2 y dr
, , is called a differential equation.
dx dx 2 dt
Order of the highest derivative of function that appears in
a differential equation is said to be the order of differential
equation.
274
The general ordinary differential equation of the nth order is

 dy d 2 y dny 
F  x, y, , 2 ,......., n  = 0 , OR
 dx dx dx 
F ( x, y, y ', y '',......., y ( n ) ) = 0
2. First order differential equations

The general differential equation of the 1st order is
 dy  dy
F  x, y,  = 0 or = f ( x, y )
 dx  dx
The simplest is that in which the variables are separable:
dy
= g ( x) h ( y) .
dx
A homogeneous equation of degree 0 can be expressed as a
y
function of z = .
x
dy
The general solution to the equation + py =q where p
dx
and q are functions in x or constants, is y = uv where
u = ∫ q e∫
pdx
dx and v = e ∫ .
− pdx
3. Second order differential equations

The general second order linear differential equation is of the
form
d2y dy
2
+ p ( x) + q ( x) y =
r ( x)
dx dx
Let y ''+ py '+ qy =
0 be a homogeneous linear equation of
second order (right hand side is equal to zero) where p and
q are constants.
2
The equation m + pm + q =0 is called the characteristic
auxiliary equation.
275
࿌࿌ If characteristic equation has two distinct real roots

then, = y c1e m1x + c2 e m2 x is the general solution of
y ''+ py '+ qy =
0.
࿌࿌ If characteristic equation has a real double root
then, = y c1e mx + c2 xe mx is the general solution of
y ''+ py '+ qy =
0.
࿌࿌ If characteristic equation has complex roots then,
=y e ax ( c1 cos bx + c2 sin bx ) is the general solution of
y ''+ py '+ qy = 0.
Let y ''+ py '+ qy =
r ( x) be a non-homogeneous linear
equation of second order (right hand side is different from
zero) where p and q are real numbers.
࿌࿌ If the right hand side of the equation y ''+ py '+ qy =
r ( x)
has the form r ( x) = Peα x where P is a polynomial, then
the particular solution will be
y* = x k Qn ( x)eα x , Qn = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n − 2 + ..... + an ,
where k - is the number of real roots of the associated
homogeneous equation that equals to α ;
α is the coefficient of x in eα x in the right hand side and
n is the degree of Q( x) that is the same as the degree of
P( x) for r ( x ) .
࿌࿌ If the right hand side of the equation y ''+ py '+ qy =
r ( x)
form r ( x) Peα x cos β x + Qeα x sin β x where P
is of the =
and Q are polynomials, two cases arise:
α + i β is not a root of characteristic equation.
Here, the particular solution will be
=y* Ueα x cos β x + Veα x sin β x
α + i β is a root of characteristic equation;
Then, the particular solution is
=y* x Ueα x cos β x + Veα x sin β x  .
276
In all cases, U and V are polynomials of degree that is equal

to the highest degree of P and Q.
Alternative method: Variation of parameters

We know that the general solution of the characteristic
equation associated with the equation y ''+ py '+ qy =
r ( x) is
be y c1 y1 ( x) + c2 y2 ( x) .
found to =
=
From y c1 y1 ( x ) + c2 y2 ( x ) , we can get particular solution
y ∗ as follows:
࿌࿌ We determine W ( y1 , y2 ) known as Wronskian of two
functions y1 and y2 defined by
y1 y2
W (=
y1 , y2 ) '
≠ 0 , since y1 and y2 are linearly
y1 y2'
independent.
− y2 r ( x ) y r ( x)
࿌࿌ We find out v1 = ∫ , and v2 = ∫ 1
W ( y1 , y2 ) W ( y1 , y2 )
where r ( x) is the right hand side of the given equation.
Then, particular solution y ∗ is given by
=y* v1 ( x) y1 ( x) + v2 ( x) y2 ( x) .
Therefore, the general solution is y= y + y ∗
Or y = c1 y1 ( x) + c2 y2 ( x) + v1 ( x) y1 ( x) + v2 ( x) y2 ( x)
4. Applications
There are a number of well-known applications of first order
equations which provide classic prototypes for mathematical
dy
modeling. These mainly rely on the interpretation of as
dt
a rate of change of a function y with respect to time t . In
everyday life, there are many examples of the importance
of rates of change – speed of moving particles, growth and
decay of populations and materials, heat flow, fluid flow, and
so on. In each case, we can construct models of varying
degrees of sophistication to describe given situations.
277
End of unit assessment answers Learner’s Book page 325
x2 1 2 1
1. a)
2
+1 b)
2
( x + 1) + ln x c) − cos − x + 1
π
−x 1 2x x3 + c
d) ce + e x
e) e + ce −2 x
f)
3 x −1
x 2 −2 x
2
g) cx − e
2
3 x −x
e3 y
2. a) = e2 x + c b) y = cx e
2
(y − 1) = y x ( cx − 3)
2
c) 2
cx d)=
(2 y − x) = c( x + y)
2 2 4
e) x + y = kx f)
1 2x
e + ce −3 x h) y = 1 − x + c (1 − x )
2 2
g)=y
5
3. a) ln ( x y ) = 2 x − y − 1 y x ( 2 − ln x )
b) =
2
c)=y x 8x + 1 d)=y e x ( x − 1)
e)=y tan x + 2sec x f)=y c1e −2 x + c2 e x
4. a)= b) y e −2 x ( c1 cos x + c2 sin x )

y c1e −2 x + c2 e x =
c)=y c1e 2 x + c2 xe 2 x d) c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x
e)=y c1e −3 x + c2 e3 x
1
−x −3 x
5. a) y = c1e + c2 e + (11 − 4 x )
8
e2 x
b) y= c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x − ( x + 2)
4
14 12
y e − x ( c1 cos x + c2 sin x ) −
c) = cos 3 x + sin 3 x
85 85
1 −x
d) y = c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x + e ( 2 cos x − sin x )
10
1 x
y c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x + e x − cos 2 x
e) =
5 4
1 3 3x
f) y = c1e + c2 e + e ( x − x ) + e ( sin 2 x − cos 2 x )
x 3x 3x 2
2 8
278
2  2 x − 52x  π −2 x
6. a)  e − e  b) −e sin 3 x
9 
1 x 1 π 1 1
7. a)
4
( e − e −3 x ) b) − cos 2 x − sin 2 x + x +
4 16 4 4
2 1 1 3x 3 x 4
c) sin x − sin 2 x d) e − e +x+
3 3 6 2 3
4 5 x 10 2 x 1 2 x
e) y = e − e − xe + 2
3 3 3
3
− x 3 x
f) y = 2e 2
− 2e 2 x + e ( 3sin x − 7 cos x )
29
g) =y e x ( 3cos x + sin x ) − e x cos 2 x
8. m is mass and t is time.
dm
= −km, k is a constant.
dt
dP
=
9. kP (1,500 − P ) , k is a constant.
dt
dh
10. h is height in cm, t is time in days, = 0.25h, h = 2
dt
when t = 0 .
t
−
11. a) q ( t ) = EC + ( qo − EC ) e RC
b) EC
 0.01EC 
c) − RC ln  
 qo − EC 
o
12. 47.22 C
0
13. 77.9 C
279
Intersection and
Unit 6
Sum of Subspaces
Key unit competence

Relate the sum and the intersection of subspaces of a
vector space by the dimension formula.

Dimension: Number of vectors of the basis of a vector
space (or a subspace).
Grassmann’s formula: Relation connecting dimensions of
subspaces.

From H ={( a − 2b,3a + b, 2a + b ) : a, b ∈ } and
= K {( 3b, b, 2b ) : b ∈ } , how can one find the sum and
intersection of H and K. Different subspaces can be added
to make a new subspace. Also, we can find the intersection
of H ∩ K and the result is also a subspace.
List of lessons
1 Definition of subspaces 4
2 Intersection of subspaces 2
3 Dimension of intersection of subspaces 2
4 Sum of subspaces 2
5 Dimension of sum of subspaces 2
6 Grassmann’s formula of dimension for subspaces 2
Total periods 14
281
Lesson development
Lesson 6.1. Definition of subspaces

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to verify that a
subset V of  n is a subspace of  n accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Vector space
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. ( 2 x, 0,5 x ) = ( 0, 0, 0 )
2 x = 0
 ⇒x= 0
5 x = 0
Thus, the value of x is 0.
 
2. α=u + β v α ( 2a, 0,5a ) + β ( 2b, 0,5b )
( 2α a, 0,5α a ) + ( 2β b, 0,5β b ) =+
= ( 2α a 2β b, 0,5α a + 5β b )
=( 2 (α a + β b ) , 0,5 (α a + β b ) ) =( 2 x, 0,5 x ) for x =α a + β b
 
Hence, α u + β v ∈ V
3. From results in 1) and 2) and since V is a subset of
 3 , we conclude that V is a sub-vector space.
282
Intersection and Sum of Subspaces
Synthesis
A subset V of  n is called a sub-vector space, or just a
subspace of  n if it has the following properties:
࿌࿌ The null vector belongs to V.
 
࿌࿌ V is closed under vector addition, i.e if u , v ∈ V then
 
u + v ∈V .
࿌࿌ V is closed under scalar multiplication, i.e if
 
α ∈ , u ∈ V , α u ∈ V .
1. a) No, S is not closed under multiplication:

1 1  −1
1 ∈ S but − 1 =  −1 ∉ S
   
b) Yes, all properties are verified.
2. a) This is a subspace. It contains (1, 0, 0 ) and
( 2, 1, 0 ) .
b) This is a subspace. It contains ( 2, 1, 0 ) and
( 3, 0, −3) .
c) This is not a subspace. It doesn’t contain ( 0, 0, 0 ) .
3. From results in 1) and 2) and since V is a subset of
 3 , we conclude that V is a sub-vector space.
Lesson 6.2. Intersection of subspaces

Learning objectives
Given two subspaces, learners should be able to find their
intersection and verify that this intersection is also a subspace
correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Subspace properties
Teaching Aids
283

skills
Answers
2 x − y + 3 z =0

 x + y + z =0
4
3x + 4 z =0⇒ x = − z
3
 4  4 1
y =− x − z =−  − z  − z = − z = z
 3  3 3
Then,
 4 1  
H ∩ K =  − z , z , z  : z ∈   or
 3 3  
H ∩ K ={( −4 x, x,3 x ) : x ∈ }
Synthesis
Let U and W be subspaces of a vector space V. The
intersection of U and W, written U ∩ W , consists of all
  
vectors u where u ∈ U and u ∈ W .
Any intersection of subspaces of a vector space V is a
subspace of V.
Properties:
࿌࿌ For any two subspaces U and W , U ∩ W = W ∩ U
࿌࿌ If U and W are subspaces of a vector space V, then
U ∩ W is also a subspace of V.
284

 a 0  
U ∩ W 
1. =  : a ∈ 
 0 0  
2. H ∩ K= { functions f on  : f ( 2=) ) 0}
f (1=
{( 0, 0 )}
3. U ∩ V =
4. U=∩ U {( 0, y, 0 ) : y ∈ }
1 2
5. U ∩ U =
1 {( 0, 0, 0 )}
2
Lesson 6.3. Dimensions of intersection of

subspaces
Learning objectives
intersection and the dimension of the intersection accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Intersection of two subspaces.
Teaching Aids
skills
Answers
a) U ∩ W
x = x

y = y
0 = z

285
=
b) U ∩W {( x, y, 0 ) : x, y ∈ }
U ∩W
= {( x, y, 0 ) : x, y ∈ }
( x=
, y, 0 ) ( x, 0, 0 ) + ( 0, y, 0 )
= x (1, 0, 0 ) + y ( 0,1, 0 )
The vectors (1, 0, 0 ) and ( 0,1, 0 )
are linearly
independent. Then basis of U ∩ W is
{(1, 0, 0 ) , ( 0,1, 0 )} and hence dim (U ∩ W ) =
2.
Synthesis
A finite set S of vectors in a vector space V is called a
basis for V provided that;
࿌࿌ The vectors in S are linearly independent.
࿌࿌ The vector in S span V (or S is a generating set of V).
The unique number of vectors in each basis for V is called
the dimension of V and is denoted by dim (V ) .
The dimension of U ∩ W is the number of vectors of the
basis for U ∩ W .

1. dim (U ∩ W ) = dim (U ∩ W ) =
1 2. 1
3. dim ( H ∩ K ) =
2
Lesson 6.4. Sum of subspaces

Learning objectives
sum and verify if the sum is a subspace accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Properties of subspaces
Teaching Aids
286

skills
Answers
{( a, 0, c ) : a, c ∈ =
For U
= } and W {( 0, b, b ) : b ∈ }
+ W {( a, 0, c ) + ( 0, b, b ) : a, b, c ∈ }
U=
={( a, b, c + b ) : a, b, c ∈ }
= {( a, b, d ) : a, b, d ∈ }
Clearly, ( 0, 0, 0 ) ∈ U + W . Let
 
=u ( x, y,= z ) , w ( x ', y ', z ') ∈ U + W and α , β ∈ U + W
 
αu +=β v α ( x, y, z ) + β ( x ', y ', z ')
= (α x, α y, α z ) + ( β x ', β y ', β z ')
=(α x + β x ', α y + β y ', α z + β z ')
= ( a , b, c ) ∈ U + W
α x + β x ', b =
for a = α y + β y ', c =
αz + βz'
Thus, U + W is a sub space of  3
Synthesis
Let U and W be subspaces of a vector space V. The sum
of U and W, written U + W , consists of all sums x + y
where x ∈ U and y ∈ W .
࿌࿌ The sum U + W of the subspaces U and V is also a
subspace of V .
࿌࿌ and W2 are subspace of V , then W1 + W2 is the
smallest subspace that contains both W1 and W2 .
287

     
1. Let v ∈ U + W . Then v= u + w, u ∈ U and w ∈ W .

Since {ui } generates U, u is a linear combination
  
{ }
of ui ' s ; and since w j generates W, w is a linear

combination of w j ' s .
Thus
        
v =u + w =a1 ui1 + a2 ui 2 + .... + an uin + b1 w j1 + b2 w j 2 + .... + bm w jm
 
{ }
and so ui , w j generates U + V .
 e b  
2. U + W 
=  : b, d , e ∈  
 d 0  
3. {( 2a − b,3a + 4b,5a + 3b ) : a, b ∈ }
Lesson 6.5. Dimension of sum of subspaces

Learning objectives
sum and the dimension of the sum accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Sum of subspaces.
Teaching Aids

skills
288
Answers
1. U =
+W {( a, 0, 0 ) + ( 0, b, 0 ) : a, b ∈=
} {( a, b, 0 ) : a, b ∈ }
=
2. U +W {( a, b, 0 ) : a, b ∈ }
(=
a, b, 0 ) ( a, 0, 0 ) + ( 0, b, 0 )
= a (1, 0, 0 ) + b ( 0,1, 0 )
The vectors (1, 0, 0 ) and ( 0,1, 0 )
are linearly
independent. Then, basis of U + W is
{(1, 0, 0 ) , ( 0,1, 0 )} and hence dim (U + W ) =
2.
Synthesis
A finite set S of linearly independent vectors in the sum
U + V is called a basis for U + V and the number of
vectors in set S is the dimension of U + V .

1. dim ( H + K ) = dim (U + V ) =
2 2. 2
3. dim (U1 + U 2 ) =
2
Lesson 6.6. Grassmann’s formula of dimension for

subspaces
Learning objectives
Given two subspaces, learners should be able to use
Grassmann’s formula to find the dimension of the sum or
intersection correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Sum of subspaces.
࿌࿌ Intersection of subspaces.
Teaching Aids
289

skills
Answers
1. a) dim ( F ) = 2 and dim ( G ) = 2
b) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) = 2 + 2 = 4
F ∩G
c) = {( 0, 0, z ) : z ∈ } and dim ( F ∩ G ) =
1
d) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) − dim ( F ∩ G ) = 4 − 1 = 3
e) F + G
= {( x, y, z ) : x, y, z ∈ } and dim ( F + G ) =
3
2. From results in d) and e),
dim ( F +=
G ) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) − dim ( F ∩ G )
Synthesis
࿌࿌ If ( , F , + ) and ( , G, + ) are two sub-vector spaces
of ( , E , + ) , we have,
dim ( F +=
G ) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) − dim ( F ∩ G ) .
࿌࿌ If dim ( F ∩ G ) =
0 , then
dim ( F +=
G ) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) .
In this case, F and G are said to be complementary
and the sum F + G is said to be a direct sum; and
it is denoted by F ⊕ G . Otherwise, F and G are
said to be supplementary.
290

(V ) 3, dim=
1. dim= (W ) 2, dim (V ∩=
W) 1
dim (V + W ) = dim (V ) + dim (W ) − dim (V ∩ W ) = 3 + 2 − 1 = 4
2.  3 cannot be uniquely represented as a direct sum
of W1 and W2 .
= W1 + W2 is a direct sum. i.e, F= W1 ⊕ W2 .
3. F
4. No, since dim ( F ∩ G ) =3 ≠ 0 .
5. Since U is not equal to W, the basis for U must have
at least one vector linearly independent from U, so
dim (U + W ) is at least 4. But they are subspaces
of  4 , so dim (U + W ) =
4 . Using the fact that
dim (U + W
= ) dim (U ) + dim (W ) − dim (U ∩ W ) .
Then,
4 = 3 + 3 − dim (U ∩ W ) ⇒ dim (U ∩ W ) = 6 − 4 = 2 .
291
Summary of the unit
1. Definition
If ( , F , + ) is a subspace of ( , E , + ) , then
࿌࿌ F ⊂ E

࿌࿌ 0 ∈ F
   
࿌࿌ u , v ∈ F , α , β ∈ ; α u + β v ∈ F
2. Intersection and sum of two vector spaces

Let U and W be subspaces of a vector space V. The intersection

of U and W, written U ∩ W , consists of all vectors u where
 
u ∈ U and u ∈ W .
Any intersection of subspaces of a vector space V is a
subspace of V. W1 and W2 are subspaces of V , then W1 ∪ W2
is a subspace ⇔ W1 ⊆ W2 or W2 ⊆ W1 .
If F and G are two sub-vector spaces of E , then, the sum
of F and G is also a sub-vector space of E . It is denoted
as F + G = { x + y, x ∈ F , y ∈ G} .
Grassmann’s formula of dimensions.
If ( IR, F , + ) and ( , G, + ) are two sub-vector spaces of
( , E , + ) , we have,
dim ( F += G ) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) − dim ( F ∩ G ) .
Remark
0 , then dim ( F +=
If dim ( F ∩ G ) = G ) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) . In
this case, F and G are said to be complementary and the
sum F + G is said to be a direct sum; and it is denoted by
F ⊕G.
Otherwise, F and G are said to be supplementary.
292
1. a) Yes, this is a plane through origin.

b) No, this does not contain the origin.
c) Yes, this is just the zero point.
d) No, this is a conic which is not closed under addition.
2. dim ( E ) = 1 , dim ( F ) = 2
3. dim (W ) = 3
4. Since U and W are distinct, U + W properly contains
U and W ; hence dim (U + W ) > 4 . Since dim (V ) = 6 ,
dim (U + W ) cannot be greater than 6.
Hence, there are two possibilities:
a) dim (U + W ) = 5 ⇔ 5 = 4 + 4 − dim (U ∩ W ) ⇒ dim (U ∩ W ) = 3
b) dim (U + W ) = 6 ⇔ 6 = 4 + 4 − dim (U ∩ W ) ⇒ dim (U ∩ W ) = 2
3 b) dim (U ∩ W ) =
5. a) dim (U + W ) = 1
6. The set of the symmetric matrices W1 and the set of the
skew symmetric matrices W2 are both subspaces of M n×n .
A ∈ W1 ∩ W2 , A =At =− At ⇒ A = {0}
0 , ∴W1 ∩ W2 =
 1
= B 2
( A + At )
Let 
1
= C
 2
( A − At )
Then,
B ∈ W1 , C ∈ W2 , ∴ M n×n =
W1 ⊕ W2
7. Yes, since dim ( F ∩ G ) =
0.
293
Transformation of
Unit 7
Matrices
Key unit competence

Transform matrices to an echelon form or to diagonal
matrix and use the results to solve simultaneous linear
equations or to calculate the nth power of a matrix.

Elementary row/column operations: Operations performed
on row/column of a matrix (addition, scalar
multiplication, and interchanging rows/
columns) to obtain a new matrix.
Characteristic equation: Polynomial A − λ I = 0, λ ∈ 
where A is a given matrix and I is
identity matrix of the same order as A .
Eigenvalue: The real number λ that is a root in the
characteristic polynomial A − λ I = 0, λ ∈ 
  
Eigenvector: The vector u such that ( A − λ I ) u =0.
Row echelon form: Matrix is in row echelon form when the
first non-zero element in each row (called
the leading entry) is 1 and this leading
entry is in a column to the right of the
leading entry in the previous row. Rows
with all zero elements, if any, are below
rows having a non-zero element.
295
Reduced row echelon form: A matrix is in reduced row

echelon form when it is in row echelon
form and the leading entry in each row is
the only non-zero entry in its column.

 −1 2 
࿌࿌ Given encoding matrix A =   , can you decode
 2 −3
the message 21, −22,17, −18, 28, −42,31, −39 and read
the message?
࿌࿌ Matrices and their inverse are used by programmers for
coding or encrypting a message. Matrices are applied in
the study of electrical circuits, quantum mechanics and
optics.
List of lessons
1 Kernel and range 4
2 Elementary row/column operations 3
3 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 4
4 Diagonalisation of a matrix 3
5 Echelon matrix 3
6 Inverse matrix 3
7 Rank of a matrix 3
8 Solving system of linear equations 3
9 Power of a matrix 3
Total periods 29
296
Transformation of Matrices
Lesson development
Lesson 7.1. Kernel and range
Learning objectives
By the end of this lesson, learners should be able to find
kernel and range of a linear transformation.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Operation on vectors.
࿌࿌ Operations on matrices.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
( 3x + y + 2,3x − y + 1) =( 0, 0 )
3 x + y + 2 =0
⇒
3 x − y + 1 =0
3 x + y + 2 = 0  1
 3 −  + y + 2 =0
3 x − y + 1 =0  2
1 3 1
6x + 3 =0 ⇒ x =− ⇒ y =−2 + =−
2 2 2
297
 1 1
Thus, ( x, y ) = − , − 
 2 2
Synthesis
࿌࿌ The kernel of a linear mapping f : E → F denoted
Ker ( f ) is a subset of E whose image by f is
{v ∈ E : f ( v ) =
0-vector of F. i.e, Ker ( f ) = 0} .
࿌࿌ The nullity of f denoted n ( f ) is the dimension of
Ker ( f ) . i.e, n ( f ) = dim Ker ( f ) .
࿌࿌ The image or range of a linear mapping f E → F
is the set of vectors in F to which points in E are
mapped on. i.e, Im f= {u ∈ F : f ( v=) u}, v∈E .
࿌࿌ The rank of f denoted rank ( f ) or r ( f ) is the
dimension of image of f. i.e, rank ( f ) = dim ( Im f ) .
࿌࿌ If f : E → F , dim  Ker ( f )  + dim  range ( f )  =
dim ( E ) .
1. a) Im F= {( a, b, c ) : =c 0=} xy − plane.
b) KerF= {( a, b, c ) : a= 0, b= 0}= z − axis.
2. a) Basis is {(1, 0,1) , ( 0,1, −1)} and dimension is 2.
b) Basis is {( 3, −1,1)} and dimension is 1.
3. a) Basis is {(1,1,1) , ( 0,1, 2 )} and dimension is 2.
b) Basis is {( 2,1, −1, 0 ) , (1, 2, 0,1)} and dimension is 2.
Lesson 7.2. Elementary row/column operations

Learning objectives
Given a matrix, learners should be able to use row/column
operations to transform correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Adding row/column of a matrix.
࿌࿌ Multiplying a row/column of a matrix by a real number.
298
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1 0 2 1 0 2 
   
1.  0 1 3  2. 0 1 3
3 2 1 
   0 2 −5 
 
 2
 1 2 − 
1 2 0 3
   
3. 0 3 1 4.  0 3 0 
 
 0 −5 2   11 
   0 −5 
 3 
Synthesis
Common row/column and their notations are;
Operation description Notation
Row operations
1. Interchange row i and j → ri ↔ rj
2.Multiply row i by s ≠ 0 → new ri → sri
3. Add s times row i to row j → new rj → rj + sri
Column operations
1. Interchange column i and j → ci ↔ c j
2.Multiply column i by s ≠ 0 → new ci → sci
3. Add s times column i to column j → new c j → c j + sci
299
 1 2 −3 0   1 2 −3 0 
   
1. a)  0 0 4 2  b)  0 0 4 2 
 3 6 −4 3  0 0 5 3
   
 1 2 −3 0 
c)  0 0 4 2 
0 0 0 2
 
 6 9 0 7 −2  6 9 0 7 0
2. a) 0 0 3 2 5 b)  0 0 3 2 5 
 
 
0 0 0 0 2  0 0 0 0 2
   
6 9 0 7 0
 
c)  0 0 6 4 0 
0 0 0 0 2
 
Lesson 7.3. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

Learning objectives
Given a matrix, learners should be able to find eigenvalues
and eigenvectors accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Operation on matrices.
࿌࿌ Matrix determinant.
࿌࿌ Solving equation of second/third degree.
Teaching Aids

300

skills
Answers
4 2  1 0
1. det ( A − λ=
I)  −λ 
 3 −1 0 1
4−λ 2
=
3 −1 − λ
= ( 4 − λ )( −1 − λ ) − 6
= λ 2 − 3λ − 10
2. λ − 3λ − 10 =
2
0 ⇔ ( λ + 2 )( λ − 5 ) =⇒
0 λ=−2 or λ =5
 
3. ( A − λ I ) u =
0
For λ = −2
4 2   1 0    u1   0 
  + 2   =  
  3 −1  0 1    u2   0 
 6 2   u1   0 
   =  
 3 1   u2   0 
6u1 + 2u2 = 0
 ⇒ u2 =
−3u1
3u1 + u2 =0
  1
Thus, u k   , k ∈  0
=
 −3 
For λ = 5
  4 2   1 0    u1   0 
  − 5   =  
  3 −1  0 1    u2   0 
 −1 2   u1   0  −u1 + 2u2 =0
   =    ⇒ u1 =
2u2
 3 −6   u2   0  3u1 − 6u2 =
0
  2
=
Thus, u k  , k ∈ 0
1 
301
Synthesis
The eigenvalues of square matrix A, are the roots of
the polynomial det ( A − λ I ) . The homogeneous system
  
( f − λI )u =
0 gives the eigenvector u associated with
eigenvalue λ.
Cayley and Hamilton theorem
The Cayley–Hamilton theorem (named after the
mathematicians Arthur Cayley and William Rowan
Hamilton) states that every square matrix over a
commutative ring (such as the real or complex field)
satisfies its own characteristic equation.
Note that an eigenvector cannot be 0, but an eigenvalue
 eigenvalue of A, there
can be 0. If 0 is an   must be some
(
non-trivial vector u for which A − 0 u = 0. )
  3
1. a) Eigenvalues: 7 and -4, eigenvectors: u =   and
  2 1 
v= 
 −3 
  3
b) Eigenvalues: 7 and -4, eigenvectors: u =   and
  2 1 
v= 
 −3 
c) No eigenvalues, no eigenvectors
2. a) λ1 = (1, −1, 0 ) , v =
2, u = (1, 0, −1) ; λ2 = (1, 2,1)
6, w =
b) λ=
1 3, u= (1,1, 0 ) , =
v (1, 0,1) ; λ=
2 ,w
= ( 2, −1,1)( )
λ 1,=
c) = u (1, 0, 0 ) =
, v ( 0, 0,1)
3. Characteristic equation of matrix A is
A − λI =
0. (1)
Characteristic equation of matrix At is
At − λ I =
0. (2)
302
Clearly, both (1) and (2) are the same, as we know

that A = At .
Therefore, A and At have the same eigenvalues.
4. Let us consider the triangular matrix,
 a11 0  0
 
a a22 0 0
A =  21 
    
 
 an1 an 2  ann 
Characteristic equation is A − λ I =
0.
a11 − λ 0  0
a21 a22 − λ 0 0
⇔ 0
=
   
an1 an 2  ann − λ
⇔ ( a11 − λ )( a22 − λ ) ( ann − λ ) =
0
Therefore, λ = a11 , a22 , ann are the elements of
diagonal entries.
 7 2 −10 
1 
5.  −2 2 −1 
9 
 −1 1 4 
6. A5 − 4 A4 − 7 A3 + 11A2 − A − 10 I A + 5 I
= (A 5
− 4 A4 − 5 A3 ) − 2 A3 + 11A2 − A − 10 I
= A3 ( A2 − 4 A − 5 ) − 2 A3 + 11A2 − A − 10 I
= 0 − 2 A3 + 11A2 − A − 10 I
− ( 2 A3 − 8 A2 − 10 A ) + 3 A2 − 11A − 10 I
=
0 3 A2 − 11A − 10 I
=+
= ( 3 A − 12 A − 15I ) + A + 5I
2
= 3 ( A − 4 A − 5I ) + A + 5I = A + 5I
2
5 4 3 2
Therefore, A − 4 A − 7 A + 11A − A − 10 I = A + 5 I .
303
Lesson 7.4. Diagonalisation of a matrix

Learning objectives
Given a matrix, learners should be able to diagonalise that
matrix accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Operation on matrices
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
 −4 −6 
1. A =  
 3 5
Eigenvalues:
 −4 −6  1 0
 −λ =0 ⇒ −4 − λ −6 =0
 3 5   0 1  3 5−λ
⇒ ( −4 − λ )( 5 − λ ) + 18 =0
λ 2 − λ − 2 =0 ⇒ λ =−1 or λ =2
Eigenvalues are -1 and 2
Eigenvectors:
For λ = −1
 −4 −6   1 0    x   0 
 +    =  
 3 5   0 1    y   0 
304
 −3 −6   x   0 
⇒   =   −3 x − 6 y = 0
 3 6  y  0 
3 x + 6 y =0
 −3 x − 6 y   0 
⇒ =  ⇒ 3x = −6 y ⇒ x =−2 y
 3 x + 6 y 0
  
Eigenvector associated to λ = −1 has the form
 −2 y    −2 
  , y ∈  0 . Take u =  
 y   1
For λ = 2
 −4 −6   2 0    x   0 
 −    =  
 3 5   0 2    y   0 
 −6 −6   x   0 
⇒   =   −6 x − 6 y = 0
 3 3  y  0 
3 x + 3 y =0
 −6 x − 6 y   0 
⇒ =  ⇒ 3 x =−3 y ⇒ x =− y
 3x + 3 y   0 
Eigenvector associated to λ = 2 has the form
−y   −1
  , y ∈  0 . Take u =  1 
 y  
 −2 −1
2. From 1), P =  
1 1
−1 1  1 1   −1 −1
3. P
= =    
−1  −1 −2   1 2 
−1  −1 −1 −4 −6  −2 −1
=
4. D P= AP    
 1 2  3 5  1 1 
 4−3 6 − 5  −2 −1  1 1  −2 −1
= =     
 −4 + 6 −6 + 10  1 1   2 4  1 1 
 −2 + 1 −1 + 1   −1 0 
= =   
 −4 + 4 −2 + 4   0 2 
Matrix D is a diagonal matrix. Also, elements of the
leading diagonal are the eigenvalues obtained in 1).
305
Synthesis
To diagonalise matrix A, we perform the following steps:
1. Find the eigenvalues.
2. If there is a non-real eigenvalue, the matrix cannot be
diagonalised.
3. If all eigenvalues are real, find their associated
eigenvectors (they must be linearly independent).
4. If the number of eigenvectors is not equal to the order
of matrix A, then this matrix cannot be diagonalised.
5. If the number of eigenvectors is equal to the order of
matrix A, form matrix P whose columns are elements
of eigenvectors.
6. Find the inverse of P.
7. Find D, diagonal matrix of A by relation; D = P −1 AP .
Theorem
A n × n matrix is diagonalisable if and only if it has n
linearly independent eigenvectors.

8 0   4 0 7 0 
1. a)   b)   c)  
 0 −2  0 1  0 −3 
 −5 0 0 
 2 0  
d)   e)  0 −5 0 
0 1  0 0 16 
 
2. a) 2 and −4 b) S = {(1,1, 0 ) , ( 0,1,1)}
c) A is not diagonalisable.
306
Lesson 7.5. Echelon matrix

Learning objectives
Given a matrix and using elementary row/column operations,
learners should be able to transform that matrix into its
echelon form accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Elementary row/column operations.
Teaching Aids
skills
Answers
8 3
A= 
1 2
Change first element of first row to 1.
1 −11
r
1= r1 − 7 r
2 
1 2 
The first non-zero element in second row is 1 but it is not
in a column to the right of the other in first row. So, this
has to be changed to 0.
 1 −11 
r
2= r2 − r
1 
 0 −13 
Now, second element in second row has to be changed
to 1.
14  1 −11
r2= r2 − r1  
11   0 1 

307
Now, the first two conditions are satisfied.

For the third condition:
The first non-zero element in second row is not the only
non-zero entry in its column. So −11 , in first row, has to
be changed to 0.
1 0
r
1= r1 + 11r
2 
0 1
Now, all conditions are satisfied.
Synthesis
A matrix is in row echelon form (ref) when it satisfies the
following conditions:
࿌࿌ The first non-zero element in each row, called the
leading entry (or pivot ), is 1.
࿌࿌ Each leading entry is in a column to the right of the
leading entry in the previous row.
࿌࿌ Rows with all zero elements, if any, are below rows
having a non-zero element.
A matrix is in reduced row echelon form (rref) when it
satisfies the following conditions:
࿌࿌ The matrix is in row echelon form (i.e., it satisfies the
three conditions listed above).
࿌࿌ The leading entry in each row is the only non-zero
entry in its column.
 1 −1 2 0  1 0 6 0
 
1.  0 1 4 −5  and  0 1 4 0 
  0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1   
 
 1 −2 3 9  1 0 0 1 
 
2.  0 1 3 5  and  0 1 0 −1
  0 0 1 2 
0 0 2 4  
 
308
 2 −2 4 −2  1 0 4 0
   
0 3 6 9 0 1 2 0
3.  and 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 4
 1 0 0
 1 −3 4 10  7
   
8 23 8
4.  0 1 − −  and  0 1 −0

 7 7  7
0 0   
 0 1   0 0 0
1

 
   1
 1 0 1 0
1 2 3 −2 3  3
   
4  16 
5.  0 1 1 −1 and  0 1 1 0
 3 9
   
4  4
0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1 
 9  9
 1 tan θ  1 0
6.   and  
0 1  0 1
Lesson 7.6. Matrix inverse

Learning objectives
Given a square matrix and using elementary row/column
operations, learners should be able to find the inverse of that
matrix correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Use of elementary row operations.
࿌࿌ Properties of inverse matrix.
Teaching Aids
309

skills
Answers
1 1 1 1 0 0
 
1. M =  0 1 2 0 1 0 
1 2 4 0 0 1
 
We need to transform matrix A such that all elements
of leading diagonal become 1 and other elements
become zero
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
   
r
3 → r3 − r1  0 1 2 0 1 0 r
3 → r3 − r
2 0 1 2 0 1 0
0 1 3
 −1 0 1  0 0 1
 −1 −1 1 
 1 0 −1 1 −1 0 
 
r
1 → r1 − r
2 0 1 2 0 1 0
0 0 1
 −1 −1 1 
1 0 0 0 −2 1 
 
r
1 → r1 + r
3 0 1 2 0 1 0
0 0 1
 −1 −1 1 
1 0 0 0 −2
1
 
r
2 → r2 − 2r
3 0 1 0 2 3 −2 
0 0 1
 −1 −1 1 
310
 0 −2 1 
2. Matrix obtained in 1) is  2 3 −2  . Multiplying it by
 
 −1 −1 1 
 
the given matrix, gives
 0 −2 1   1 1 1   0 + 0 + 1 0 − 2 + 2 0 − 4 + 4 
    
 2 3 −2   0 1 2  =  2 + 0 − 2 2 + 3 − 4 2 + 6 − 8 
 −1 −1 1   1 2 4   −1 + 0 + 1 −1 − 1 + 2 −1 − 2 + 4 
    
1 0 0
 
= 0 1 0
0 0 1
 
Observation: Multiplying matrix obtained in 1) by
matrix A gives identity matrix.
Therefore, the new matrix is the inverse of the matrix
A.
Synthesis
−1
To calculate the inverse of A , denoted as A , follow
these steps:
Construct a matrix of type M = ( A | I ) , that is to say, A
is in the left half of and the identity matrix I is on
the right.
Using elementary row operations, transform the left half,
A , to the identity matrix located to the right, and the
matrix that results in the right side will be the inverse of
matrix.
 −1 2 −4 
 
1.  1 −1 3  2. No inverse
0 0 1
 
 1 −3 2 
 
3.  −3 3 −1 4. No inverse
 2 −1 0 
 
311
Lesson 7.7. Rank of matrix

Learning objectives
Given a matrix and by using elementary row/column
operations, learners should be able to find the rank of that
matrix accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Transformation of matrix using elementary row/column
operations.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
 4 −6 0   4 −6 0 
   
1.  −6 0 1  r → r + 3 r  0 −9 1 
 0 9 −1  
2 2
2
1
 0 9 −1 
   
0 1 4  0 1 4 
 4 −6 0   4 −6 0 
r    
3 → r3 + r
2
 0 −9 1   0 −9 1 
1 0 0 0  r
3 ↔ r4  37 
r4 → r4 + r2   0 0 
9  0 0 37   9 
 9  0 0 0 
2. There are three non-zero rows.
312
Synthesis
To find rank of matrix,
࿌࿌ Transform matrix in its row echelon form using
elementary row operations.
࿌࿌ The number of non-zero rows is the rank of matrix.
1. Rank 4 2. Rank 3
3. Rank 3 4. Rank 2
Lesson 7.8. Solving system of linear equations

Learning objectives
Given a system of linear equations and by using Gaussian
elimination method, learners should be able to find the
solution of that system correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Elementary row operations.
Teaching Aids
skills
Answers
x + y + z = 6  1 1 1  x   6 

1. The system 2 x + y − z =     
1 ⇔  2 1 −1 y  =
1
3 x + 2 y + z =10     
  3 2 1  z  10 
313
1 1 1 
 
=
Thus, A  2 1 −1
3 2 1 
 
1 1 1 : 6 
2. 2 1 −1 : 1 

 
3 2 1 : 10 

1 1 1 : 6 
 
3. From  2 1 −1 : 1  , using elementary row
3 2 1 : 10 

operations; r2 → r2 − 2r1 , r3 → r3 − 3r1 , we get
1 1 1 : 6 
 
 0 −1 −3 : −11
 0 −1 −2 : −8 
 
1 1 1 : 6 
 
Now, r3 → r3 − r1 , yields  0 −1 −3 : −11
0 0 1 : 3 
 
4. We have the system
x + y + z = 6

 − y − 3 z =−11
 z =3

Then,
− y − 9 =−11 ⇒ y =2
x+2+3= 6⇒ x =1 S = {(1, 2,3)}
Synthesis
For the system
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = c1
a x + a x + ... + a x = c2
 21 1 22 2 2n n


am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + ... + amn xn = cm
314
The Gauss elimination method is used to transform a

system of equations into an equivalent system that is in
row echelon form.
To facilitate the calculation, transform the system into a
matrix and place the coefficients of the variables and the
independent terms into the matrix as follows:
 a11 a12
... a1n : c1 
 
a a
... a2 n : c2 
( A : C ) =  21 22
 ...   

 
 am1 am 2
... amn : cm 
And then, transform the system in the form where the
elements above and below the leading diagonal of matrix
A become zeros. The system is now reduced to the
simplest system.
1. S = {( −4, −5, 2 )}
2. No solution
3. Infinity number of solution.
4. Infinity number of solution.
Lesson 7.9. Power of matrix

Learning objectives
Given a square matrix and by using diagonalisation method,
learners should be able to find the power of that matrix
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finding eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix.
Teaching Aids
315

skills
Answers
2
1. A
= = PDP −1 PDP=
AA −1
PD 2 P −1
A3 A=
2. = 2
A PD 2 P −1 PDP
= −1
PD 3 P −1
A4 A=
3. = 3
A PD 3 P −1 PDP
= −1
PD 4 P −1
A5 A=
4. = 4
A PD 4 P −1 PDP
= −1
PD 4 DP
= −1
PD 5 P −1
An= An −1 A= PD n −1 P −1 PDP −=
1
PD n P −1 ⇒ An= PD n P −1
Synthesis
The power of matrix A is given by An = PD n P −1 for an
invertible matrix P whose columns are elements of
eigenvectors of matrix A , and D is diagonal matrix of A.
Where,
 λ1n 0  0 
 
0 λ n
 0
Dn =  2 
     
 
n 
 0 0  λk 
λk are eigenvalues
 −3 4   20 0  3  2800 −3900 
=1. P = , D  = , A  
 4 3  0 −5   −3900 5075 
1 2  3 0  5  −245 488 
=2. P = , D  = , A  
1 1   0 −1  −244 487 
316
 −1 1   −1 0  20 1 0
=3. P = , D  = , A  
 1 0  0 1 0 1
1 3 3  2 0 0  32 0 633 
    5  
=4. P =0 1 0  , D = 0 3 0  , A  0 243 0 
0 1 1  0 0 3 0 0 243 
    
Summary of the unit
1. Kernel and range

࿌࿌ The kernel of a linear mapping f : E → F denoted
Ker ( f ) is a subset of E whose image f is 0-vector
{v ∈ E : f ( v ) =
of F . i.e, Ker ( f ) = 0} .
A linear transformation f is called singular if there exists
a non-zero vector whose image is zero vector. Thus, it
is non-singular if the only zero vector has zero vector as
image, or equivalently, if its kernel consists only of the
zero vector: Ker ( f ) = {0} .
A linear transformation f : E → F is one-to-one (1-1) if
and only if Ker ( f ) = {0} .
࿌࿌ The nullity of f denoted n ( f ) is the dimension of
Ker ( f ) .i.e, n ( f ) = dim Ker ( f ) .
࿌࿌ The image or range of a linear mapping f : E → F is the
set of points in F to which points in E are mapped on.
i.e, Im f= {u ∈ F : f ( v=) u}, v∈E .
A linear transformation f : E → F is onto if the range is
equal to F .
࿌࿌ The rank of f denoted rank ( f ) or r ( f ) is the
dimension of image of f .
i.e, rank ( f ) = dim ( Im f ) .
317
2. Elementary row/column operations

When these operations are performed on rows, they are called
elementary row operations; and when they are performed on
columns, they are called elementary column operations.
Operation description Nota
ation
Row operations
1. Interchange row i and j → ri ↔ rj
2.Multiply row i by s ≠ 0 → new ri → sri
3. Add s times row i to row j → new rj → rj + sri
Column operations
1. Interchange column i and j → ci ↔ c j
2.Multiply column i by s ≠ 0 → new ci → sci
3. Add s times column i to column j → new c j → c j + sci
Two matrices are said to be row equivalent (or column

equivalent) if one can be changed to the other by a sequence
of elementary row (or column) operations.
Two matrices A and B are said to be similar if B = P −1 AP
for some invertible matrix P .
3. Diagonalisation of matrices
a) Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
The eigenvalues of f are the roots (in K ) of
the polynomial; det ( f − λ I ) . This polynomial
is a polynomial associated with f and is called
characteristic polynomial. For any square matrix A , the
polynomial det ( A − λ I ) is its characteristic polynomial.
 
The homogeneous system ( f − λ I ) u = 0 gives the

eigenvector u associated with eigenvalue λ .
318
b) Diagonalisation
To diagonalise matrix A , we perform the following steps:
1. Find the eigenvalues.
2. If there is a non-real eigenvalue, the matrix cannot
be diagonalised.
3. If all eigenvalues are real, find their associated
eigenvectors (they must be linearly independent).
4. If the number of eigenvectors is not equal to the order
of matrix A , then this matrix cannot be diagonalised.
5. If the number of eigenvectors is equal to the order
of matrix A , form matrix P whose columns are
elements of eigenvectors.
6. Find the inverse of P .
7. Find D , diagonal matrix of A by relation D = P −1 AP .
4. Applications
a) Echelon matrix
A matrix is in row echelon form (ref) when it satisfies the
following conditions:
ᅧᅧ The first non-zero element in each row, called the
leading entry, is 1.
ᅧᅧ Each leading entry is in a column to the right of the
leading entry in the previous row.
ᅧᅧ Rows with all zero elements, if any, are below rows
having a non-zero element.
A matrix is in reduced row echelon form (rref) when it
satisfies the following conditions:
ᅧᅧ The matrix is in row echelon form (i.e., it satisfies
the three conditions listed above).
ᅧᅧ The leading entry in each row is the only non-zero
entry in its column.
319
b) Matrix inverse
A is a square matrix of order n. To calculate the inverse
−1
of A , denoted as A , follow these steps:
ᅧᅧ Construct a matrix of type M = ( A | I ) , that is to
say, A is in the left half of M and the identity
matrix I is on the right.
ᅧᅧ Using the Gaussian elimination method, transform
the left half, A , to the identity matrix located to the
right, and the matrix that results in the right side
will be the inverse of matrix A .
c) Rank of matrix
The rank of matrix is the number of linearly independent
rows or columns. Using this definition, the Gaussian
elimination method is used to find the rank.
A line can be discarded if:
ᅧᅧ All the coefficients are zeros.
ᅧᅧ There are two equal lines.
ᅧᅧ A line is proportional to another.
ᅧᅧ A line is a linear combination of others.
In general, eliminate the maximum possible number of
lines, and the rank is the number of non-zero rows.
d) Solving system of linear equations
Consider the following system;
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = c1
a x + a x + ... + a x = c2
 21 1 22 2 2n n


am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + ... + amn xn = cm
The Gauss elimination method is to transform a system of

equations into an equivalent system that is in triangular
form.
320
To facilitate the calculation, transform the system into a

matrix and place the coefficients of the variables and the
independent terms into the matrix as follows:
 a11 a12 … a1n : c1 
 
 a21 a22 … a2 n : cm 
( A : C ) 
=

 
 am1 am 2 amn : cm 
Where
The matrix ( A : C ) is called augmented matrix.
Remarks
࿌࿌ If rank ( A ) ≠ rank ( A : C ) , the system is said to be
inconsistent and there is no solution.
=
࿌࿌ If rank ( A ) rank
= ( A : C ) r , the system is said to be
consistent and there is solution.
»» If r = n , as there are n unknowns, then the system
has a unique solution.
»» If r < n , the system has infinite solutions. (It is
undetermined system).
5. Power of matrix
n n −1
The power of matrix A is given by A = PD P for an
invertible matrix P whose columns are elements of
eigenvectors of matrix A and D is diagonal matrix of A.
Where,
 λ1n 0  0 
 
0 λ2n  0
Dn =  
     
 
n 
 0 0  λk 
λk are eigenvalues
321
1. a) λ 2 − 5λ + 1
b) λ 2 − 3λ − 18
c) λ 2 + 9 d) λ 3 + λ 2 − 8λ + 62
e) λ 3 − 6λ 2 − 35λ − 38
  4
2. a) Eigenvalues: 2 and − 5 , eigenvectors: u =   and
 1  1 
v= 
 2
4 1 2 0 
=b) P = , D  
1 2  0 −5 
  2
3. a) Eigenvalues: 1 and 4 , eigenvectors: u =   and
  1  −1
v= 
 1
 2 1 1 0
=b) P = , D  
 −1 1 0 4
1366 2230   1 2
 , f ( A ) =  −1 0 
6
c) A = 
 1365 2731   
1  2 + 4 −2 + 2 4 
3 3
d)  
3  −1 + 3 4 1 + 2 3 4 
4. a) Eigenvalues: 3 and 5
S
b) = {(1, −1, 0 ) , (1, 0,1) , (1, 2,1)}
 3 0 0
 
c)  0 3 0 
0 0 5
 
 2 1 −2  1 0 0
   
5. A =  2 3 −4  , D =  0 1 0 
 1 1 −1  0 0 2
   
6. To be proved
322
1 0 −1 −2 
1 0 1
 
7. a)  0 1 2 3 b)  0 1 0 
0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
   1 0 −1
c)  0 1 0 1 0  d)  
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 
 
8. a) Rank 2 b) Rank 2
c) Rank 3 d) Rank 2
9. a) S= {( −2,5,10 )} b) No solution
 −2 −3 5   2 5 −14 
1
 b)  1 −3 4 
10. a) 1  1 4 −5
5   11  

 −1 3 7
 −6 −29 40   
 2 1 0
1 
c) 2 0 0
2  
 −4 −1 2 
11. Characteristic equation: λ 3 − 5λ 2 + 7λ − 3 =0
From Cayley-Hamilton theorem, we have
A3 − 5 A2 + 7 A − 3I =
0.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Now, A − 5 A + 7 A − 3 A + A − 5 A + 8 A − 2 A + I
= A5 ( A3 − 5 A2 + 7 A − 3I ) + A ( A3 − 5 A2 + 7 A − 3 A ) + A2 + A + I
= 0 + 0 + A2 + A + I
 5 4 4  2 1 1 1 0 0 8 5 5
       
=  0 1 0 +  0 1 0 + 0 1 0 = 0 3 0
 4 4 5 1 1 2 0 0 1 5 5 8
       
323
Unit 8 Conics
Key unit competence

࿌࿌ Determine the characteristics and the graph of a
conic given by its Cartesian, parametric or polar
equation.
࿌࿌ Find the Cartesian, parametric and polar equations
of a conic from its characteristics.

Conic section: Curve obtained by intersecting a double
cone with a plane.
Parabola: Conic section obtained when the plane
is parallel to generator but not along the
generator.
Ellipse: Conic section obtained when the plane
cuts the cone obliquely.
Hyperbola: Conic section obtained when the plane is
parallel to the axis but not along the axis.
The problem statement:
“How can one find the equation representing a curve which
generates a parabolic antenna? What can you say about
motion of planets around the sun? How can one find the
equation of their orbits around the sun?”
These questions lead us to the applications of conics.
325
List of lessons
1 Generalities on conic sections 3
2 Definition and equation of a parabola 3
3 Tangent line and normal line on a parabola 3
4 Definition and equation of an ellipse 3
5 Tangent line and normal line on an ellipse 3
6 Definition and equation of a hyperbola 3
7 Tangent line and normal line on a 3
hyperbola
8 Definition of polar coordinates 3
9 Polar equation of a conic 3
10 Polar equation of a straight line 3
11 Polar equation of a circle 3
12 Applications of conics 2
Total periods 35
Lesson development
Lesson 8.1. Generalities on conic sections
Learning objectives
Given a double cone and a plane, learners should be able
to define a conic and draw the shape of conic sections
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Double cone
࿌࿌ Plane
Teaching Aids
326
Conics

skills
Answers
1. The plane is parallel to a generator of the cone but not
along the generator
2. The plane cuts the cone obliquely
3. The plane is parallel to the axis but not along the axis
327
4. The plane is parallel to the base but does not pass

through the vertex
Synthesis
Conic is the name given to the shapes that we obtain by
taking different plane slices through a double cone. The
sections of a right circular cone by different planes give
curves of different shapes: parabola, ellipse, hyperbola,
circle, single point, single line, pair of lines.
A conic section is the set of all points which move in a
plane such that its distance from a fixed point and a fixed
line not containing the fixed point are in a constant ratio.
y
Conic section
P
M
Focal axis x
Vertex 0
Focus (F)
Directrix
Figure 8.8: Conic section
328
Conics
From figure 8.8, we have

PF = e PM where M is a foot of perpendicularity of
line joining P to directrix, P point lying on conic and F
focal point.
Focal axis is a line passing through the focus and
perpendicular to the directrix.
Vertex is a point where the conic intersects its axis.
1. Single point: This is formed when the plane passes

through the vertex horizontally, i.e. parallel to the
base.
2. Single line: This is formed when the plane passes
through the vertex and along the generator.
3. Pair of lines: This is the section formed when the plane
passes through the vertex. In this case, the section is
a pair of straight lines passing through the vertex.
Lesson 8.2. Definition and equation of a parabola

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define a
parabola and determine its equation accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Distance between two points.
࿌࿌ Distance from appoint to a straight line.
Teaching Aids
329

skills
Answers
1. Choose some point having coordinates ( x, y ) . The
distance between this point and ( 5,3) is given by
( x − 5 ) + ( y − 3)
2 2
.
The distance between point ( x, y ) and ( 2,1) is given
( x − 2 ) + ( y − 1)
2 2
by .
Equating these distances, as the point ( x, y ) is to be
equidistant from the two given points, we have
( x − 5 ) + ( y − 3) ( x − 2 ) + ( y − 1)
2 2 2 2
=
Squaring both sides, we get
( x − 5 ) + ( y − 3) = ( x − 2 ) + ( y − 1)
2 2 2 2
Expanding, we have
x 2 − 10 x + 25 + y 2 − 6 y + 9 = x 2 − 4 x + 4 + y 2 − 2 y + 1
Cancelling and combining like terms, we get
4 y + 5 =−6 x + 34
Or
4y =−6 x + 29
3
This is the equation of a straight line with slope −
2
and y intercept 29 .
4
330
Conics
2. Choose some point on the curve having coordinates

( x, y ) .
The distance from the point ( x, y ) on the curve to
( x + 3) + ( y − y ) = ( x + 3) .
2 2 2
the line x = −3 is
The distance from the point ( x, y ) on the curve to the
point ( 3, 0 ) is ( x − 3) + ( y − 0 ) = ( x − 3)
2 2 2
+ y2 .
Equating the two distances yields
( x + 3)
= ( x − 3) + y 2
2 2
Squaring and expanding both sides, we get

x2 + 6 x + 9 = x2 − 6x + 9 + y 2
Cancelling and collecting like terms yields y 2 = 12 x
which is an equation of a curve.
3. Curve
y
6
5
y 2 = 12 x
4
1
x
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
Synthesis
A parabola is set of points P ( x, y ) in the plane equidistant
from a fixed point F, called focus and a fixed line d, called
directrix. In the figure below PF = PM , where M ∈ d .
331
Conic section
P
M
Focal axis x
Vertex 0
Focus (F)
Directrix
The equation of a parabola, whose focus at point ( a, 0 )

and directrix with equation x = −a , is given by y 2 = 4ax .
The standard forms of the equation of parabola with
vertices at the point V ( h, k ) are as follows:
( y − k ) = 4a ( x − h ) , parabola opens to the right.
2
1.
(y −k) = −4a ( x − h ) , parabola opens to the left.
2
2.
( x − h ) = 4a ( y − k ) , parabola opens upward.
2
3.
( x − h) = −4a ( y − k ) , parabola opens downward.
2
4.
1. Focus is ( −2, 0 ) , directrix is x = 2

2. a) Sketch:
332
Conics
b) Sketch:
c) Sketch:
d) Sketch:
333
25
3. a) Focus  25 , 0  ; directrix x = − ; length of latus
 4  4
25
rectum 25; equation of latus rectum x = ; ends
4
 25 25 
of latus rectum  25 , − 25  and  , −  .
 4 2   4 2 
b) Focus ( 0, 2 ) ; directrix y = −2 ; length of latus
rectum 8; equation of latus rectum y = 2 ; ends of
latus rectum ( 4, 2 ) and ( −4, 2 ) .
 5 5
c) Focus  0, −  ; directrix y = ; length of latus
 4 4
5
rectum 5; equation of latus rectum y = − ; ends
4
 5 5  5 5
of latus rectum  , −  and  − , − 
2 4  2 4
4. ( y − 2 ) = 12 ( x − 1)
2
2
5. a) x = −8 y y2 4 ( x + 4)
b) =
c) 4 x 2 + 4 xy + y 2 + 4 x + 32 y + 16 =
0
7  41 
6. a) b)  ,1 ; ( 3,1)
4  16 
7. (1,3)
Lesson 8.3. Tangent line and normal line

on a parabola
Learning objectives
Given equation of parabola, learners should be able to find
equation of tangent line and normal line at a given point and
draw them accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Equation of tangent at a point on a curve.
࿌࿌ Equation of normal line at a point on a curve.
࿌࿌ Differentiation.
Teaching Aids
334
Conics

skills
Answers
1. T ≡ y − y=
o m ( x − xo )
Differentiating with respect to x yields
dy dy 2a 2a
2y = 4a ⇒ = and m =
dx dx y yo
Then,
2a
T ≡ y−= yo ( x − xo )
yo
⇔ yo y − yo yo = 2a ( x − xo ) ⇔ yo y − 4axo = 2ax − 2axo
⇔ yo y − 4axo = 2ax − 2axo since y0 y= 0 y=2
0 4ax0
⇔ yo y = 2ax − 2axo + 4ax ⇔ yo y = 2ax + 2axo
⇔ yo y = 2a ( x + xo )
Therefore, T ≡ yo y = 2a ( x + xo )
2. Equation of normal line:
1 dy
N ≡ y − yo =− ( x − xo ) , with m =
m dx x = xo
Then,
yo
N ≡ y − yo =− ( x − xo ) ⇔ 2ay − 2ayo =
− yo x + yo xo
2a
⇒ 2ayo y − 2ayo yo = − yo yo x + yo yo xo
⇒ 2ayo y − 2ay02 =
− y02 x + y02 xo
335
⇒ 2ayo y − 8a 2 xo =
−4axo x + 4ax02
−2 xo x + 2 x 2 o
⇔ yo y − 4axo =
−2 xo ( x − xo )
⇔ yo y − yo yo =
−2 xo ( x − xo ) .
Therefore, N ≡ yo y − yo yo =
3. The tangent line of y 2 = 2 x at ( 0, 0 ) :
Since the tangent line at point ( x0 , y0 ) , on parabola
y 2 = 4ax , is given by
1 1
T ≡ y0 y = 2a ( x + x0 ) , here, y 2 = 4   x . So a =
.
2 2
1
0 y 2   ( x + 0 ) or
Then the tangent line is T ≡=
2
tangent line has equation x = 0 .
The line x = 0 touches the parabola y 2 = 2 x once at

( 0, 0 ) , as it is its tangent at ( 0, 0 ) .
Synthesis
The tangent line at point ( x0 , y0 ) , on parabola y 2 = 4ax ,
is given by T ≡ y0 y = 2a ( x + x0 ) , and the normal line at
−2 xo ( x − xo ) .
the same point is N ≡ yo y − yo yo =
336
Conics
1. −6
2. Focus is F ( −2, 4 ) , vertex is V ( −2, −3) , equation of
axis is x + 2 =0 , equation of directrix is y + 2 = 0,
equation of tangent at vertex is y + 3 = 0.
3. 2 y = x + 8, y + 2 x + 1 = 0
3
4. y + tx = 2at + at ;0, ± 2
Lesson 8.4. Definition and equation of an ellipse

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define an
ellipse and determine its equation accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Distance from a point to a straight line.
Teaching Aids

skills
337
Answers
1. Choose some point on the curve having coordinates
( x, y ) .
The distance from the point ( x, y ) on the curve to the
point ( 3, 0 ) is d1 = (3 − x ) + (0 − y ) (3 − x )
2 2 2
+ y2 . =
25
The distance from the point ( x, y ) to the line x =
3
2
is d =  25  25
 − x  + ( y − y) = −x.
2
2
 3  3
d1 3 3
Since = ⇒ d1 = d 2 , then,
d2 5 5
3  25 
(3 − x )
2 2
+ y=
 − x
5 3 
Squaring both sides and expanding, we get
9
9 − 6 x + x 2 + y 2 = 25 − 6 x + x 2
25
Collecting like terms and transposing give
16 2
x + y2 = 16
25 2 2
Dividing each term by 16, we see that x + y = 1.
25 16
This equation is of an ellipse.
2. Sketch of the curve:
y
5
4 x2 y2
+ 1
=
25 16
3
1
x
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
338
Conics
Synthesis
We define an ellipse with eccentricity e (where 0 < e < 1 )
to be the set of points P in the plane whose distance from
a fixed point F is e times their distance from a fixed line.
Y
a
x=
e
b
C
P ( x, y )
y M
0 F ( ae, 0 ) x a X
For any point P ( x, y ) on the ellipse, we have

=PF ePM , M ∈ D , where D is the directrix with
a
equation x = .
e
( ae − x ) + ( 0 − y ) ( ae − x )
2 2 2
PF = d1 = = + y2 .
a
( ae − x ) + ( y − y )
2 2
PM =d 2 = = −x
e .
Since PF = ePM , then,
( ae − x )
2
+ y 2 =a − ex
Squaring both sides and expanding, we get
a 2 e 2 − 2aex + x 2 + y 2 = a 2 − 2aex + e 2 x 2
Collecting terms
(1 − e ) x
2 2
+ y 2 = a 2 (1 − e 2 )
Dividing each term by a 2 (1 − e 2 ) , we get
x2 y2
+ 1
=
a 2 a 2 (1 − e 2 )
339
b 2 a 2 (1 − e 2 ) , this gives
Writing=
x2 y 2
+ =1
a 2 b2
This is equation ellipse centred at ( 0, 0 ) in standard form.
x2 y 2
For the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, b 2 = a 2 (1 − e 2 ) with e < 1 , we
a b
a
have two foci at ( ± ae, 0 ) and two directices x = ± .
e
When the centre of ellipse is located at some point
other than ( 0, 0 ) , say the point ( xo , yo ) , the equation of
( x − xo ) ( y − yo )
2 2
ellipse in standard form is + 1.

=
a2 b2
( )
1. 0, 2 and 0, − 2 ( )
2 2
2. 3 x + 7 y =115
x2 y 2
3. + 1
=
12 16
4. a) Sketch
340
Conics
b) Curve
c) Curve
5. 16 x 2 + 9 y 2 − 64 x − 54 y + 1 =0
( x − 2) ( y − 3)
2 2
⇒ =1 +
9 16
(
Foci are 2,3 + 7 and 2,3 − 7 ) ( )
2 3 3
6. a) e = b) e = c) e =
2 3 2
7. 7 or 13
8. 13 : 5
341

ellipse
Learning objectives
Given equation of ellipse, learners should be able to find
tangent line and normal line at a given point and draw them
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Equation of tangent line.
࿌࿌ Equation of normal line.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. Equation of tangent line T ≡ y − y=
o m ( x − xo ) where
dy
m=
dx x = xo
Differentiating with respect to x gives

2 2 dy dy b2 x
x+ 2 y =0 or = −
a2 b dx dx a2 y
b 2 xo
Then, m = −
a 2 yo
b2 x
And T ≡ y − yo = − 2 o ( x − xo )
a yo
342
Conics
− b 2 xo ( x − xo )
⇔ a 2 yo y − a 2 yo yo =
⇔ a 2 yo y + b 2 xo x = b 2 xo xo + a 2 yo yo ,
since b 2 xo xo + a 2 yo yo =
a 2b 2
2 2
a 2b 2
Thus a yo y + b xo x =
Dividing each term by a 2b 2 , we get
yo y xo x xx y y
+ 2 = 1 or o2 + o2 = 1
b 2
a a b
xx y y
Therefore, T ≡ o2 + o2 = 1
a b
y2
2. The tangent line to the curve x 2 + = 1 at ( 0,3) is
9
( 0) x + 3 y =
1 or T ≡ y = 3.
given by T ≡
1 9
Curve:
y T ≡y=
3
3
2
y2
x2 + 1
=
9
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
Synthesis
x2 y 2
The tangent line at point ( x0 , y0 ) , on ellipse 2 + 2 =1,
a b
x0 x y0 y
is given by: T ≡ 2 + 2 = 1
a b
343
3
1. ±
2
2. y = −1.155 x + 4
3. k =−4 at ( −2, −1) ; k = 4 at ( 2,1)
4. At ( 0, 0 ) : T ≡ y =−2 x , at ( 0, 2 ) : T ≡ y = 2 x + 2,
6− 6 6+ 6 6± 6
5. a) <m< b) m =
4 4 4
6− 6 6+ 6
c) m < or m >
4 4
Lesson 8.6. Definition and equation of a

hyperbola
Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define
hyperbola and find its equation accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Distance from a point to a straight line.
Teaching Aids

skills
344
Conics
Answers
If the difference of the distances from any point P ( x, y )
on conic to the two foci is 2a , thus
(c − x) + (0 − y ) ( −c − x ) + ( 0 − y )
2 2 2 2
PF1 − PF2 = 2a ⇔ − = 2a
(c − x) (c + x)
2 2
⇔ + y2 − + y2 =
2a
Transposing one term from the left side to the right side
and squaring, we get
⇔ ( c − x ) + y 2 = 4a 2 + 4a (c + x) + y2 + (c + x) + y2
2 2 2
(c + x)
2
⇔ c 2 − 2cx + x 2 = 4a 2 + 4a + y 2 + c 2 + 2cx + x 2
(c + x)
2
= 4a 2 + 4a
⇔ −2cx + y 2 + 2cx
⇔ −4 ( cx +=
a 2 ) 4a ( c + x ) + y 2 ⇔ − ( cx + =
a2 ) a
2
(c + x)
2
+ y2
Squaring again both sides and expanding, we have
⇔ c 2 x 2 + 2cxa 2 + a=
4
a 2 ( c 2 + 2cx + x 2 + y 2 )
⇔ c 2 x 2 + 2cxa 2 + a 4 =a 2 c 2 + 2cxa 2 + a 2 x 2 + a 2 y 2
⇔ c 2 x 2 − a 2 x 2 − a 2 y 2 = a 2c 2 − a 4 ⇔ x 2 ( c 2 − a 2 ) − a 2 y 2= a 2 ( c 2 − a 2 )
Since=c a 2 + b 2 thus c 2 − a 2 =
b 2 and
x 2 ( c 2 − a 2 ) − a 2 y 2= a 2 ( c 2 − a 2 ) ⇔ x 2b 2 − a 2 y 2 =
a 2b 2
Dividing both sides by a 2b 2 , we get
x2 y 2
− =1
a 2 b2
This is equation of hyperbola.
Synthesis
We define a hyperbola to be the set of all points P in the
plane, the difference of whose distances from two fixed
points, called foci, is a constant equal to 2a .
345
y
Directrix Directrix
F1 Center F2 x
Focus 0 Focus Focal axis
Transverse axis
In standard form a hyperbola is given by the Conjugate axis
x2 y2
equation − 1 ; this hyperbola has two foci
=
a 2 b2
a2
( ± c, 0 ) , c 2 =
a 2 + b2 and two directrices x = ± .
a
c a 2 + b2
Eccentricity of the hyperbola is e= = , e > 1.
a a
If the hyperbola has centre at ( h, k ) , then the equation
( x − h) (y −k)
2 2
is − 1.
=
a2 b2
1. a) Curve
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
346
Conics
Vertices: ( 0, ±2 )
13
Eccentricity is e =
2
(
Foci: 0, 13 and 0, − 13 ) ( )
2 2
Asymptotes: y = x and y = − x .
3 3
b) Curve
12 y
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 x
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-1
-2
-3
-4
Vertices: ( 5, 4 ) and ( −1, 4 )

13
Eccentricity is e =
3
(
Foci: 2 + 13, 4 and 2 − 13, 4 ) ( )
2 8 2 16
Asymptotes: =y x + and y = − x+
3 3 3 3
c) Curve
16 y
14
12
10
8
6
4
2 x
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
-20
-22
347
Vertices: ( −2,3) and ( −2, −9 )

10
Eccentricity is e =
3
( )
Foci: −2, −3 + 2 10 and −2, −3 − 2 10 ( )
Asymptotes: = y 3 x + 3 and y =−3 x − 9
2. Foci are ( 0, −5 ) and ( 0, 5 ) , vertices are ( 0, −4 ) and
4
( 0, 4 ) , asymptotes: y = ± 3 x
3. a) Length of transverse axis is 2a = 6 ; conjugate
axis is 2b = 8 .
Eccentricity a 2 + b 2 5 , coordinates of foci

=
a 3
( ± ae, 0 ) =
( ±5, 0 ) , coordinates of vertices
V ( ± a, 0 ) =
( ±3, 0 ) .
b) Length of transverse axis is 2a = 2 3 ; conjugate
axis is 2b = 2 2 .
a 2 + b2 15
Eccentricity = , coordinates of
a 3
foci ( ± ae, 0 ) = ( )
± 5, 0 , coordinates of vertices
V ( ± a, 0 ) = (
± 3, 0 . )
c) Length of transverse axis is 2b = 8 ; conjugate
axis is 2a = 2 .
Eccentricity a 2 + b2 17 , coordinates of foci

=
a 4
( )
( 0, ±be ) = 0, ± 17 , coordinates of vertices
V ( 0, ±b ) = ( 0, ±4 ) .
2 2
4. y − x =1
64 36
348
Conics
5. x 2 − y 2 − 4 x + 8 y − 21 =
0
( x − 2) ( y − 4)
2 2
⇒ − = 1
9 9
Vertices: ( −1, 4 ) , ( 5, 4 )
( )(
Foci: 2 − 3 2, 4 , 2 + 3 2, 4 )
Asymptotes: y − 4 =± ( x − 2 )
2
6. a) 7 x + 24 xy − 56 x − 6 y + 68 =
0
b) 9 x 2 − 16 y 2 − 36 x + 96 y − 252 =
0
2 2
7. 21x − 4 y − 84 =
0

hyperbola
Learning objectives
Given equation of hyperbola, learners should be able to find
equation of tangent line and normal line at a given point and
draw them accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Equation of tangent line.
࿌࿌ Equation of normal line.
Teaching Aids

skills
349
Answers
Equation of tangent line T ≡ y − y=
o m ( x − xo ) where
dy
m=
dx x = xo
Differentiating with respect to x gives

2 2 dy dy b 2 x
x − y =0 or =
a2 b 2 dx dx a 2 y
b2 x
Then, m = 2 o
a yo
b 2 xo
And T ≡ y=− yo ( x − xo )
a 2 yo
⇔ a 2 yo y − a 2 yo yo = b 2 xo ( x − xo )
⇔ a 2 yo y − b 2 xo x =
−b 2 xo xo + a 2 yo yo , as
b 2 xo xo − a 2 yo yo =
a 2b 2
a 2 yo y − b 2 xo x = − a 2b 2
Dividing each term by −a 2b 2 , we get
y y xx xx y y
− o2 + o2 = 1 or o2 − o2 = 1
b a a b
xo x yo y
Therefore, T ≡ 2 − 2 = 1
a b
Synthesis
The tangent line at point ( x0 , y0 ) , on hyperbola
x2 y 2 xx y y
− 2 =1 , is given by T ≡ 02 − 02 = 1.
a 2
b a b
1
1. 4 2. y =
− x+5
4
3. 15 x + 4 y + 9 =0 4. 3   3 
 13, −9  ,  − 13, −9 
2   2 
350
Conics
Lesson 8.8. Definition of polar coordinates

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define
polar coordinates, convert polar coordinates to Cartesian
coordinates, and sketch a curve in polar form accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Polar form of a complex number.
࿌࿌ Converting a complex number from polar form to
algebraic form.
Teaching Aids

skills
Answers
1. a) z = 1+1 = 2 b) z = 1+1 = 2
1 π
2. cos θ = ⇒ θ =± + 2 kπ
2 4
π
1  4 + 2kπ
sin θ = ⇒ θ= 
2  3π + 2kπ
 4
π
As −π < θ ≤ π , we take θ = .
4
351
Synthesis
To form a polar coordinate system in the plane, we fix a
point 0 called the pole (or origin) and construct from 0
an initial ray called the polar axis. Then each point P
in the plane can be assigned polar coordinates ( r , θ ) as
follows:
࿌࿌ r is the directed distance from O to P .
࿌࿌ θ is the directed angle, counterclockwise from
polar axis to the segment OP.
To convert rectangular coordinates ( a, b ) to polar
coordinates is the same as to find the modulus and
argument of complex number z= a + bi .
y
P ( x, y )
y
r sin θ
θ x
0
r cos θ x
cos θ , y r sin θ ; ox
OP , x r=
From the above figure r ==
is a polar axis.
1. a) and e); b and g; c) and h); d) and f)

2. a) ( 2, 2kπ ) and ( −2, ( 2k + 1) π ) , k ∈ 
b) ( 2, ( 2k + 1) π ) and ( −2, 2kπ ) , k ∈ 
 π   π 
c)  2, + 2kπ  and  −2, + ( 2k + 1) π  , k ∈ 
 2   2 
 3π   3π 
d)  2, + 2kπ  and  −2, + ( 2k + 1) π  , k ∈ 
 2   2 
352
Conics
(
3. a) ( 3, 0 ) b) ( −3, 0 ) c) −1, 3 )
d) (1, 3 ) e) ( 3, 0 ) f) (1, 3 )
g) ( −3, 0 ) h) ( −1, 3 )
1 b) x = 3 c) x = y
4. a) x + y =
x2 y 2
d) x − 3 y =
3 e) x 2 + y 2 =
9 f) + 1
=
16 25
g) x + ( y − 2 ) =4 h) ( x − 3) + ( y + 1) =
2 2 2 2
4
2
i) y = 3 x
Lesson 8.9. Polar equation of a conic

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to find polar
equation of a conic or change from polar equation to Cartesian
equation accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Cartesian equation of a conic.
࿌࿌ Conversion formulae from polar form to Cartesian form
and vice versa.
Teaching Aids

skills
353
Answers
1. Polar coordinates
y
x= r cos θ , y =r sin θ , r 2 =
x 2 + y 2 , tan θ = , x≠0
x
y 2 =+1 2 x ⇔ y 2 =2 x + 1 ⇔ y 2 − 2 x = 1
⇔ r 2 sin 2 θ − 2r cos θ =
1
6
a) r
2. = ⇔ 2r + r cos
= θ 6
2 + cos θ
⇔ 2 x2 + y 2 + x = 6
⇔ 2 x 2 + y 2 =6 − x
Squaring both sides gives
4 ( x 2 + y 2 ) =( 6 − x ) ⇔ 4 x 2 + 4 y 2 =36 − 12 x + x 2
2
36 ⇔ 3 ( x 2 + 4 x ) + 4 y 2 =
⇔ 3 ( x2 + 4 x ) + 4 y 2 = 36
⇔ 3( x + 2) + 4 y =
48 ⇔ 3 ( x + 2 )2 + 4 y 2 =
48
Dividing each term by 48, we get

( x + 2)
2
y2
⇔ + 1
=
16 12
b) This is equation of a horizontal ellipse of
centre ( −2, 0 ) , major axis 8, minor axis 4 3 ,
eccentricity
a 2 − b2 16 − 12 1 , vertices ( 2, 0 ) , ( −6, 0 ) ,
=e = =
a 4 2
foci ( 0, 0 ) , ( −4, 0 ) .
Synthesis
Using polar coordinates, there is an alternative way to
define a conic. In polar equation of a conic, the pole is the
focus of the conic. We use the following relations:
y
x= r cos θ , y = r sin θ , r2 = x 2 + y 2 , tan θ = , x≠0
x
354
Conics
The polar equation of conic with eccentricity e, focus at the

ep
origin, whose directrix x = − p has equation r =
1 + e cos θ
where ( r , θ ) are polar coordinates of any point P lying on
the conic.
The given conic is an ellipse if e < 1 , a circle if ,a
parabola if e = 1 , a hyperbola if e > 1 .
1 2
1. a) r = b) r =
1 + cos θ 1 − 2sin θ
2
2 2
2 b) x = 2 − 4 y
2. a) 3 x + 4 y − 4 x =
k
3. r
= ⇔ r + er
= cos θ k
1 + e cos θ
k ⇔ x 2 + y 2 =k − ex
⇔ x 2 + y 2 + ex =
Squaring both sides, we get
x 2 + y 2 = k 2 − 2kex + e2 x 2 ⇔ x 2 − e 2 x 2 + y 2 + 2kex − k 2 =
0
⇔ (1 − e 2 ) x 2 + y 2 + 2kex − k 2 =
0 as required.
Lesson 8.10. Polar equation of a straight line

Learning objectives
Given Cartesian equation of a straight line, learners should
be able to find polar equation of that straight line or change
from polar equation to Cartesian equation accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Cartesian equation of a straight line.
and vice versa.
Teaching Aids
355

skills
Answers
Polar coordinates = cos, y r sin θ .
are x r=
Replacing x and y by their values from polar coordinates
in 3 x − 2 y + 6 =0 , we get
3 ( r cos θ ) − 2 ( r sin θ ) + 6 =0 ⇔ 3r cos θ − 2r sin θ =
−6
⇔ r ( 3cos θ − 2sin θ ) =
−6 ⇔ −r ( 2sin θ − 3cos θ ) = −6
6 1 1 1
⇔ 2sin θ − 3cos θ = ⇔= sin θ − cos θ
r r 3 2
Synthesis
The polar equation of a straight line is
1
= A cos θ + B sin θ , A, B ∈  and A and B are not
r
all zero.
From general equation of a line in Cartesian plane, we get
the polar equation of the given line.
In fact, Ax + By + C =⇔ 0 Ax + By =−C ⇔ Ax + By =
−C
⇔ Ar cos θ + Br sin θ = −C
⇔ r ( A cos θ + B sin θ ) =−C
C
⇔ A cos θ + B sin θ =−
r
Therefore, the polar equation of a straight line
C
Ax + By + C = 0 is A cos θ + B sin θ =− .
r
356
Conics
Excercise 8.10 Learner’s Book page 428
4 2
1. r = 2. r =
cos θ + 3 sin θ cos θ − sin θ
3 5
3. r = 4. r =
3 cos θ − 2sin θ cos θ − 2sin θ
Lesson 8.11. Polar form of a circle

Learning objectives
Given a Cartesian equation of a circle, learners should be
able to find polar equation of that circle or change from polar
equation to Cartesian equation correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Cartesian equation of a circle.
and vice versa.
Teaching Aids
skills
357
Answers
From the figure below,
OC ρ=
= , OP r=
, CP R
y
P ( r ,θ )
R
C ( ρ ,α )
r
ρ
x
0 Polar axis
2 2 2
Cosine law here is: CP = CO + OP − 2OC OP cos (θ − α )
⇒ R 2 = ρ 2 + r 2 − 2 ρ r cos (θ − α )
⇒ r 2 = R 2 − ρ 2 + 2 ρ r cos (θ − α )
Synthesis
The polar equation of a circle with centre ( ρ ,α ) and
radius R is
r 2 = R 2 − ρ 2 + 2r ρ cos (θ − α )
r = 4sin θ
1. r = 6 cos θ 2.
r = −2sin θ
3. r = − cos θ 4.
358
Conics
Lesson 8.12. Applications of conics

Learning objectives
By reading textbooks or accessing internet, learners should
be able to apply conics in real life problems perfectly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Equations of conics.
Teaching Aids

skills
࿌࿌ Research and problem solving
Answers
The Pythagorean concept of a spherical Earth offers a

simple surface that is mathematically easy to deal with.
Many astronomical and navigational computations use it
as a surface representing the Earth.
359
The idea of a planar or flat surface for Earth, however,

is still sufficient for surveys of small areas, as the local
topography is far more significant than the curvature.
Plane-table surveys are made for relatively small areas,
and no account is taken of the curvature of the Earth. A
survey of a city would likely be computed as though the
Earth were a plane surface; the size of the city. For such
small areas, exact positions can be determined relative to
each other without considering the size and shape of the
entire Earth.
The simplest model for the shape of the entire Earth is
a sphere. The Earth’s radius is the distance from Earth’s
centre to its surface, about 6,371 kilometres (3,959 mi).
While “radius” normally is a characteristic of perfect
spheres, the Earth deviates from a perfect sphere by
only a third of a percent, sufficiently close to treat it as
a sphere in many contexts and justifying the term “the
radius of the Earth”.
Synthesis
The orbits of planets are ellipses with the sun at one
focus. For most planets, these ellipses have very small
eccentricity, so they are nearly circular. However, the
Mercury and Pluto, the innermost and outermost known
planets, have visibly elliptical orbits.
360
Conics
1. a) 6 cm b) 10 cm
2. a) (i) 7 5 ii) 7 5 − 13 =
133mm
b) (i) 1 ii) AC has equation y =− x + 10
3. ( x − 5 ) + ( y − 13) =
2 2
9
4. 5m
5. The minimum altitude is 272 miles above the Earth
The maximum altitude is 648 miles above the Earth.
x2 y2
6. − = 1
900 14400.3636
7. Then the equation for the elliptical ceiling is:
x 2 ( y − 5)
2
+ =1 and the height of the ceiling above

625 400
each whispering point is y = 21 .
Summary of the unit
1. Generalities on conic sections

Parabolas, circles, ellipses and hyperbolas are called conics
because they are curves in which planes intersect right
circular cones.
2. Parabola
A parabola is the set of all points in plane that are equidistant
from a fixed line (called directrix) and a fixed point (called
focus) not on the line.
361
Important result relating to different parabolas

Equation y 2 = 4ax x 2 = 4ay
Focus ( a, 0 ) ( 0, a )
Directrix x = −a y = −a
Principal axis(the line through
the focus perpendicular to the y=0 x=0
directrix)
Vertex (point where the
parabola crosses its principal ( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 0 )
axis)
Length of latus rectum (length
of chord through a focus and
4a 4a
perpendicular to the principal
axis)
Equation of latus rectum x=a y=a
Ends of latus rectum ( a, ±2a ) ( ±2a, a )
Replacing x with (x−h) has the effect of shifting the graph of
an equation by h units to the right if h is positive, to the left

if h is negative.
Similarly, replacing y with (y−k) has the effect of shifting the
graph by k units up if k is positive and down if k is negative.
(y −k) = 4 p ( x − h) ( x − h) = 4p( y − k)
2 2
Equation
Focus ( h + p, k ) ( h, k + p )
Directrix x= h − p y= k − p
Principal axis(the line
through the focus
y=k x=h
perpendicular to the
directrix)
362
Conics
Vertex (point where

the parabola crosses ( h, k ) ( h, k )
its principal axis)
Parametric equations of parabola are

 x = at 2
 where t is a parameter.
 y = 2 at
The tangent line at point ( x0 , y0 ) , on parabola y = 4ax , is
2
given by
T ≡ y0 y = 2a ( x + x0 )
3. Ellipse
Ellipse is a set of all points in the plane, the sum of whose
distances from two fixed points (called foci) is a given positive
constant.
Important facts to different ellipses
Equation of Standard x2 y 2 x2 y 2
form + = 1, a > b > 0 + = 1, 0 < a < b
a 2 b2 a 2 b2
Coordinates of centre
( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 0 )
Coordinates of and ( − a, 0 ) and ( 0, −b )
( a, 0 ) ( 0,b )
vertices
Length of major axis 2a 2b
Equation of major y=0 x=0
axis
Length of minor axis 2b 2a
Equation of minor x=0 y=0
axis
Eccentricity (ratio of a 2 − b2 b2 − a 2
2
b= a 2 (1 − e 2 ) ⇒ =
e
2
a= b 2 (1 − e 2 ) ⇒ =
e
semi-focal separation a b
and the semi-major

axis)
363
Coordinates of foci
( ae, 0 ) and ( − ae, 0 ) ( 0,be ) and ( 0, −be )
(
⇔ ± a 2 − b2 , 0 ) (
⇔ 0, ± b 2, − a 2 )
Equation of a b
directrices
x= ± y= ±
e e
Length of latus 2b 2 2a 2
rectum
a b
Equations of latus x = ± ae y = ±be
rectum
Parametric equations of ellipse with centre ( xo , yo ) are

=x xo + a cos t
 where t is a parameter and t ∈ ( −π , π ] .
 y
= y o + b sin t
x2 y 2
The tangent line at point ( x0 , y0 ) , on ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 , is
a b
given by
x0 x y0 y
T≡ + 2 = 1
a2 b
4. Hyperbola
Hyperbola is a set of all points in the plane, the difference
of whose distances from two fixed points (foci) is a given
positive constant
Important facts to different hyperbolas
Equation of Standard x2 y 2 x2 y 2
− 1
= − −1
=
form a 2 b2 a 2 b2
Coordinates of centre ( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 0 )
Coordinates of vertices ( a, 0 ) and ( − a, 0 ) ( 0,b ) and ( 0, −b )
Length of transverse
2a 2b
axis
Equation of transverse
y=0 x=0
axis
364
Conics
Equation of conjugate
x=0 y=0
axis
( ae, 0 ) and ( − ae, 0 ) ( 0,be ) and ( 0, −be )
( ) ( )
Coordinates of foci
⇔ ± a 2 + b2 , 0 ⇔ 0, ± a 2 + b 2
a b
Equation of directrices x= ± y= ±
e e
2b 2 2a 2
Length of latus rectum
a b
Equations of latus
x = ± ae y = ±be
rectum
Eccentricity b 2 a 2 (1 − e 2 )
= a 2 b 2 (1 − e 2 )
=
Parametric equations of hyperbola whose centre ( xo , yo ) are

=x xo + a sec t
 where t is a parameter and
=y yo + b tan t
 π π   π 3π 
t ∈ − ,  ∪  , 
 2 2 2 2 
2 2
The tangent line at point ( x0 , y0 ) , on hyperbola x − y =1,
a 2 b2
is given by
x0 x y0 y
T≡ − 2 = 1
a2 b
5. Polar coordinates
To form a polar coordinate system in the plane, we fix a point
0 called the pole (or origin) and construct from 0 an initial
ray called the polar axis. Then, each point P in the plane can
be assigned polar coordinates ( r , θ ) as follows:
࿌࿌ r is the directed distance from 0 to P.
࿌࿌ θ is the directed angle, counterclockwise from polar
axis to the segment OP .
365
In polar coordinate system, the coordinates ( r , θ ) ,

( r , θ + 2 kπ ) , k ∈  and ( −r , θ + (2k + 1)π ) represent the
same point.
Coordinate conversion
The polar coordinates ( r , θ ) of a point are related to the
rectangular coordinates ( x, y ) as follows:
y
r cos θ , y =
x= r sin θ , r2 =
x2 + y 2 , tan θ = , x≠0
x
Polar equation of a conic
A conic curve with eccentricity e , focus at the origin, whose
ep
directrix x = − p has equation r = where ( r , θ )
1 + e cos θ
are polar coordinates of any point P lying on the conic.
It is an ellipse if e < 1 , a parabola if e = 1 , a hyperbola if
e >1.
6. Applications
Eccentricities of orbits of the planets
The orbits of planets are ellipses with the sun at one focus.
For most planets, these ellipses have very small eccentricity,
so they are nearly circular. However, the Mercury and Pluto,
the innermost and outermost known planets, have visibly
elliptical orbits.
366
Conics
1. a) Parabola, focus ( 0, −2 ) , principal axis is x = 0 .

b) Ellipse, foci ( ±1, 0 ) , semi-major axis 2 , semi-minor
axis 1.
 1 
c) Parabola, focus  − , 0  , principal axis is y = 0 .
 12 
d) Hyperbola, foci ( 0, ±4 ) , transverse axis x = 0 ,
conjugate axis y = 0 , asymptotes y = ± x .
 15 
e) Parabola, focus  ,1 , principal axis is y = 1 .
4 
( )
f) Hyperbola, foci ± 10, 0 , transverse axis is y = 0 ,
conjugate axis x = 0 , asymptotes y = ±2 x .
 109 91  
2. a) Intersection:  , − 
 10 20  
367
 10   10  
b) Intersection:  ,5  ,  − ,5  
 2   2  
c) Intersection: {( −2,1) , ( −2, −1) , ( 2,1) , ( 2, −1)}
368
Conics
d) Intersection: {( 2, 3 ) , ( 2, − 3 ) , ( −2, 3 ) , ( −2, − 3 )}
( x − 4) ( y − 3)
2 2
3. + = 1
32 36
4. 8 xy − 4 x − 4 y + 1 =0
5. a) The line y = kx intersects the given conic once, when
there is a unique solution.
As AC − B 2 =
0, the given conic is a parabola.
Solving the equations of line and conic taken together,
we get equation ( 2 − k ) x + 6 x + 1 =0.
2 2
If k = 2 , we get a linear equation: 6 x + 1 =0.

1 1
⇒ x =− and y =−
6 3
 1 1
That is, the line touches the conic at  − , −  .
 6 3
If k ≠ 2 , we have quadratic equation which can be solved
using discriminant;
∆ = b 2 − 4ac ⇒ ∆ = 9 − ( 2 − k ) = ( 5 − k )(1 + k ) .
2
We have a unique solution if ∆ =0, i.e. k = 5 or k = −1 .
369
Therefore, the line y = kx intersects the given conic once

if k = 2 or k = 5 or k = −1 .
b) The line y = kx cuts the given conics in two points if
∆ > 0, −1 < k < 5 and k ≠ 2 .
c) The line y = kx does not intersect the given conics if
∆ < 0.
Thus, k < −1 or k > 5 .
6. a)
b)
370
Conics
c)
d)
e)
371
f)
7. a) ( y + 2 ) =4 ( x + 3) , V ( −3, −2 ) , F ( −1, −3) , D ≡ x =−3

2
b) ( x − 1) =8 ( y + 7 ) , V (1, −7 ) , F (1, −5 ) , D ≡ y =
2
−9
( x + 2 ) + ( y + 1)=
2 2
c)
6 9
( )
1, F −2, ± 3 − 1 ,V ( −2, ±3 − 1) , C ( −2, −1)
( x − 2 ) + ( y − 3)
2 2
d)=
3 2
(
1, F ( 3,3) and F (1,3) ,V ± 3 + 2,3 , C ( 2,3) )
( x − 2) ( y − 2)
2 2
e) − = 1, F ( 5,2 ) and F ( −1,2 ) ,V ( 4,2 ) and V ( 0,2 ) , C ( 2,2 ) ,

4 5
5
A ≡ ( y − 2) =
± ( x − 2)
2
( )
f) ( y + 1) − ( x + 1)= 1, F −1, 2 − 1 and F −1, − 2 − 1 ,
2 2
( )
V ( −1, 0 ) and V ( −1, −2 )
C ( −1, −1) , A ≡ ( y + 1) =± ( x + 1)
 7 7 3
( )
8. a) 3 3,3 b)  − ,
 2 2 
 c) 4 2, 4 2 ( )
 7 3 7
d) ( 5, 0 ) e)  − ,  f) ( 0, 0 )
 2 2
372
Conics
 11π   3π 
9. (i) a) ( 5, π ) b)  4,  c)  2, 
 6   2 
 5π   2π   π
d)  8 2,  e)  6,  f)  2, 
 4   3   4
 5π   π
(ii) a) ( −5, 0 ) b)  −4,  c)  −2, 
 6   2
 π  5π   5π 
d)  −8 2,  e)  −6,  f)  − 2, 
 4  3   4 
2 2
10. a) x + y =5; circle b) y = 4; straight line
2
c) y = 1 + 2 x; parabola d) x − 3 y − 8 y =
2 2
4; hyperbola
e) 3 y − 4 x =
5; straight line
2 2
f) 3 x + 4 y − 12 x =
36; ellipse
2 2
g) x + y + 4 x =
0; circle
11. a) Proof
b)
Planets Perihelion Aphelion
(astronomical units) (astronomical units)
Mercury 0.3075 0.4667
Venus 0.7184 0.7282
Earth 0.9833 1.0167
Mars 1.3817 1.6663
Jupiter 4.9512 5.4548
Saturn 9.0210 10.0570
Uranus 18.2977 20.0623
Neptune 29.8135 30.3065
373
c)
Planets Polar equation for the ellipse with
eccentricity e and semi-major axis a :
a (1 − e 2 )
r=
1 + e cos θ
Mercury 0.3707
r=
1 + 0.2056 cos θ
Venus 0.7233
r=
1 + 0.0068cos θ
Earth 0.9997
r=
1 + 0.0167 cos θ
Mars 1.5107
r=
1 + 0.0934 cos θ
Jupiter 5.1908
r=
1 + 0.0484 cos θ
Saturn 9.5109
r=
1 + 0.0543cos θ
Uranus 19.1394
r=
1 + 0.0460 cos θ
Neptune 30.0580
r=
1 + 0.082 cos θ
x2 y 2
12. 7.25 m 13. + =1
25 9
x2 y 2
14. + = 10 15 inches
1 15.
16 7
x2 y2
16. −
1.1025 7.8975
374
Unit 9 Random Variables
Key unit competence

Calculate and interpret the parameters of a random
variable (discrete or continuous) including binomial and
the Poisson distributions.

Random variable: A variable which can assume numerical
values each of which can correspond to
one and only one of the events.
Discrete random variable: Random variable which takes
only finite values between its limits.
Binomial distribution: Probability distribution for which
probabilities are of successive terms of the
binomial expansion ( q + p ) .
n
Poisson distribution: Discrete distribution used as a model

for the number of events in a specific time
period.
Continuous random variable: Random variable for which
the possible values are all real values in
some interval.

The problem statement: “A life insurance company has
determined that on the average it receives 10 death claims
per day. Find the probability that the company receives at
least five death claims on a randomly selected day.”
375
This problem is solved using a special distribution called

Poisson distribution that will be studied in this unit.
List of lessons
1 Probability density function of a discrete 3
random variable
2 Expected value, variance and standard 3
deviation of a discrete random variable
3 Cumulative distribution function of a 3
discrete random variable
4 Binomial distribution 4
deviation of a binomial distribution
6 Poisson distribution 4
7 Probability density function of a 4
continuous random variable
8 Cumulative distribution function of a 4
deviation of a continuous random variable
Total periods 33
Lesson development

discrete random variable
Learning objectives
discrete random variable and to find its probability distribution
correctly.
Prerequisites
Finding probability of an event.
Teaching Aids
376
Random Variables

skills
Answers
All balls are 6 with 4 red balls and 2 black balls
2 2 2 1
Probability of 0 red balls: P ( BBB ) = × × =
6 6 6 27
Probability of 1 red ball:
4 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 4 2
P ( RBB ) + P ( BRB ) + P ( BBR ) = × × + × × + × × =
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 9
Probability of 2 red balls:
4 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 4
P ( RRB ) + P ( RBR ) + P ( BRR ) = × × + × × + × × =
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 9
4 4 4 8
Probability of 3 red balls: P ( RRR ) = × × =
6 6 6 27
x 0 1 2 3
1 2 4 8
P
27 9 9 27
x takes on whole numbers only. The sum of obtained
probabilities is 1. This is the probability of the sample
space.
Synthesis
A variable X which can assume numerical values each of
which can correspond to one and only one of the events
is called a random variable (or stochastic variable). A
random variable X is said to be a discrete random variable,
if it takes only finite values between its limits.
377
It is convenient to introduce the probability function

P(=X x= i) pi , also called the probability distribution
satisfying
1. P ( =
X xi ) ≥ 0
2. ∑ P(=
i
X x=i) 1 , where the sum is taken over all
values of xi .
The probability density function (p.d.f), F ( x ) , is a
function that allocates probabilities to all distinct values
that X can take on.

3
1. X is a random variable if ∑ P(=
i =1
X i)
x= 1.
3
1 2 3
∑ P( X =
i =1
x )=
P ( X =+
i 2 ) P ( X =+
3) P ( X ==
4) + + =
6 6 6
1
Therefore, X is a random variable.

1 4
2. a) p = b) P ( X ≥ 2 ) =
10 5
1
3. a =
2
Lesson 9.2. Cumulative distribution of discrete

random variable
Learning objectives
Given a discrete random variable, learners should be able to
find its cumulative distribution precisely.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Probability density function of a discrete random variable.
Teaching Aids
378
Random Variables

skills
Answers
Cumulative probabilities are found by adding the
probability up to each column of the table. In the table, we
find the cumulative probability for one head by adding the
probabilities for zero and one. The cumulative probability
for two heads is found by adding the probabilities for
zero, one, and two. We continue with this procedure until
we reach the maximum number of heads, in this case
four, which should have a cumulative probability of 1.00
because 100% of trials must have four or fewer heads.
Then,
Heads 0 1 2 3 4
Probability 1 4 6 4 1
16 16 16 16 16
Cumulative 1 5 11 15 16
Probability
=1
16 16 16 16 16
Synthesis
To find a cumulative probability we add the probabilities
for all values qualifying as “less than or equal” to the
specified value. Then,
The cumulative distribution function of a random variable
( x) P ( X ≤ x) .
X is the function F=
379
1. Cumulative distribution function

0, x<0
1
 , 0 ≤ x <1

F ( x) =  4
3 , 1≤ x < 2
4
1, x≥2

2. Cumulative distribution
x 2 3 4 5 … 12
F ( x) 1 3 6 10 … 1
36 36 36 36
3. Probability distribution
x 1 2 3 4 5
P ( X = x) 1 1 1 1 1
5 5 5 5 5
Lesson 9.3. Expected value, variance and

standard deviation of a discrete
random variable
Learning objectives
Given a discrete random variable, learners should be able to
calculate the expected value, variance and standard deviation
correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Probability distribution of a discrete random variable.
Teaching Aids
380
Random Variables

skills
Answers
x P ( X = x) xP ( X = x ) x2 P ( X = x )
1 0.2 0.2 0.2
2 0.5 1 2.0
3 0.3 0.9 2.7
Sum 1.0 2.1 4.9
Synthesis
The expected value of random variable X, which is the
mean of the probability distribution of X, is denoted and
n
(X )
by µ E=
defined = ∑ x=
P( X
i =1
i xi ) .
The variance of random variable X is denoted and

defined by
( X ) E ( X 2 ) −  E ( X ) or
2
σ 2 Var
= =
( X ) E ( X 2 ) −  E ( X )
2
var
=
The standard deviation of random variable X, is
=σ SD
= (X ) Var ( X ) .
381
1. a) 1.9 b) 2.4 c) 0.4 d) 9.23
2 26 152 2 38
2. a) b) c) d)
3 9 81 9
3. Expected value: 3.5, variance: 2.9, standard
deviation: 1.7
Lesson 9.4. Binomial distribution

Learning objectives
binomial distribution and find its probability distribution
accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Powers.
࿌࿌ Combination of n objects taken from n objects.
Teaching Aids
skills
Answers
1. Probability of the sequence SSSSFFFFFF is
P ( S ) P ( S ) P ( S ) P ( S ) P ( F ) P ( F ) P ( F ) P ( F ) P ( F ) P ( F ) = ppppqqqqqq
= p4q6
382
Random Variables
2. From 1),
P ( S ) P ( S ) .... × P ( F ) P ( F ) ... =
pp.... × qq...
      
r times n − r times r times n − r times
= p r q n−r
3. Different combinations that produce 4 heads are
given by 10
C4 p 4 q 6 .
4. Different combinations that produce r heads in n
trials are given by n Cr p r q n − r .
Synthesis
The probability of obtaining r successes in n
independent trials is b ( r : n, p ) = Cr p q
n r n−r
for 0 ≤ r ≤ n
where p is the probability of a success in each trial. This
probability distribution is called the binomial distribution
since the values of the probabilities are successive
terms of the binomial expansion of ( q + p ) ; that is why
n
b ( r : n, p ) = nCr p r q n − r .
Each trial has two possible outcomes: success ( p ) and
failure ( q ) .
The outcome of the n trials are mutually independent and
there will be r successes and n − r failures.
15
1. 2. 0.92 3. 0.65536
64
4. 0.19 5. 0.51
6. a) 0.39 b) 0.35 c) 0.93
41
7. a) 0.26 b) c) 0.77
1679616
8183 16807
8. a) b)
8192 32768
383
Lesson 9.5. Expected value, variance and

standard deviation of a binomial
distribution
Learning objectives
Given a binomial random variable, learners should be able
to find expected value, variance and standard deviation
correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Binomial distribution
Teaching Aids
skills
Answers
n
1. E ( X ) = ∑ x P ( X = x ) = 0 × (1 − p ) + 1× p =
i =1
i i p
For n trials, E ( X ) = np
2. E ( X 2 ) = 02 × (1 − p ) + 12 p = p and for n trials
E ( X 2 ) = np
( X ) E ( X 2 ) −  E ( X )
2
Var
=
= np − [ np ]
2
= np − n 2 p 2
= np (1 − p )
= npq
384
Random Variables
Synthesis
Basing on the results from activity 9.5, the expected value
(or mean) of a binomial distribution of a discrete random
variable X is denoted and defined by = µ E= ( X ) np
where n is the number of trials and p is the probability of
success.
The variance of a binomial distribution of a discrete random
by σ 2 Var
variable X is denoted and defined = = ( X ) npq
where n is the number of trials, p is the probability of
success and q is the probability of failure.
The standard deviation of a binomial distribution of a
discrete random variable X is denoted and defined by
=σ Var ( X )
= npq .
1. np > npq, as q < 1

2. Mean is 30, standard deviation is 5
3. a) E ( X ) = 2.5 b) var ( X ) = 1.875
4. a) 0.117 b) 0.974
5. approximately 1 6. 11 7. ≈ 17
Lesson 9.6. Poisson distribution

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to identify a poison
distribution and solve problems using poison distribution
correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Use of exponential and factorial notation.
Teaching Aids
385

skills
Answers
1. Dividing both sides of (1) by eθ
θ0 θ1 θ2 θ3 θn
1
= + + + + ... +
+ ...
0!eθ 1!eθ 2!eθ 3!eθ n !eθ
θ 0 e −θ θ 1e −θ θ 2 e −θ θ 3e −θ θ n e −θ
= + + + + ... + + ..
0! 1! 2! 3! n!
2. If we take λ = θ , we have
λ0 λ1 λ2 λ3 λn
1
= + + + + ... + + ..
0!eλ 1!eλ 2!eλ 3!eλ n !e λ
3. Using the general term, λ , and putting n = x , we
n
n !e λ
λ x
e−λ λ x
have P ( X= x=) or P ( X
= x=)
x !e λ x!
Synthesis
The probability density function of Poisson distribution is
denoted X  P ( λ ) and defined by
e−λ λ x
P ( X= x=
) x 0,1, 2,...
, =
x!
Where λ is a parameter which indicates the average
number (the expected value) of events in the given time
interval and e ≈ 2.718...
For Poisson distribution with parameter λ , E ( x ) = λ
and Var ( x ) = λ .
386
Random Variables
1. Wrong statement, because σ = λ

2. 0.827008 3. 0.052129
4. 0.160623 5. 0.128387
6. 0.00000546
e −20 ( 20 )
x
14
7. ∑
x =0 x!
8. Considering the given table:
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total
f 103 143 98 42 8 4 2 400
x⋅ f 0 143 126 126 32 20 12 529

529
Mean
= = 1.32
400
Number Probability Theoretical
of cells 0.2674 × (1.32 )
x frequency
P ( x) =
x!
0 0.2674 × (1.32 )
0 0.2674 × 400  107
= 0.2674
0!
1 0.2674 × (1.32 )
1 0.353 × 400  141
= 0.353
1!
2 0.2674 × (1.32 )
2 0.233 × 400  93
= 0.233
2!
3 0.2674 × (1.32 )
3 0.1025 × 400  41
= 0.1025
3!
4 0.2674 × (1.32 )
4 0.0338 × 400  14
= 0.0338
4!
387
5 0.2674 × (1.32 )
5 0.00893 × 400  4
= 0.00893
5!
6 0.2674 × (1.32 )
6 0.00196 × 400  1
= 0.00196
6!
The expected (theoretical) frequencies are
107,141,93, 41,14, 4,1 .

Learning objectives
continuous random variable, and to find its probability
distribution accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Integration.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator, instruments of geometry.

skills
388
Random Variables
Answers
1. The area under the curve of f ( x ) is given by;
0 1
k ( x + 1) dx + ∫ kxdx . Then
2
∫−1 0
1 ⇒ k ∫−1 ( x + 2 x + 1)dx + k ∫0 dx =
0 1 0 1
∫ k ( x + 1)
2
dx + ∫ kdx =
2
1
−1 0
0
x 3

⇒ k  + x 2 + x  + k [ x ]0 =
1
1
3  −1
1  4 3
⇒ k  − 1 + 1 + k =1 ⇒ =k 1 or =
k
3  3 4
3
 4 ( x + 1)
2
−1 ≤ x ≤ 0
2. Graph of f ( x ) = 
3 0 < x ≤1
 4
3
f ( x=
) ( x + 1)
2
−1 ≤ x ≤ 0
4
x -1 -0.3 -0.7 0
f ( x) = y 0 0.37 0.07 0.43
3
f (=
x) 0 < x ≤1
4
x 0 1
f ( x) = y 0.43 0.43
y
3
1 f ( x) =
4
3
f ( x) = ( xy )
2
x
-1 0 1
-1
389
Synthesis
A random variable X is said to be continuous if its possible
values are all real values in some interval.
A function f ( x ) defined on an interval [ a, b ] is a
probability density function for a continuous random
variable X distributed on [ a, b ] if, whenever x1 and x2
x2
satisfy a ≤ x1 ≤ x2 ≤ b , we have p ( x1 ≤ X ≤ x2 ) =
∫ f ( x ) dx
x1
If X is a continuous random variable, then the probability

that the values of X will fall between the values a and b
is given by the area of the region lying below the graph of
f ( x ) and above the x − axis between a and b and this
area is equal to 1.
+∞
Normally, ∫ f ( x ) dx = 1 .
−∞
3  1 7
1. a) c = b) P  X ≥  =
2  2  16
2. 0.693
1
3. a) k =
4
1
b) i) p ( x < 1) = ii) p ( x= 1=
) 0
4
iii) p ( x > 2.5 ) =
0.3125
p (1 ≤ x ≤ 2 )
iv) p ( 0 < x < 2 ) / x ≥ 1 =
(
p 1≤ x ≤ 3 )
2
1
∫ 4 dx 1
= 2
= 1
3
1 1 3
∫1 4 dx + ∫2 4 ( 2 x − 3) dx
390
Random Variables
Lesson 9.8. Cumulative distribution of continuous

random variable
Learning objectives
Given a continuous random variable, learners should be able
to find its cumulative distribution accurately.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Finite integrals
Teaching Aids
skills
Answers
1. For x < 1 , f ( x ) = 0 and then =

x
F ( x) ∫=
0 dx 0
1
2. For 1 ≤ x ≤ 3 , 1 x and then

4
1 1 2  1 2 1 1
F ( x )= ∫ x dx=  8 x  = 8 x − 8=
4 8
3. For x > 3 , f ( x ) = 0 and then
x x2 −1 32 − 1
F ( x ) =F ( 3) + ∫ 0 dx = and F
= ( ) = 1
3
1 8 8
4. Hence,
0, x <1
 2
 x −1
F ( x) 
= ,1 ≤ x ≤ 3
 8
1, x>3
391
Synthesis
The cumulative distribution function of a continuous
x
random variable X is defined as: F ( x ) = ∫−∞ f ( t ) dt .
Where F ( x ) = 0, for x → −∞ and F ( x ) = 1, for x → +∞ .
0, x ≤ −1
1 0, x<0
 ( x + 1)2 , −1 < x ≤ 0  2
2 x
1. F ( x ) =  2. ( x )  , 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
F=
1 − (1 − x ) ,
2
16
0 < x <1 1, x>4
 2

1, x ≥1
0, x<0
 2
x , 0≤ x<2
6
3. ( )  2
F x =
 − x + 2 x − 2, 2 ≤ x < 3
 3

1, x≥3
Lesson 9.9. Variance and standard deviation of a

Learning objectives
Given a continuous random variable, learners should be
able to find expected value, variance and standard deviation
correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌࿌ Probability density function of a continuous random
variable.
Teaching Aids
392
Random Variables

skills
Answers
1. A ∫ ( x ) dx 6∫ x (1 − x ) dx
xf =
1
1 1 
= 6 ∫ ( x 2 − x= )
1
3
dx 6  x 3 − x 4 
0
3 4 0
1 1 
= 6  −  = 0.5
3 4
1
2. B = ∫0 x f (=
x ) dx 6 ∫ x 3 (1 − x ) dx
2 1
0
1
= 6 ∫ ( x 3 − x= ) dx 6  1 x 4 − 1 x5 
1
4
4 5 0
0
1 1
= 6  −  = 0.3
4 5
3. B − A2 = 0.3 − 0.25 = 0.05
Synthesis
The mean, µ , (or expected value, E ( X ) ), of X is denoted
and defined by;
b
= (X )
µ E= ∫ xf ( x ) dx
a
Also, expectation of function g of X is

b
E ( g ( x ) ) = ∫ g ( x ) f ( x ) dx
a
393
The variance Var ( x ) or σ 2 is denoted and defined by
( X ) E ( X 2 ) −  E ( x ) .
2
σ 2 Var
= =
The standard deviation is
σ SD
= = Var ( X ) .
Properties of E ( X ) and Var ( X )
∀a, b ∈ 
1. E ( a ) = a
2. E ( aX ) = aE ( X )
3. E ( aX +=
b ) aE ( X ) + b
4. E ( X + Y=
) E ( X ) + E (Y )
(2 2
)
5. E aX + b ≠ aE X + b ( )
6. var ( a ) = 0
7. var ( aX + b ) =
a 2 var ( X )
8. var ( aX + b ) =
a var ( X )
1. a) k = 1.44
b) mean is 0.443, variance is 0.0827
3 3
2. a) c = b) E ( X ) 0,=
= var ( X )
2 5
3. a) a = 0.01
b) E ( x ) = 10 , Var ( x ) = 16.6667
( 9 x ) 9=
E= E ( x ) 90 Var ( 9 x ) 9=
= 2
Var ( x ) 1350
394
Random Variables
Summary of the unit
1. Discrete and finite random variables

1. Probability density function
A random variable X is said to be a discrete random
variable, if it takes only finite values between its limits;
for example, the number of learners appearing in a festival
consisting of 400 learners is a discrete random variable
which can assume values other than 0, 1, 2, …,400.
The probability density function (p.d.f), F ( x ) , is a
function that allocates probabilities to all distinct values
that X can take on.
If the initial probability is known, you can find
successive probabilities using the following recurrence
 n − x  p 
relation P ( X = x + 1) =    P ( X =x) .
 x +1   q 
2. Expectation, variance and standard deviation

The expected value of random variable X , which is the
mean of the probability distribution of X , is denoted and
defined by
n
= (X )
µ E= ∑ x=
P( X
i =1
i xi ) .
Also, the expectation of any function g ( X ) of the
random variable X is
n
= ( g ( X ))
µ E= ∑ g=
( x) P ( X xi ) .
i =1
The variance of random variable X is denoted and
defined by
n
∑ [ xi − µ ] P ( X =
Var ( X ) = xi ) .
2
σ =
2
i =1
395
This can be simplified to

σ 2 Var
= = ( X ) E ( X 2 ) − µ2
The standard deviation of random variable X , denoted
by SD ( X ) , is the square root of the variance. That is
=σ SD
= (X ) Var ( X ) .
Properties for mean and variance
∀a, b ∈ 
E ( aX ) = aE ( X )
1. E ( a ) = a 2.
b ) aE ( X ) + b 4. E ( X + Y=
3. E ( aX += ) E ( X ) + E (Y )
( ) ( )
5. E aX + b ≠ aE X + b 6. var ( a ) = 0
2 2
7. var ( aX ) = a var ( X ) 8.
var ( aX + b ) =
a 2 var ( X )
2
3. Binomial distribution (Law of Bernoulli)

For binomial probability distribution, we are interested
in the probabilities of obtaining r successes in n trials,
in other word r successes and n-r failures in n attempts.
Binomial distribution is denoted
b ( r : n, p )
= n
Cr P r q n − r , r 0,1, 2, , n
=
The constant n, p, q are called parameters of the binomial
distribution.
The following assumptions are made:
ᅧᅧ There is a fixed number (n) of trials.
ᅧᅧ The probability of success is the same for each trial.
ᅧᅧ Each trial is independent of all other trials.
Note that p + q =
1
For N set of n trial, the successes 0, 1, 2, .....r, ....., n are
given by N ( p + q ) , which is called binomial distribution.
n
The expected value (or mean) of a binomial distribution

of a discrete random variable X is denoted and defined
396
Random Variables
=
by µ E= ( X ) np where n is the number of trials and
p is the probability of success.
The variance of a binomial distribution of a discrete random
variable X is denoted and defined=by σ 2 Var ( X ) npq
=
where n is the number of trials, p is the probability of
success and q is the probability of failure.
The standard deviation of a binomial distribution of a
discrete random variable X is denoted and defined by
=σ Var ( X )
= npq .
4. Uncountable infinite discrete case: Poisson distribution

The Poisson distribution is a discrete distribution often
used as a model for the number of events (such as the
number of customers in waiting lines, number of defects
in a given surface area, airplane arrivals, or the number
of accidents at an intersection) in a specific time period.
Poisson distribution is a limiting form of the binomial
distribution ( p + q ) under the following conditions:
n
(i) n → ∞, i.e., the number of trials is indefinitely large.

(ii) p → 0 , i.e., the constant probability of success for
each trial is indefinitely small.
(iii) np is a finite quantity, say λ .
Typical events which could have a Poisson distribution:
(i) Number of customers arriving at a supermarket
checkout per minute.
(ii) Number of suicides or deaths by heart attack in a
minute.
(iii) Number of accidents that take place on a busy
road in time t.
(iv) Number of printing mistakes at each unit of the
book.
397
(v) Number of cars passing a certain street in time t.

(vi) Number of α − particles emitted per second by a
radioactive sources.
(vii) Number of faulty blades in a packet of 1000.
(viii) Number of person born blind per year in a certain
village.
(ix) Number of telephone calls received at a particular
switch board in a minute.
(x) Number of times a teacher is late for class in a
given week.
The probability density function of Poisson distribution is
defined by
e−λ λ x
P ( X= x=
) x 0,1, 2,...
, =
x!
where λ is a parameter which indicates the average number
(the expected value) of events in the given time interval. We
write X  Po ( λ )
࿌࿌ If the initial probability is known, you can find successive
probabilities using the following recurrence relation;
λ
P ( X = x + 1) = P ( X =x) .
x +1
࿌࿌ For a Poisson distribution of a discrete random variable
X , the mean µ (or expected value) and the variance
µ σ=
σ 2 are the same and equal to λ . Thus, =
2
λ
5. Continuous random variables

a) Probability density function
A function defined on an interval [ a, b ] is a probability
density function for a continuous random variable X
distributed on [ a, b ] if, whenever x1 and x2 satisfy
x2
a ≤ x1 ≤ x2 ≤ b , we have p ( x1 ≤ X ≤ x2 ) =
∫ f ( x ) dx .
x1
398
Random Variables
Properties of p.d.f f ( x )
a) f ( x ) > 0 for all x
b) ∫ f ( x ) dx = 1
all x
The cumulative distribution function of a continuous

x
random variable X is defined as: F ( x ) = ∫−∞ f ( t ) dt
where F ( x ) = 0, for x → −∞ and x → +∞ for x → +∞ .

b) Expected value, variance and standard deviation
The mean µ ( or expected value E ( X ) ) of X is denoted
and defined by
b
= (X )
µ E= ∫ xf ( x ) dx
a
Also, expectation of function g of X is

b
E ( g ( x ) ) = ∫ g ( x ) f ( x ) dx
a
The variance Var ( x ) or σ is denoted and defined by

2
( X ) E ( X 2 ) −  E ( x )  .
2
σ 2 Var
= =
The standard deviation is
σ SD
= = Var ( X ) .
Properties of E ( X ) and Var ( X )
∀a, b ∈ 
1. E ( a ) = a 2.
E ( aX ) = aE ( X )
3. E ( aX +=
b ) aE ( X ) + b 4. E ( X + Y=
) E ( X ) + E (Y )
( ) ( )
5. E aX + b ≠ aE X + b 6. var ( a ) = 0
2 2
7. var ( aX ) = a var ( X ) 8.
var ( aX + b ) =
a 2 var ( X )
2
399
29
1.
32
2. a) 0.0145 b) 0.1887
c) 0.0000000000000000000001
3. 0.0863
4. Probability that it will work (0 defective components) is
0.896 . Probability that it will not work perfectly is 0.104
5. 0.00038
6. a) { HHH , HHT , HTH , HTT , THH , THT , TTH , TTT }
b) p ( HHH ) = 0.166375 ,
( HHT ) p=
p= ( HTH ) p=
(THH ) 0.136125 ,
( HTT ) p=
p= (THT ) p=
(TTH ) 0.111375 ,
p (TTT ) = 0.091125
c) f ( 0 ) 0.911125,
= = f (1) 0.334125,
= f ( 2 ) 0.408375,
f ( 3) = 0.166375
d) 0.908875 e) 1.650000
176
7. ×100  17 8. 0.99863
1024
na
9. 0.0376 10.
a+b
11. a) 0.5905 b)
= E ( X ) 7,=
Var ( x ) 6.3
12. a) 0.9997 b) 0.005
3
13. 14. a) 4.8, 0.98 b) 0.655
4
15. a) 0.0498 ×1000 b) 0.3526 ×1000
e −100 (100 )
x
16. 2.3026 17.
x!
18. 0.51
19. a) 0.147 b) 0.0408 c) 0.762
400
Random Variables
20. a) 0.122 b) 0.138 c) 0.224 d) 0.0273
21.
x 0 1 2 3 4 Total
f 122 60 15 2 1 200
x⋅ f 0 60 30 6 4 100
100
Mean
= = 0.5
200
( e ) ( 0.5)
−0.5 x
The number of x deaths is given by 200 ×

x!
for 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
Death/Frequencies 0 1 2 3 4
Probabilities
e −0.5 × ( 0.5 )
x
0.27 0.35 0.23 0.10 0
P ( x) =
x!
Expected (Theoretical)
frequency
121 61 15 3 0
( e ) ( 0.5)
−0.5 x
200 ×
x!
The expected frequencies are 121, 61,15,3 and 0 .
22. 0.9998 23. 0.5620
24.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total
f 143 90 42 12 9 3 1 300
x⋅ f 0 90 84 36 36 15 6 267
267
Mean
= = 0.89
300
The number of x mistakes per day is given by
(e) ( 0.89 )
−0.89 x
300 × for 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6.

x!
401
Mistakes per day 1 1 2 3 4 5 6

Probabilities
e −0.5 × ( 0.5 )
x
0.41 0.37 0.16 0.05 0.01 0 0
P ( x) =
x!
Expected (Theoretical)
frequency
123 111 48 15 3 0 0
( e ) ( 0.5)
−0.5 x
200 ×
x!
The expected frequencies are 123,111, 48,15,3 and 0 .
2
25. a) 0.25 b)
3
1
26. a) k = b) 0.75
2
27. a) 0.125 b) 0.727
3 3
28. a) k = b) E ( x ) = 1
16 4
11
c) P (1 ≤ x ≤ 3) =
16
2 4
29. a) (i) k = (ii) E ( x ) = 1
5 15
(iii) σ = 0.75 b) p ( x < µ − σ ) =
0.207
2 1 2
30. (i) a) k = b) = ( x ) 2,=
µ E= σ2 =,σ
9 2 2
4 2
c) ≈ 0.63
9
3 2 3 3 5
(ii) a) k = 3 b) = ( x) =
µ E= ,σ =,σ
4 80 20
207 5
c) ≈ 0.668
400
1 2 1 5
iii) a) k = 6 b)
= ( x)
µ E= ,σ
= = ,σ
2 20 20
7 5
c) ≈ 0.626
25
31. a) a = 12 , b = 1 b) 0.0523
402
Answers for Summative Evaluation One
x−2
1.  1  43− 2 x ⇔ ( 2−3 ) ( 22 )
x−2 3− 2 x
= =
8
⇔ 2−3 x + 6 =
26− 4 x ⇒ −3 x + 6 = 6 − 4 x
or x = 0
S = {0}
2. A quadratic function has a double root if and only if
∆ =0 .
For our case, ∆ = b 2 − 4ac = 9 − 4m .
9
∆ = 0 ⇔ 9 − 4m = 0 or m = .
4
2
Therefore, x + 3 x + m 0
= admits a double root when
9
m= .
4
9 2 2 9
For m = , x + 3 x + m =0 ⇒ x + 3 x + =0
4 4
3
The root is x = − .
2  
3. If the angle between u = ( k ,3) and v = ( 4, 0 ) is 45o , thus
4k
cos 45o =
k 2 + 9 16
Or
4k k
cos 45o = ⇔ cos 45o =
4 k2 + 9 k2 + 9
o 2
Since cos 45 = , then,
2
2 k
= k
⇔ 2= 2 k2 + 9
2 k2 + 9
Squaring both sides yields
2
4k= k 2 + 18 ⇔ k 2 =
9 ⇒k =±3
The value of k is 3 since cos 45o > 0 .
403
4. 2 cos 2 x − cos x − 1 = 0 ⇔ 2 cos 2 x − 2 cos x + cos x − 1 = 0

⇔ 2 cos x ( cos x − 1) + cos x − 1 =0
⇔ ( cos x − 1)( 2 cos x + 1) =

0 cos x − 1
⇒ cos x − 1 =0 or 2 cos x + 1
1
1 or cos x = −
⇔ cos x =
2
2π
⇒x= 2kπ or x = ± + 2 kπ , k ∈ 
3
2π 2π 4π
⇒x= 2kπ or=x + 2kπ or x = − + 2 kπ ≡ + 2 kπ
3 3 3
 2π 4π 
Hence, = S  2 kπ , + 2 kπ , + 2 kπ , k ∈   .
 3 3 
1 − cos x 1 − cos 0 1 − 1 0 I .F .
5. lim = = =
x →0 sin x sin 0 0 0
Remove this indeterminate form by Hospital’s rule
(1 − cos x ) = lim sin x
'
1 − cos x
lim = lim =0
( sin x )
' x → 0 cos x
x →0 sin x x →0
1 − cos x
Then, lim =0
x →0sin x
6. From sequence {un } where u=
n +1 3 ( un + 2 ) and u0 = 0 ,
we list;
uo = 0
u1= 3 ( u0 + 2 )= 6
u2 = 3 ( u1 + 2 ) = 3 ( 6 + 2 ) = 24
u3= 3 ( u2 + 2 )= 3 ( 24 + 2 )= 78
u4= 3 ( u3 + 2 )= 3 ( 78 + 2 )= 240 .
Therefore, the first five terms of the given sequence are
0, 6, 24, 78 and 240 .
The sequence {un } is arithmetic if un +1 − un = d , d ∈ 
un +1
and is geometric if = r, r ∈ 
un
404
Evaluation answers
Since u=
n +1 3 ( un + 2 ) , thus
un +1 − un = 3 ( un + 2 ) − un = 2un + 6 and this is not a
constant.
So, {un } is not an arithmetic sequence.
3( 2)
= = + and this is not a constant.
un un un
Thus, {un } is not a geometric sequence.
Therefore, {un } is neither arithmetic nor geometric
sequence.
7. Let f ( x=
) x2 + 2 x2 −1 − x2 − 2 x2 −1
a) Existence condition: x 2 − 1 ≥ 0 and x 2 − 2 x 2 − 1 ≥ 0

x 2 − 1 ≥ 0 ⇔ x ∈ ( −∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞ )
x2 − 2 x2 −1 ≥ 0 ⇔ x2 ≥ 2 x2 −1
⇔ x4 ≥ 4 x2 − 4 ⇔ x4 − 4 x2 + 4 ≥ 0 ⇔ ( x − 2) ≥ 0
2 2
⇔ ∀x ∈ , ( x 2 − 2 ) ≥ 0
2
Hence,
Domf = ( −∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞ )
b) f ( x=
) x2 + 2 x2 −1 − x2 − 2 x2 −1
( ) (
f 2 ( x ) =x 2 + 2 x 2 − 1 − 2 x 2 + 2 x 2 − 1 x 2 − 2 x 2 − 1 + x 2 − 2 x 2 − 1 )
f 2 ( x ) = 2 x2 − 2 x4 − 4 x2 + 4
(x − 2)
2
f 2 ( x) =2 x2 − 2 2
f 2 ( x ) =2 x 2 − 2 x 2 − 2
2 x 2 − 2 ( x 2 − 2 ) , x ∈  −∞, − 2  ∪  2, +∞ 
    
f 2 ( x) = 
2 x + 2 ( x − 2 ) , x ∈  − 2, −1 ∪ 1, 2 
2 2
405
4, x ∈  −∞, − 2  ∪  2, +∞ 
    
f ( x) = 
2
4 x − 4, x ∈  − 2, −1 ∪ 1, 2 

2
2, x ∈  −∞, − 2  ∪  2, +∞ 
    
⇒ f ( x) =

2 x 2 − 1, x ∈  − 2, −1 ∪ 1, 2 

From Domf = ( −∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞ ) , we get that
2, x ∈  −∞, − 2  ∪  2, +∞ 
    
⇒ f ( x) =

2 x − 1, x ∈  − 2, −1 ∪ 1, 2 
2

8. Let P (T ) = p , then P ( H ) = 3 p .
But P (T ) + P ( H ) =
1.
1
Therefore, 4 p = 1 or p = .
4
1 3
Thus, P (T ) = and P ( H ) = .
4 4
9. Tangent line:
T ≡ y − y=
o y0' ( x − xo )
Here, xo = 2 and yo = 4 ;
f ' (=
x ) 3x 2 − 4 x
y0' = f ' ( 2 ) = 3 ( 4 ) − 4 ( 2 ) = 12 − 8 = 4
Then, T ≡ y − 4= 4 ( x − 2 ) ⇔ y = 4 x − 8 + 4 ⇔ y = 4 x − 4
Normal line:
1
N ≡ y − yo = − ' ( x − xo ) ;
y0
1 1
Thus, N ≡ y − 4 =− ( x − 2 ) ⇔ y = 4 x + + 4
4 2
9
⇔ y = 4x +
4
10. a) Equation of sphere S whose centre ( xo , yo , zo ) and
( x − xo ) + ( y − yo ) + ( z − zo ) =
2 2 2
radius r has equation r2
406
Evaluation answers
For our case,

S ≡ ( x − 6 ) + ( y − 5) + ( z + 2 ) =
2 2 2
70
2 2 2
Or S ≡ x + y + z − 12 x − 10 y + 4 z = 70 − 36 − 25 − 4
2 2 2
Or S ≡ x + y + z − 12 x − 10 y + 4 z =
5
b) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 4 x − 8 y + 6 z + 7 =⇔
0 x2 + 4x + y 2 − 8 y + z 2 + 6z =
−7
⇔ ( x + 2 ) + ( y − 4 ) + ( z + 3) =
2 2 2
−6 + 4 + 16 + 9
⇔ ( x + 2 ) + ( y − 4 ) + ( z + 3) =
2 2 2
22
Centre is C ( −2, 4, −3) , radius r = 22 .

1
   x −1 y −1 z +1
c) Let us find AB =  −4  , the line AB ≡ = =
 5 1 −4 5
 
−4 x + 4 = y + 1 y = −4 x + 3
⇒ AB ≡  ⇔ AB ≡ 
 5x − 5 = z + 1 = z 5x − 6
Substituting y, z with their values in S gives
x 2 + ( −4 x + 3) + ( 5 x − 6 ) + 4 x − 8 ( −4 x + 3) + 6 ( 5 x − 6 ) + 7 =
2 2
0
⇔ x 2 + 16 x 2 − 24 x + 9 + 25 x 2 − 60 x + 36 + 4 x + 32 x − 24 + 30 x − 36 + 7 =
0
⇔ 42 x 2 − 18 x − 8 =0 ⇔ 21x − 9 x − 4 =0
∆= 81 + 336= 417
9 ± 417
x1,2 =
42
x1 = 5.7 and x2 = −14.7
For x = 5.7 , we have y = −19.8 and z = 22.5 .
Intersection point is then, ( 5.7, −19.8, 22.5 )
For x = −14.7 , we have y = 61.8 and z = 79.5
Intersection point is then, ( −14.7, 61.8, 79.5 )
11. Let q ( t ) = qo e − tk
Here qo = 50 and q ( 5 ) = 20 .
q ( 5 ) = 20 ⇒ 20 = 50e −5 k
2 2 1 2
⇔ e −5 k ⇔ −5k =ln ⇔ k =
= − ln ⇔ k =
0.18326.
5 5 5 5
407
90% of the sugar being dissolved, it means that 10% of

the sugar left i.e. 5kg.
Thus,
1
q (t ) =
5 ⇒ 50e −0.18326t = 5 ⇔ e −0.18326t =
10
1
⇔ −0.18326t =ln ⇔ 0.18326t = − ln10 ⇔ t = 12.5647
10
12. In fact, sin y cos ( x − y ) + cos =
y sin ( x − y ) sin y ( cos x cos y + sin x sin y ) + cos
n y cos ( x − y ) + cos =
y sin ( x − y ) sin y ( cos x cos y + sin x sin y ) + cos y ( sin x cos y − sin y cos x )
= sin y cos x cos y + sin x sin 2 y + sin x cos 2 y − cos y sin y cos x
= sin x sin 2 y + sin
= x cos 2 y sin x ( sin 2 y + cos 2 y )
= sin x as required.
(1 + x )
3
5
−1 0
13. lim = , I .F .
x →0 x 0
Remove this I .F . by Hospital’s rule.
( (1+ x) −=
1)
'
5 3
4
(1 + x ) − 1
3
5
1 −
lim (1 + x ) − 1 5 3 (1 + x )
3 2
lim = lim
x →0 x x →0 x' x →0 5  
4
1 −
(1 + 0 ) − 1 5 3 (1 + 0 ) = +∞
3 2
=
5 
56 + 37 + 54 + 52 + x + 48
14. If the mean is 50, thus, = 50
6
⇔ 247 + x =300 ⇔ x= 300 − 247 ⇒ x =
53
2
15. Intersection points for y 2 = 2 px and x = 2 py :
x2
2
y = 2 px ⇒ y= 2 px and x 2= 2 py ⇒ y=
2p
x2 x4
Then, ⇔ 2 px =
2 px =
2p 4 p2
⇔ 8 p3 x =
x 4 ⇔ 8 p3 x − x 4 =
3 3
0 ⇔ x 8p − x =0 ( )
3 3
⇒x=0 or 8 p − x =0
⇒x=0 or x = 2 p
To be able to sketch the curve, let p = 2 . Then we have
y 2 = 4 x and x 2 = 4 y
408
Evaluation answers
2p
 x2 
=A ∫0  2 px −  dx
2p 
2p 2p
1
=A 2p ∫ xdx − ∫ x dx
2
0
2p 0
2p 2p
2 2  1  x3 
=A 2 p  x3  −
 3 0 2 p  3  0
2 8 p3
A
= 2p ⋅2p⋅ 2p −
3 6p
8 p 2 4 p3 4 p3 4 p2
A
= − = =
3 3p 3p 3
Therefore, the area enclosed by the curves
2 4 p2
y 2 = 2 px and x = 2 py is sq. unit
3
Cov ( x, y )
16. a) r =
σ xσ y
1 n
Cov ( x, y ) = ∑ ( xi − x ) ( yi − y )
2 2
n i =1
1 n
Var ( x ) ∑ ( xi − x )
2
=σx =
n i =1
1 n
Var ( y ) ∑ ( yi − y )
2
=σy =
n i =1
409
Mean:
7 + 8 + 9 + 11 + 15
=x = 10
5
33 + 25 + 17 + 9 + 6
=y = 18
5
xi yi xi − x yi − y ( xi − x )
2
( yi − y )
2
( xi − x )( yi − y )
7 33 −3 −12 9 225 −45
8 25 −2 −9 4 49 −14
9 17 −1 −1 1 1 1
11 9 1 7 1 81 −9
15 6 5 15 25 144 −60
SUM 40 500 −127

1 n
Cov ( x, y ) = ∑ ( xi − x ) ( yi − y )
2 2
n i =1
1 n 40
∑ ( xi − x ) =
2
σx = = 8 =2 2
n i =1 5
1 n 500
∑ ( yi − y ) =
2
σy= = 100 = 10
n i =1 5
1 n −127
Cov ( x, =
y) ∑ ( xi − x ) ( yi − y=
)
2 2
n i =1 5
Cov ( x, y ) −127
r= = = −0.89
σ xσ y (
5 2 2 10 )
Cov ( x, y )
b) Ly=
≡ y− y (x − x)
x σ x2
−127
Ly ≡ y=
− 18 ( x − 10 )
x 40
⇔ y − 18 =−3.2 ( x − 10 ) ⇔ y =−3.2 x + 50
410
Evaluation
Evaluation answers
answers
c) Scatter diagram
y
40
35
30
25
y = −3.2 x + 50
20
15
10
x
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
3 x + 2 y − 5 z = 2  3 2 −5  x   2 
     
17. a)  x + 2 y = 3 ⇔  1 2 0  y  =  3 
     
2 x − y + z = −3  2 −1 1  z   −3 
∆y ∆ ∆
If ∆ ≠ 0, then x = ,y = y ,z = z
∆ ∆ ∆
3 2 −5
2 −5 3 −5
∆= 1 2 0 =− +2 = −2 + 5 + 6 + 20 = 29
−1 1 2 1
2 −1 1
2 2 −5
2 −5 2 −5
∆ x = 3 2 0 = −3 +2 = −6 + 15 + 4 − 30 = −17
−1 1 −3 1
−3 −1 1
17
⇒x=−
29
3 2 −5
2 −5 3 −5
∆y = 1 3 0 = − +3 = −2 + 15 + 9 + 30 = 52
−3 1 2 1
2 −3 1
52
⇒y=
29
3 2 2
2 2 3 2 3 2
∆z = 1 2 3 = − +2 −3
−1 −3 2 −3 2 −1
2 −1 −3
411
411
2
2 2 3 2 3 2 1
3 =− +2 −3 =6 − 2 − 18 − 8 + 9 + 12 =−1 ⇒ z =−
−1 −3 2 −3 2 −1 29
1 −3
 17 52 1 
S=
 − , , −  
 29 29 29  
b) The area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides
       
are a = 6i + 3 j − 2k and b =3i − 2 j + 6k is given by
 
A= a×b
  
i j j
   3 −2  6 −2  6 3
Or= a × b 6 3 −2 = i −j +k
−2 6 3 6 3 −2
3 −2 6
     
= i (18 − 4 ) − j ( 36 + 6 ) + k ( −12 − 9 ) =14i − 42 j − 21k
(14 ) + ( −42 ) + ( −21)

2 2 2
=A = 196 + 1768 + 441
= 2401 49
=
Therefore, the area of the given parallelogram is
49 sq. unit
cx ( 6 − x ) ; 0 ≤ x ≤ 6
2
18. We are given F ( x ) = 

0, elsewhere
a) Since x is a random variable, thus, ∫ f ( x ) dx = 1
All
6 6
∫ cx ( 6 − x ) ∫ cx ( 36 − 12 x + x ) dx
2
⇒
= 1 dx =
⇔1 2
0 0
4 6
 x 
⇔ 1 c 18 x 2 − 4 x3 + =
= ⇔ 1 c 18 ( 36 ) − 4 ( 216 ) + 324 
 4 0
⇔ 108c = 1
1
⇒c=
108
b) i) The mean is E ( x ) = ∫ xf ( x ) dx
All
6
1
⇒ E (=
x) x 2 ( 6 − x ) dx
2
∫
108 0
412
Evaluation answers
6
1
⇔E
= ( x)
108 ∫0
( 36 x 2 − 12 x3 + x 4 ) dx
6
1  3 x5 
( x)
⇔ E= 12 x − 3 x 4
+
108  5  0
1
( x)
⇔ E= ( 2592 − 3888 + 1555.2 =) 2.4
108
1
( x)
⇔ E= ( 259.2
= ) 2.4
108
E ( x ) = 2.4
( x ) E ( x 2 ) −  E ( x )
2
ii) The variance Var
=
6
or E ( x 2 ) = ∫ x 2 f ( x ) dx ⇒ E ( x 2=
) 1
x3 ( 6 − x ) dx
2
All
∫
108 0
6
1
( x ) 108
⇔ E= 2
∫0 ( 36 x − 12 x + x ) dx
3 4 5
6
1  4 x5 x 6 
⇔ E ( x=
) 108
2
 9 x − 12 +
 5 6  0
6
1  ( 6) ( 6) 
5 6
⇔ E ( x= ) 108 9 ( 6 ) − 12 5 + 6 =
2 4
 7.2
  0
Then, Var ( x ) =
7.2 − ( 2.4 ) =
2
1.44
( x)
iii) Standard deviation of x is σ = Var= 1.44 1.2
=
π
2
19. a) From I n = ∫ e sin xdx , let u = sin x and dv = e − nx dx .

− nx
0
1
Hence, du = − sin xdx and v = − e − nx .
n π
π
2
 1 − nx  2 1 − nx
n ∫0
Therefore, I n = −
 n e sin x  + e cos xdx
0
1 − nπ 1
⇔ In = − e 2 + Jn
n n
nπ
−
⇔ nI n − J n =
−e 2
(1)
413
π
2
From J n = ∫ e − nx cos xdx , let t = cos x and dz = e dx .
− nx
0
1 − nx
Then, dt = cos xdx and z = − e .
n π π
2
 1 − nx  2 1 − nx
Therefore, J n =  − n e cos x  − n ∫ e sin xdx
0
1 1 0
⇔ Jn = − In
n n
⇔ nJ n + I n =1 (2)
Equation (1) and (2) give the simultaneous equations
nπ
 −
nI n − J n =−e 2

nJ n + I n =
1 (3)
And (3) indicates two relations between I n and J n .
b) Multiply first equation of (3) by n to eliminate J n
nπ
 2 −
n I n − nJ n =− ne 2 −
nπ
 ⇒ n 2 I n + I n =1 − ne 2
nJ n + I n =
1
nπ
−
1 − ne 2
Which gives I n = (4)
n2 + 1
nπ
−
From (1), J=
n nI n + e 2
nπ nπ nπ
− − −
2 2
n−n e 2
+n e 2
+e 2
Then J n =
nπ
n2 + 1
−
n+e 2
Or J n = 2 (5)
n +1
y ( 0 ) y=
6 x with =
20. To solve y "− y '− 2 y = ' ( 0) 1
Homogeneous equation :
y "− y '− 2 y =
0
Characteristic equation
λ 2 − λ − 2 = 0 ⇔ ( λ + 1)( λ − 2 ) = 0
⇔ λ = −1 or λ = 2 .
414
Evaluation answers
General solution for solution for homogeneous equation is

y ∗ c1e − x + c2 e 2 x .
=
The complementary (particular) solution is given by
y Ax + B .
=
Or y ' = A et y '' = 0 .
The equation y "− y '− 2 y =
6 x becomes
− A − 2 Ax − 2 B =6x
Identifying the coefficients, we get
 A  3
− A − 2 B =0 B = − B =
 ⇔ 2 ⇔ 2
−2 A = 6  A = − 3  A = −3
 
3
Thus, complementary solution is y =−3 x +
2
The general solution of the given equation is
3
y= c1e − x + c2 e 2 x − 3 x +
2
From the initial conditions = y ( 0 ) y=
' ( 0 ) 1 , we get the
values of c1 and c2 as follows:
−c1e − x + 2c2 e 2 x − 3
y' =
 5
 3  c1 = −
 c + c + = 1  3
y ( 0 )= y ' ( 0 )= 1 ⇒  1 2 2 ⇒
−c1 + 2c2 − 3 = 7
1 c2 =
 6
Therefore, the required solution is
5 7 3
y= − e− x + e2 x − 3x +
3 6 2
415
Answers for Summative Evaluation Two
 2 2 37
 x + y = 4
1. 
 xy = 3
 2
3
From 2nd equation, we get x = ; putting this equality
2 y
in 1st equation, we get
2
 3  2 37 9 37
  +y = ⇔ 2 + y2 =
 2y  4 4y 4
4 2
⇔ 9 + 4 y4 = 37 y 2 ⇒ 4 y − 37 y + 9 =0
∆ = ( −37 ) − 16 ( 9 ) = 1369 − 144 = 1225
2
37 + 35 2 37 − 35 1
=y2 = 9= or y =
8 8 4
1 1
Solving for y , we get: y1 = −3, y2 = 3, y3 = − , y4 =
2 2
3
Substituting y with its values in x = , we get:
2y
1 1
x1 = − , x2 = , x3 =−3, x4 = 3
2 2
And then, the solution set is
 1  1  1   1 
S =  −3, −  ,  3,  ,  − , −3  ,  ,3  
 2  2  2   2 
 eln x  e  eln x e 
2. ln  3  + ln   = ln  3 × 
 e   x  e x
eln x
= ln= 2
ln x ln e − ln xe 2
xe
= ln x − ( ln x + ln e2 ) = ln x − ln x + 2ln e = 2
π
3. arctan x + arctan 3 =
4
π π π  π  π
⇒ arctan x + = ⇒ arctan x =− ⇒ x =tan  −  ⇒ x =− tan
3 4 12  12  12
416
Evaluation answers
ln (1 + x 2 )
)  
2
( )
ln (1 + x 2 )  '× e x − e x '× ln (1 + x 2 )
2
4. f ( x=
) x2
⇒ f ' ( x= 2
e ex
2x
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
× e x − 2 xe x ln 1 + x 2 2 x 1 − 1 + x 2 ln 1 + x 2 
=
2
⇒ f '( x) 1+ x =  
e 
x
 
2 2 2
1+ x e x2
( )
x −1 0
5. lim = ( I .C )
x →1 3x −1 0
lim 3
x −1
= lim
(
x −1 )( x +1 )( 3
x2 + 3 x + 1 )
x →1
(
x − 1 x →1 3 x − 1 )( x + 1) ( 3
x2 + 3 x + 1)
( x − 1) ( 3 x 2 + 3 x + 1)
3 2
x + 3 x +1 3
= lim = lim =
x →1
(
( x − 1) x + 1 x →1
) x +1 2
6. iz − 2 = 4i − z → (1)
Let z = a + bi → ( 2 )
Using (2) in (1) we get:
i ( a + bi ) − 2 = 4i − ( a + bi ) ⇒ ai + bi 2 − 2 = 4i − a − bi
−b − 2 = −a a − b = 2 a = 3
⇒ (−b − 2) + ai = −a + ( 4 − b ) i ⇒  ⇒ ⇒
a = 4 − b a + b = 4 b = 1
z = 3 + 1i
sin 2 x + sin 2 x sin x + 2sin x cos x
7. =
1 + cos x + cos 2 x 1 + cos x + cos 2 x − sin 2 x
sin x + 2sin x cos x sin x (1 + 2 cos x ) sin x
= = = = tan x
cos x + 2 cos 2 x cos x (1 + 2 cos x ) cos x
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n n ( n + 1) n +1 1
8. lim = lim = lim =
2 2
n →+∞ n n →+∞ 2n n →+∞ 2n 2
9. y =ln ( 4 x − 11) , x0 =3
yü y ' ( x − x
T ≡ y−= )
 y = y (x0 ) = y (3)
where:  0
or  y ' 0 = y ' (x0 ) = y ' (3)
4
y ln ( 4 x − 11) ⇒ y='
=
4 x − 11
y ( 3) 0,=
= y ' ( 3) 4
417
Then, T ≡ y = 4 ( x − 3) ⇒ T ≡ y = 4 x − 12
x +1
10. f ( x ) = ln x + 1 , f is defined if: >0
x −1 x −1
Domf = ]−∞, −1[ ∪ ]1, +∞[

x2  1
11. F ( x ) = + x − x ln x ⇒ F ' ( x ) = x + 1 −  ln x + x ⋅  = x − ln x
2  x
x x −1 2 x −1 1
12. a) e e = e ⇒ e = e ⇒ 2x − 1 = 1 ⇒ 2x = 2 ⇒ x = 1
S = {1}
b) e 2 x − 2 + e x − 2 =
6e −2
⇒ e 2 x e −2 + e x e −=
2
6e −2 ⇒ e −2 ( e 2 x + e x =
) 6e−2 ⇒ e2 x + e x − 6= 0
=
Let t ex , (t > 0)
⇒ t 2 + t − 6 =0 =( t − 2 )( t + 3) ⇒ t =2 or t =−3
t = −3 is to be rejected since t > 0
x x
For t = 2 ⇒ e = 2 ⇒ ln e = ln 2 ⇒ x = ln 2
S = {ln 2}
e x − e−x
13. f (x ) =
e x + e −x
Let: f ( x ) = u ( x ) be the inverse of f (x )
−1
f (u ) = x
eu − e − u e 2u − 1 xe 2u + x
⇒ =x ⇒ =
eu + e − u eu eu
⇒ eu − e − u= x ( eu + e − u ) ⇒ e 2u −=
1 xe 2u + x
1 x ⇒ e 2u (1 − x ) =x + 1
⇒ e − u = xeu + u
u
e e
u x +1 x +1 1  x +1 
⇒ e 2= u ln
⇒ 2= u
⇒=  ln 
1− x 1− x 2  1− x 
418
Evaluation answers
e x − e−x
The inverse function of f (x ) = x is
e + e−x
1 x +1
f −1 ( x ) = ln
2 1− x
14. 5log 2 y − 3log 2 ( x +=
4 ) 2 log 2 y + 3log 2 x
⇒ 5log 2 y − 2 log
= 2 y 3log 2 ( x + 4 ) + 3log 2 x
log 2 ( x + 4 ) + log 2 x 3
3
⇒ log 2 y 5 − log 2 y=
2
y5
⇒ log 2 2 = log 2 x3 ( x + 4 )
3
y
3
⇒ y 3=  x ( x + 4 )  ⇒ y= x ( x + 4 )
15. Point P is 90 m away from a vertical flagpole, which is
11 m high
= 11
From the above figure, tan P
90
=  tan −1  11  ≈ 6.90
P  
 90 
Thus, the angle of elevation is about 6.90
16. Solving equations
a) z − (8i − 1)z − 8i = 0 (1)
4 2
2
Let z = y , equation (1) can be written as
y 2 − ( 8i − 1) y − 8i =
0
2
∆ =  − ( 8i − 1)  − 4 ( −8i )
= −63 + 16i
Finding square roots of ∆
Let ( a + bi ) =
2
−63 + 16i
419
 2 2 a 2 − b 2 =
a − b = −63 −63
 
⇔ 2ab = 16 ⇔ 2ab = 16
 2 a 2 + b 2 =65
a + b = ( −63) + (16 )
2 2
2 
a 2 − b 2 =−63
⇔ 2 2
a + b = 65
2a 2 =2 ⇒ a 2 =⇒
1 a=±1
−a 2 + b 2 =63
⇔ 2 2
a + b = 65
2b 2 = 128 ⇒ b 2 =64 ⇒ b =±8
Square roots of ∆ are ± (1 + 8i )
8i − 1 + 1 + 8i
=y1 = 8i ⇒ z 2 = 8i ⇒ z =± ( 2 + 2i )
2
8i − 1 − 1 − 8i 2
y2 = = −1 ⇒ z =−1 ⇒ z =±i
2
1 + log 2 ( − x + 2 y ) = log 2 {2 x − 3 y}

b)  5 x + y 81
3 = − x −7 y
 3
log 2 2 + log 2 ( − x + 2 y ) = log 2 ( 2 x − 3 y )
⇒  5 x+ y
3 = 34 × 3x + 7 y
log 2 2 ( − x + 2 y ) = log 2 ( 2 x − 3 y )
⇒  5 x+ y
3 = 34+ x + 7 y
2 ( − x + 2 y ) = 2 x − 3 y −4 x + 7 y = 0
⇒ ⇒
5 x + y = 4 + x + 7 y 4 x − 6 y =4
y = 4

x = 7
S = {( 7, 4 )}
x2 −1
17. Given f ( x ) =
x2 − 4
a) Domain of definition
Domf = {x ∈  : x 2
− 4 ≠ 0} =  \ {−2, 2}
420
Evaluation answers
b) Limits at boundaries
 1  1
2 x 2 1 − 2  1− 2
x −1  x  lim x 1
lim
= lim = =
2
x →±∞ x − 4 x →±∞
2 4  x →±∞ 4
x 1 − 2  1− 2
 x  x
x2 −1 x2 −1
lim− 2
= +∞ , lim 2
= −∞
x →−2 x − 4 x →−2+ x − 4
x2 −1 x2 −1
lim− 2 = −∞, lim+ 2 = +∞
x→2 x − 4 x→2 x − 4
c) Asymptotes
Vertical asymptotes: x = −2 and x = 2
d) Variation table
2 x ( x 2 − 4 ) − 2 x ( x 2 − 1)
f '( x) =
(x − 4)
2 2
2 x3 − 8 x − 2 x3 + 2 x −6 x
= =
( x2 − 4) (x − 4)
2 2 2
f '( x) = 0 ⇒ x = 0
Variation table
e) x intercepts: f ( x ) = 0 ⇒ x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = ±1
2
y intercept: f ( 0 ) =
1
4
421
f) Curve
Additional points
x -5 -4.2 -3.6 -3.4 -3.2 -3 -2.8 -2.6 -2.4 -2.2 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 0.6
y 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.7 4.6 -2.9 -1.1 -0.5 -0.2 0.0 0.1 0.2
x 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 4.2 5
y 0.1 0.0 -0.2 -0.5 -1.1 -2.9 4.6 2.7 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1
y
7
x2 −1
f ( x) =
3
2 x2 − 4
1
x
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
18. a) 4men and 5 women

(i) Number of possible committee with no
restrictions is 9C3 = 84
(ii) Number of possible committee with 1 man and 2
women is 4C1 × 5C2 =40
(iii) Number of possible committee with 2 men
and 1 woman if a certain man must be in the
3 5
committee is C1 × C1 = 15
9
b) (i) There are C3 = 84 of selecting 3 books from 9
8
books. There are C2 × 1C1 =28 of selecting 1
dictionary and other 2 books.
ü
So, required probability is = .
5 3
ü
(ii) There are C2 × C1 = 30 of selecting 2 novels and
1 poem book.
422
Evaluation answers
30 5
So, required probability is = .
84 14
x2 + x + 2
19. a) Given f ( x) =
x +1
c x2 + x + 2
ax + b + =
x +1 x +1
ax ( x + 1) + b ( x + 1) + c x 2 + x + 2
⇔ =
x +1 x +1
ax 2 + ax + bx + b + c x 2 + x + 2
⇔ =
x +1 x +1
ax + ( a + b ) x + b + c x 2 + x + 2
2
⇔ =
x +1 x +1
⇒ ax + ( a + b ) x + b + c = x + x + 2
2 2
= a 1= a 1
 
⇒ a + b = 1 ⇒ b = 0
= c 2
b + c 2 = 
Then,
 2  1 x2
∫ f ( x ) dx =
∫  x + 1  ∫
x + dx = x dx + 2 ∫ x + 1 2 + 2ln x + 1 + c
dx =
2 y dy y 2 dy  y 2  x dy y x
b) = − 1 ⇒ =  2 − 1 ⇒ = −
x dx x 2
dx  x  2y dx 2 x 2 y
y x
f ( x, y=
) −
2x 2 y
ty tx t0 y t0x
f ( tx, ty
= ) − ⇒ f ( tx, ty ) =−
2tx 2ty 2x 2 y
 y x 
⇒ f ( tx, ty ) =t0  −  ⇒ f ( tx, ty ) =
t 0 f ( x, y )
 2x 2 y 
Then, f ( x, y ) is homogeneous function of degree 0
y
To solve the given equation, put = z ⇒ y = zx
x
dy dz
= z+x
dx dx
Then,
dz zx x dz z 2 x − x
z+x = − ⇔ z+x =
dx 2 x 2 zx dx 2 xz
423
dz z 2 − 1 dz z 2 − 1
⇔ z+x = ⇔x = −z
dx 2z dx 2z
dz z 2 − 1 − 2 z 2 dz − z 2 − 1
⇔x = ⇔x =
dx 2z dx 2z
2z 1 2z 1
⇔ 2 dz = dx ⇔ − ∫ 2 dz =∫ dx
−z −1 x z +1 x
+ 1 ln x + ln k ⇔ ln z 2 + 1 =− ln kx
⇔ − ln z 2 =
2
 y y
ln ( kx ) =
−1
⇔ ln z 2 + 1 = ⇔   + 1 k −1=
x −1 , since z
x x
y2 −1 −1 y 2 + x2
⇔= 2
+ 1 cx = , c k ⇔ cx −1
=
x x 2
⇒ y 2 + x2 =
cx
20. a) Let X represent the random variable “the number
of calls between 09:00 hrs and 10:00 hrs on
weekday”. Then X  Po ( X ) and
λx
P ( X= x=
) e −λ
x 0,1, 2,3, .
,=
x!
The probability that the office receives 6 calls
between 09:00 hrs and 10:00 hrs on this
56
Wednesday is P ( X= 6= ) e−5 = 0.146
6!
b) The average number of calls between 09:15 hrs
and 09:30 hrs on weekday is 1.25 . Let Y represent
the random variable “the number of calls in the
given 15 minutes”
Then, the probability that the office will receive
exactly 3 calls between 09:15 hrs and 09:30 hrs is
(1.25)=
3
P (Y= 3=
) e−1.25 0.0933
3!
c) The required probability is
C2 ( 0.09326 ) ( 0.90674 ) = 0.0648
5 2 3
424
Answers for Summative Evaluation Three
1. 3 − 5x − x2 ≥ 0
( −5) − 4 ( −1)( 3) = 37
2
∆=
−5 + 37 −5 − 37
=x1 = , x2
2 2
Sign table
x −∞ −5 − 37 −5 + 37 +∞
2 2
_ _
3 − 5x − x 2 0 + 0
 −5 − 37 −5 + 37 
S= , 
 2 2 
2. Equation of a circle passing through the points
( 0,1) , ( 4,3) and (1, −1)
2 2
General equation of a circle is x + y + ax + by + c =0
Using the tree points, we have
1 + b + c = 0 b + c =−1 ⇒ b =−1 − c

16 + 9 + 4a + 3b + c =0 ⇔ 4a + 3b + c =−25
1 + 1 + a − b + c =0 a − b + c =−2
 
b =−1 − c b =−1 − c

⇔ 4a + 3 ( −1 − c ) + c =−25 ⇔ 
4a − 3 − 3c + c =−25
 a + 1 + c + c =−2
a − ( −1 − c ) + c =−2 
4a − 2c = −22
⇔
a + 2c =
−3
5a =−25 ⇒ a =−5
a + 2c = −3
⇒ −5 + 2c = −3
⇒ 2c = 2 ⇒ c = 1
b =−1 − c =−1 − 1 =−2
425
2 2
Then, the equation is x + y − 5 x − 2 y + 1 =0
x2 − x + 1
3. = k ⇔ x 2 − x + 1 = kx − k
x −1
⇔ x 2 + ( −1 − k ) x + 1 + k =0
This equation has repeated roots if the discriminant is
zero; ∆ =0
∆ = ( −1 − k ) − 4 (1 + k ) = 1 + 2k + k 2 − 4 − 4k = k 2 − 2k − 3
2
k 2 − 2k − 3 =0
∆ = ( −2 ) − 4 ( −3) = 4 + 12 = 16
2
2+4 2−4
k1
= = 3 or k1 = = −1
2 2
Thus, the given equation has repeated roots if k ∈ {−1,3}
4. Consider the following augmented matrix
1 1 −1 : − 1
  r2= r2 − 3r1
 3 −2 1 : 0 
r3= r3 − 2r1
2 3 −3 : − 3 

1 1 −1 : − 1
 
 0 −5 4 : 3  r3 5r3 + r2
=
0 1 −1 : − 1 

1 1 −1 : − 1
 
0 −5 4 : 3 
0 0 −1 : − 2 

The simplified system is
 x + y − z =−1

 − 5 y + 4z = 3
 − z =−2 ⇒ z =2

−5 y + 4 z =3 ⇒ −5 y + 8 =3 ⇒ y =1
x + y − z =−1 ⇒ x + 1 − 2 =−1 ⇒ x =0
Hence, S = {( 0,1, 2 )}
x2 + 2 ∞
5. lim = I .C
x →−∞ 3x − 6 ∞
426
Evaluation answers
2 2
2 −x 1+ − 1+ 2
x +2 2
x = lim x = −1
lim = lim
x →−∞ 3 x − 6 x →−∞  6 x →−∞ 6 3
x3−  3−
 x x
6. U n =−
72 6n, S n = 378
U1 = 72 − 6 = 66
n n
Sn = (U1 + U n ) = ( 66 + 72 − 6n ) = 69n − 3n2
2 2
2
But S n = 378 , then 69n − 3n = 378
⇒ 3n 2 − 69n + 378 = 0 ⇒ n 2 − 23n + 126 =
0
⇒ ( n − 14 )( n − 9 ) =
0
Then, n = 9 or n = 14
7. ( x − 1)( x − 2 ) + ( y + 3)( y − 4 ) + ( z + 1)( z − 1) =
0
⇔ x 2 − 2 x − x + 2 + y 2 − 4 y + 3 y − 12 + z 2 − z + z − 1 =0
2 2 2
⇔ x − 3 x + 2 + y − y − 12 + z − 1 =0
9 9 1 1
⇔ x 2 − 3 x + − + 2 + y 2 − y + − − 12 + z 2 − 0 z − 1 = 0
4 4 4 4
 9 9  1 1
⇔  x 2 − 3 x +  − + 2 +  y 2 − y +  − − 12 + ( z 2 − 0 z ) − 1 =0
 4 4  4 4
2 2
 3  −9 + 8  1  −1 − 48
+ ( z − 0) −1 =
2
⇔x−  + + y−  + 0
 2 4  2 4
2 2
 3  1 −9 + 8 −1 − 48 4
⇔  x −  +  y −  + ( z − 0) +
2
+ − =0
 2  2 4 4 4
2 2
 3  1 54
⇔  x −  +  y −  + ( z − 0) =
2
 2  2 4
3 1 
Centre is  , , 0  and radius is 54 = 3 6
2 2  4 2
8. This argument is not valid. The conclusion is false
because not only human beings are mortal. It is a
converse error.
427
9. f ( x ) = sin 2 x tan x
sin 2 x sin x sin 2 x
=f ' ( x ) 2sin x cos x tan x + = 2sin x cos x +
1 + x2 cos x 1 + x 2
2  2 + 2x +1 
2
ü 2x
2
= 2sin x + = sin x  2 
1 + x2  1+ x 
 2
2x + 3 
= sin 2 x  2 
 1+ x 
10. a) Equation of the line joining the points A ( 3, 4,1) and
B ( 5,1, 6 )

Direction vector is AB= ( 2, −3,5)
Parametric equations
 x= 3 + 2r

 y= 4 − 3r where r is a parameter
 z = 1 + 5r

Or symmetric equations
x − 3 4 − y z −1
= =
2 3 5
1
b) If z =0, 1 + 5r =0 ⇒ r =−
5
  1  13
 x =3 + 2  − 5  =5
  
  1  23
and  y =4 − 3  −  =
  5 5
z = 0


 13 23 
Then, the point is  , , 0 
5 5 
428
Evaluation answers
11. Given the function f ( x ) = cos 3 x

=f ( x ) cos
= x f ( 0) 1
f '( x) =
−3sin 3 x f ' ( 0) =
0
f '' ( x ) =
−9 cos 3 x f '' ( 0 ) =
−9
=f ''' ( x ) 27
= sin 3 x f ''' ( 0 ) 0
f ( ) ( x ) 81cos f ( ) ( 0 ) 81
4 4
= = 3x
f(
5)
( x) =−243sin 3 x f ( ) ( 0) =
4
0
f ( 6) ( x ) =
−729 cos 3 x f ( 5) ( 0 ) =
−729

0 −9 2 0 3 81 4 0 5 −729 6
cos x =
1+ x+ x + x + x + x + x + ...
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
9 x 2 27 x 4 81x 6
1−
= + − + ...
2 8 80
x2 + 1
12.
x3 + 4 x 2 + 3x
x3 + 4 x 2 + 3x = x ( x 2 + 4 x + 3) = x ( x + 1)( x + 3)
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
=
x3 + 4 x 2 + 3 x x ( x + 1)( x + 3)
x2 + 1 A B C
=+ +
x ( x + 1)( x + 3) x x + 1 x + 3
A ( x + 1)( x + 3) + Bx ( x + 3) + Cx ( x + 1)
=
x ( x + 1)( x + 3)
x 2 + 1= A ( x + 1)( x + 3) + Bx ( x + 3) + Cx ( x + 1)
1
Let x = 0 , ⇒ 1= 3 A ⇒ A=
3
Let x = −1 , ⇒ 2 =−2 B ⇒ B =−1
5
Let x = −3 , ⇒ 10 = 6C ⇒ C =
3
2
x +1 1 1 5
Then, 3 2
= − +
x + 4 x + 3x 3x x + 1 3x + 9
x2 + 1 1 1 5
Hence; ∫ 3 2
dx =∫ dx − ∫ dx + ∫ dx
x + 4 x + 3x 3x x +1 3x + 9
429
1 1 1 5 1
= ∫ dx − ∫ dx + ∫ dx
3 x x +1 3 x+3
1 5
= ln x − ln x − 1 + ln x + 3 + c
3 3
2 − 2i
13. z =
1+ i
⇒z=
( 2 − 2i )(1 − i ) 2 − 2i − 2i − 2
⇒z= ⇒ z =−2i
(1 + i )(1 − i ) 2
π
z = 2, arg ( z ) = −
2
 π
=
Then, z 2 cis  − 
 2
ln16 x ln16
e +3 dx
14. Given that I = ∫ x dx and J = ∫ x
0
e +4 0
e +4
ln16 ln16 ln16
 ex + 3 1   ex + 4 
∫ dx= [ x] =
ln16
I +=
J ∫0
 x + x
e +4 e +4
 dx
= ∫
0
 x
e +4
 dx
=
0
0
ln16
ln16 ln16
 ex + 3 3   ex 
I=
− 3J ∫
0
 x − x =
e +4 e +4
 dx ∫
0
 x  dx
e +4
= ln ( e x + 4 )  = ln ( eln16 + 4 ) − ln ( e0 + 4 )
ln16
= ln (16 + 4 ) − ln 4= ln 20 − ln 4
20
= ln= ln 4
4
15. U
= {( a, b, c, d )=: b + c + d 0} and
W= {( a, b, c, d ) : a + b= 0, c= 2d }
We need to solve
b + c + d =0

a + b =0 ⇒ a =−b
c = 2 d

b+c+d = 0
⇒ b + 2d + d =0
⇒ b =−3d
a =−b ⇒ a =3d
430
Evaluation answers
Then U ∩ W= {( 3d , −3d , 2d , d ) : d ∈ } and

dim (U ∩ W ) =
1
16. The quarterly, monthly,….rates of interest are found by
dividing the nominal annual rate by 4,12,…..
Interest rate Number of Value of investment after one year in Frw
compounding
a) Annually 1 100, 000 × (1 + 0.08 ) =

108, 000
4
 0.08 
b) Quarterly 4 100,000 × 1 + =  100,000 ×1.02
= 4
108, 240
 4 
12
 0.08 
c) Monthly 12 100,000 × 1 + =  100,000 ×1.0067
= 12
108,300
 12 
52
52
 0.08  52
d) Weekly 100,000 × 1 + =  100,000 ×1.0015
= 108,320
 52 
365
365
 0.08  365
e) Daily 100,000 × 1 + =  100,000 ×1.0002
= 108,330
 365 
17. Advertisement sports ( xi ) and volume of sales in

hundreds ( yi )
xi yi xi2 yi2 xi yi
1 41 1 1681 41
2 50 4 2500 100
3 54 9 2916 162
4 54 16 2916 216
5 57 25 3249 285
6 63 36 3969 378
6 6 6 6 6
∑ xi = 21
i =1
∑ yi = 319
i =1
∑ xi2 = 91
i =1
∑ yi2 = 17231
i =1
∑x y
i =1
i i = 1182
21 7 319
x
a) Mean: = = y
,=
6 2 6
2
91  7  35
σ = −  =
2
x
6  2  12
431
35 105
Standard deviation for xi is=
σx =
2
12 6
17231  319  1625
σ =
2
y −  =
6  6  36
1625 5 65
Standard deviation for yi =
is σ x = .
36 6
cov ( x, y )
b) Correlation coefficient is given by r =
6
σ xσ y
∑ xi yi
cov=( )
x , y i =1
−x y
6
1182  21  319  7092 − 6699 393 131
cov ( x, y ) = −   = = =
6  6  6  36 36 12
Then,
131
131 36 393
r = 12 =× = ≈ 0.95
105 5 65 12 5 6825 5 6825
×
6 6
c) Regression line for y on x
131
cov ( x, y )
= y− y ( x − x ) ⇔ y − 319 
= 12  x − 
21 
35 
2
σx 6 6
12
319 131  21  131 131 21 319
⇔ y− =  x −  ⇔= y x− × +
6 35  6  35 35 6 6
131 601
y
⇔= x+
35 15
131 601
d) If x= 7, y= ×7 + ≈ 66
35 15
18. Given the vertices of the triangle: A (1, 2,3) ,
B ( −2,1, −4 ) and C ( 3, 4, −2 )
 
a) (i) AB = ( −3, −1, −7 ) ⇒ AB = 9 + 1 + 49 = 59
 
AC = ( 2, 2, −5 ) ⇒ AC = 4 + 4 + 25 = 33
 
BC= ( 5,3, 2 ) ⇒ BC= 25 + 9 + 4= 38
The perimeter is 59 + 33 + 38 units of length

432
Evaluation answers
1 1 2 7 
b) Centre of gravity ( A + B + C=) ( 2,7, −=
3)  , , −1
3 3 3 3 
   −6 − 2 + 35 
(
c)  AB, AC = cos −1  )
 59 × 33 

−1  −32  0 −1  27 
= cos =  132.5 = cos 
0
  = 52.3
 2242   1947 
Thus, θ1 = 52.30
   −15 − 3 − 14  −1  −32 
( )
 AB, BC = cos −1 =

 59 × 38 
 cos
=   132.5
 2242 
0
 −32 
= cos −1   = 132.5
0
 2242 
Therefore, θ 2 = 47.5
   10 + 6 − 10  −1  10 
= ( )
 AC , BC cos −1= 
 33 × 38 
 cos
=   80.2
 1254 
0
Therefore, θ3 = 80.2
0
(or θ3 =1800 − 52.30 − 47.50 =80.20 ).

1  
d) The area of triangle ABC is given by AB × AC
   2
i j k
1   1
AB × AC = −3 −1 −7
2 2
2 2 −5
1   
= ( 5 + 14 ) i − (15 + 14 ) j + ( −6 + 2 ) k
2
1    361 + 841 + 16 1218
= 19i − 29 j − 4k = = sq. units
2 2 2
1
19. f ( x ) = x + x + 1 −
x+2
a) Domain of definition
Existence condition: x + 2 ≠ 0 ⇔ x ≠ −2
=  \ {−2} or Domf =
Then, Domf ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, +∞[
433
b) f ( x ) without the symbol of absolute value

 1
 x + x + 1 − x + 2 , x ≥ 0
f ( x) = 
 x − x + 1 − 1 , x < 0 or x ≠ −2
 x+2
 1
2 x + 1 − x + 2 , x ≥ 0
⇔ f ( x) =
1 − 1 , x < 0 or x ≠ −2
 x + 2
 1
2 x + 1 − x + 2 , x ∈ [ 0, +∞[
Or f ( x ) = 
1 − 1 , x ∈ ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, 0[
 x + 2
c) Limits on boundaries of domain of definition and
asymptotes
1
lim f ( x ) =
lim 1 − =
∞
x →−2 x →−2 x+2
Thus, V . A. ≡ x =−2
Table of sign for determining sided limits:
From table of sign, we deduce that

lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim+ f ( x ) = −∞
x →−2− x →−2
1
lim f ( x ) = lim 1 − =0
x →−∞ x →−∞ x+2
Hence, for x → −∞ , there is H . A. ≡ y =1
 1 
lim f ( x ) = lim  2 x + 1 −  = +∞
x →+∞ x →+∞
 x+2
Thus, for x → +∞ , there is no horizontal
asymptote.
Let us check if there is an oblique asymptote
434
Evaluation answers
1
For x → +∞ , f ( x )= 2 x + 1 − ;
x+2
1
As lim =0, =
y 2 x + 1 is oblique asymptote.
x →+∞ x + 2
 1  1  1 
lim f ( x ) = lim  2 x + 1 −  = = xlim f ( x ) = lim 1 − 
x → 0+ x →0
 x+2 2 → 0 − x → 0
 x+2
Therefore, f is continuous at x = 0
d) Interval of increasing
 1
 1
2 + , x ∈ [ 0, +∞[
2 x + 1 − x + 2 , x ∈ [ 0, +∞[ ( )
2
 x + 2
=f ( x)  = ⇒ f ' ( x) 
1 − 1 , x ∈ ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, 0[  1 , x ∈ ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, 0[
 x + 2  ( x + 2 )2

As f ( x ) > 0, ∀∈ Domf , f is increasing on its
'
domain of definition.
e) Concavity
 1
2 + , x ∈ [ 0, +∞[
( )
2
 x + 2
f ' ( x) = 
 1 , x ∈ ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, 0[
 ( x + 2 )2

x+2 1
⇒ f " ( x ) =− =− , ∀x ∈ Domf
( x + 2) ( x + 2)
4 3
f) Table of variation
435
g) Curve sketching
Additional points:
For x < −2
x -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2.2
y 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.7 2 3 6
For x > −2
x -1.8 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
y -4 -1 0 -0.7 0.5 1.6 2.7 3.7 4.8 5.8 6.8
Curve
y
9
8
7
6
5
VA ≡ x =−2
4
1
f ( x) = x + x +1− 3
x+2
2
HA ≡ y =
1
1
x
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
+1
2x
-7
y=
-8
≡
OA
-9
20. a) Let P ( x, y ) be any point on the parabola using focus-

directrix ( F − M ) property of the parabola: FP = PM .
x − 2y + 3
( x + 1) + ( y + 2 )
2 2
Therefore, =
12 + ( −2 )
2
( x − 2 y + 3)
2
⇔ ( x + 1) + ( y + 2 )
2 2
=
5
x 2 + 4 y 2 + 9 − 4 xy + 6 x − 12 y
⇔ x2 + 2 x + 1 + y 2 + 4 y + 4 =
5
⇔ 5 x 2 + 10 x + 5 y 2 + 20 y + 25 = x 2 + 4 y 2 + 9 − 4 xy + 6 x − 12 y
⇔ 4 x 2 + y 2 + 4 xy + 4 x + 32 y + 16 =
0 which is the
required equation of the parabola.
436
Evaluation answers
b) Let P ( x, y ) be any point of focus and the given point

( 0, 4 )
be dented by A .
2
Then, PA= × distance of P from the line y = 9 .
3
2 y −9 4
⇔ x2 + ( y − 4) = × ⇔ x2 + ( y − 4) = × ( y − 9)
2 2 2
3 02 + 12 9
4 2
⇔ x 2 + y 2 − 8 y + 16=
9
( y − 18 y + 81)
⇔ 9 x 2 + 9 y 2 − 72 y + 144 = 4 y 2 − 72 y + 324
⇔ 9 x 2 + 5 y 2 − 180 =
0 which is the required equation
of locus.
2 2 x2 y 2
c) The equation of hyperbola is x − 4 y =4 ⇔ − =1
4 1
Here,=a 2 4,=b 2 1 then,= a 2,=
b 1.
Therefore, axes are 4 and 2.
5
b 2 a 2 ( e 2 − 1) or
= = 1 4 ( e 2 − 1) which gives e =
2
5
Thus, Eccentricity =
2
Since, coordinates of foci are given by ( ± ae, 0 ) , then
 5 
they are  ±2 ×

(
, 0  or ± 5, 0
2  )
2b 2 2 ×1
Length of latus rectum is = = 1
a 2
Alternative method:
x2 y 2 a 2,= b 1;
From − = 1 ,=
4 1
For hyperbola c=
2
a 2 + b2
Here, c 2 = 4 + 1 = 5 or c = 5
ᅧᅧ Axes are 2a = 4 and 2b = 2
ᅧᅧ Coordinates of foci F ( ±c, 0 ) = (
± 5, 0 )
c 5
ᅧᅧ Eccentricity e= =
a 2
2b 2 2 ×1
ᅧᅧ Length of latus rectum is equal to = = 1
a 2
437
Answers for Summative Evaluation Four
20
 1
( x + x −1 )
20
1.  x +  =
 x
( )
20 − r
= 20Cr x r x −1 = 20Cr x r x −20+ r = 20Cr x 2 r − 20
For the independent term, 2r − 20 = 0 or r = 10
20 20!
C10
Then, the independent term is = = 184756
10!10!
2. If 6 x 3
+ 7 x 2
+ ax + b is divisible by x − 2 , the remainder
is 6 ( 2 ) + 7 ( 2 ) + 2a + b =
3 2
72
48 + 28 + 2a + b = 72
⇒ 2a + b =−4
Also, 6 x 3 + 7 x 2 + ax + b is exactly divisible by x + 1 then
6 ( −1) + 7 ( −1) − a + b =
3 2
0
−6 + 7 − a + b =0
⇒ −a + b = −1
2a + b =−4 2a + b =−4
 ⇒ 
−a + b =−1 a − b =1
3a =−3 ⇒ a =−1
a = −1
−a + b =−1 ⇒ 1 + b =−1 ⇒ b =−2 
b = −2
3. sin x + 3 cos x =
1
π
Let 3 tan α ⇒ α=
=
3
sin α
sin x + tan α cos x =
1 ⇒ sin x + cos x =
1
cos α
⇒ sin x cos α + sin α cos x = cos α
 π π
⇒ sin ( x + α )= cos α ⇒ sin  x + = cos
 3 3
 π 1
⇒ sin  x +  =
 3 2
438
Evaluation answers
π  π
+ 2 kπ − 6 + 2kπ
π  6
x+
=  , k ∈ x=
3  5π  π + 2 kπ
+ 2 kπ
 6  2
 π π 
S =− + 2kπ , + 2kπ  , k ∈ 
 6 2 
4. A matrix has no inverse if its determinant is zero
11 − x 2 8
2 2 − x −10 =
0
8 −10 5 − x
⇒ (11 − x )( 2 − x )( 5 − x ) − 160 − 160 − 64 ( 2 − x ) − 100 (11 − x ) − 4 ( 5 − x ) =
0
⇒ 110 − 65 x + 5 x 2 − 22 x + 13x 2 − x3 − 320 − 128 + 64 x − 1100 + 100 x − 20 + 4 x =

0
⇒ − x3 + 18 x 2 + 81x − 1458 =0
⇒ x3 − 18 x 2 − 81x + 1458 =
0
9 is one of the roots
1 -18 -81 1458
9 9 -81 -1458
1 -9 -162 0
x3 − 18 x 2 − 81x + 1458 = ( x − 9 ) ( x 2 − 9 x − 162 )
x 2 − 9 x − 162 = 0 ⇒ ( x + 9 )( x − 18 ) = 0 ⇒ x = −9 or x = 18
Thus, the given matrix is singular if x ∈ {−9,9,18}
log ( x + y ) = 1
5. 
log 2 x + 2 log 4 y =
4
log ( x + y ) =1 ⇔ log ( x + y ) =log10 ⇒ x + y =10
log 2 x + 2 log 4 y =
4 log 2 y
⇔ log 2 x + 2 = 4
log 2 y 2
⇔ log 2 x + 2 4
=
log 2 4 ⇔ log 2 x + log 2 y = 4 log 2 2
log 2 24
⇔ log 2 xy =
⇒ xy =
16
Now,
 x + y = 10 ⇒ x = 10 − y

 xy = 16
439
(10 − y ) y =16 ⇒ 10 y − y 2 − 16 =0 ⇒ y 2 − 10 y + 16 =0
( y − 2 )( y − 8) =
0
y − 2 = 0 ⇒ y = 2 ⇒ x = 10 − y = 10 − 2 = 8
y −8 = 0 ⇒ y = 8
⇒ x = 10 − 8 = 2
2
6. x − x − 3 = 0
We know that for the equation of the form ax 2 + bx + c =0,
b c
if α and β are the roots, then, α + β = − and αβ =
a a
Here, α + β =1 and αβ = −3
(α + β ) =α 3 + 3α 2 β + 3αβ 2 + β 3
3
⇔ (α + β ) − 3α 2 β − 3αβ 2 =
3
α3 + β3
⇔ α 3 + β 3 = (α + β ) − 3αβ (α + β )
3
⇔ α 3 + β 3 = (1) − 3 ( −3)(1)= 10
3
Then, α + β =
3 3
10
7. x2 + 4 y 2 − 4x + 8 y + 4 =0
⇔ x 2 − 4 x + 4 y 2 + 8 y + 4 =0 ⇔ x 2 − 4 x + 4 + 4 ( y 2 + 2 y ) =0
⇔ ( x − 2 ) + 4 ( y + 1) − 1 =0 ⇔ ( x − 2 ) + 4 ( y + 1) − 4 =0
2 2 2 2
 
( x − 2 ) + ( y + 1) =1
2 2
⇔ ( x − 2 ) + 4 ( y + 1) =4 ⇔
2 2
4 1
The centre is ( 2, −1)
a 2 4,=
= b2 1
a 2 − b2 4 −1 3
is e
The eccentricity= = =
a2 4 2
Foci are ( 2e + 2, −1) and ( −2e + 2, −1)
( )
Or 3 + 2, −1 and − 3 + 2, −1 ( )
8. Tangent and normal line to the curve
0 at point ( 2,3)
3 x 2 − xy − 2 y 2 + 12 =
( 3x 2
− xy − 2 y 2 + 12 ) ' = 6 x − ( y + xy ') − 4 yy '
440
Evaluation answers
6 x − y − xy '− 4 yy ' = 0 ⇒ xy '+ 4 yy ' = 6 x − y

6x − y
⇒ y '( x + 4 y ) = 6x − y ⇒ y ' =
x + 4y
6 ( 2) − 3 9
y(/2,3)
= =
2 + 4 ( 3) 14
9 14
T ≡ y −=
3 ( x − 2) N ≡ y − 3 =−( x − 2)
14 9
9 9 14 28
≡ y= x− +3 ≡y=− x+ +3
14 7 9 9
9 12 14 55
≡ y= x+ ≡y=− x+
14 7 9 9
1 1 1
9. ∫0 ( 2 x + k )2 dx = 3
1
1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1 1
∫0 ( 2 x + k )2 dx =
−  
2  2x + k 0
=
−  − =
2 2+k k 
− +
4 + 2k 2k
1 1 1
⇒− + =
4 + 2k 2k 3
−2k + 4 + 2k 1 4 1
⇒ = ⇒ =
2k ( 4 + 2k ) 3 2k ( 4 + 2k ) 3
⇒ 4k 2 + 8k =12 ⇒ 4k 2 + 8k − 12 =0 ⇒ k 2 + 2k − 3 =0
⇒ ( k + 3)( k − 1) =0 ⇒ k =−3 or k =1
10. z 6 = 1
2 kπ kπ
=zk cis
= cis= , k 0,1, 2,3, 4,5
6 3
=z0 cis
= 0 1
π 1 3 2π 1 3
z1= cis = +i
z2 =cis =− + i
3 2 2 3 2 2
3π 4π 1 3
z3 = cis = −1 z4 =cis =− − i
3 3 2 2
5π 1 3
z2= cis = −i
3 2 2
 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 
S= 1, + i ,− +i , −1, − − i , −i 
 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 
441
11. u1 and d be the first term and the common difference

respectively
u1 + ( u1 + d ) + ( u1 + 2d ) + ( u1 + 3d ) + ( u1 + 4d ) + ( u1 + 5d ) =
72
⇒ 6u1 + 15d =
72
But u2 = 7u5 or
u1 + d = 7 ( u1 + 4d ) ⇒ u1 + d − 7u1 − 28d = 0 ⇒ −6u1 − 27 d = 0
6u1 + 15d = 72

−6u1 − 27 d =0
− 12d = 72 ⇒ d =−6
6u1 + 15d = 72 ⇒ 6u1 − 90 = 72 ⇒ u1 = 27
lim cos x ln ( tan x )
cos x π
( tan x ) ln ( tan x ) cos x ln ( tan x )

cos x x→
12. lim
= lim
= e lim
= e e 2
π π π
x→ x→ x→
2 2 2
lim cos x ln ( tan x ) = 0 × ∞ IC

π
x→
2
( tan x ) '
ln ( tan x )
lim cos
= = lim tan x
x ln ( tan x ) lim L'H o pital's rule
x→
π
x→
π 1 x→
π sin x
2 2 2
cos x cos 2 x
cos 2 x
= lim 2
x → cos x tan x sin x
π
2
1 1
= lim = = 0
x→
π tan x sin x π π
2 tan sin
2 2
Then, limπ ( tan x ) = e= 1
0 cos x
x→
2
13.
= x 6.2,= σ x 3.03315,
= y 2.04,
= σ y 0.461519 and
rxy = 0.957241
cov ( x, y )
The regression line of y on x =
is y − y (x − x)
σ x2
cov ( x, y )
But rxy = ⇔ cov ( x, y ) = rxyσ xσ y
σ xσ y
rxyσ xσ y
y− y
Then,= (x − x) or
σ x2
442
Evaluation answers
rxyσ y rxyσ y
y=
−y (x − x) ⇔
= y (x − x)+ y
σx σx
0.957241× 0.461519
=⇒y ( x − 6.2 ) + 2.04
3.03315
⇒
= y 0.145 x + 1.141
(S )
14. Let S be the sample space, then n = 52
C2 1326
=
Let E be the event of getting two Kings.
n (=
E) 4
C2 6
=
6 1
(E)
Then, P= =
1326 221
15. Let θ be the angle between vectors (2, 5) and (−1, 3)
=cos θ
(=2,5 ) ⋅ ( −1,3)
=
−2 + 15 13 290
( 2,5) ( −1,3) 4 + 25 1 + 9 290
 13 290 
=θ cos −1  =  40.24
= deg 0.70 rad
 290 
16. y = x 2 − 5 x + 4 and y =
−2 x + 5 x + 1
Intersection:
x 2 − 5 x + 4 =−2 x 2 + 5 x + 1 ⇒ 3x 2 − 10 x + 3 =0
1
⇒ ( x − 3)( 3x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 3 or x =
3
1
The curves intersect = at x 3= and x
3
443
The area of the region enclosed between the two curves

is:
∫ ( −2 x + 5 x + 1 − x 2 + 5 x − 4 ) dx = ∫ ( −3x + 10 x − 3) dx
3 3
2 2
1/3 1/3
3
= − x3 + 5 x 2 − 3x 
1/3
3 2
1 1 1
=−33 + 5 ( 3) − 3 ( 3) +   − 5   + 3  
2
3 3 3

1 5
=−27 =45 − 9 + − + 1
27 9
256
= sq. units
27
17. a) i) P ( A ∪ C =) P ( A) + P ( C ) − P ( A ∩ C )
But P ( A ∩ C ) = 0 since A and C are mutually
exclusive events
2 1 13
P ( A ∪ C ) = P ( A) + P ( C ) = + =
3 5 15
Since A and B are independent events,
P ( A ∩ B)
P (=
A ∩ B ) P ( A ) P ( B ) ⇒=
P ( B)
P ( A)
P ( A ∪ B=
) P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A ∩ B )
P ( A ∩ B)
P ( A ∪ B=
) P ( A) + − P ( A ∩ B)
P ( A)
4 2 P ( A ∪ B)
=+ − P ( A ∪ B)
5 3 2
3
4 2 3
⇒ −= P ( A ∪ B) − P ( A ∪ B)
5 3 2
2 P ( A ∪ B)
⇒ =
15 2
4
⇒ P ( A ∪ B) =
15
4
P ( A ∩ B ) 15 2
P ( B=) = =
P ( A) 2 5
3
444
Evaluation answers
ii) B and C are independent events if

P(B ∩C) =
P ( B ) P (C )
2 1 2
P ( B ) P (C ) = × =
5 5 25
P ( B ∩ C= ) P ( B ) + P (C ) − P ( B ∪ C )
2 1 13 2
+ −= =
5 5 25 25
P(B ∩C) =
P ( B ) P (C )
Thus, B and C are independent events.
b) Let X i , i = 1, 2,3 be the event “patient have the virus”
and let D be the vent “selected patient recovers”.
We need P ( X 3 | D )
1 1
P ( D | X3 ) P ( X3 ) ×
8 8 1
P ( X3 | D) =
= =
3
1 1 3 3 1 1 26
∑i =1
P ( D | Xi ) × + × + ×
2 2 8 8 8 8
18. a) Given the points A ( 2, −3, −1) , B ( 3, −4, 2 ) and
C ( 4, −5, 2 )
 
(i) AB = (1, −1,3) , AC = ( 2, −2,3)

i 1 2
  
AB × AC = j −1 −2

k 3 3
 −1 −2  1 2  1 2
= i −j +k
3 3 3 3 −1 −2
  
= i ( −3 + 6 ) − j ( 3 − 6 ) + k ( −2 + 2 )
 
= 3i + 3 j
1  
(ii) The area of triangle ABC is given by AB × AC
2
1   1   1 3 2
AB × AC= 3i + 3 j= 9 +=
9 sq. units
2 2 2 2
445
b) We have points A ( 2,1,1) , B ( 0,5,3)


(i) Direction vector is AB = ( −2, 4, 2 )
Parametric equations:
 x= 2 − 2r
 r is a parameter
 y = 1 + 4r ,
 z = 1 + 2r

(ii) Given C ( 5, −4, 2 )
 
Vectors CD is perpendicular to vector AB if
 
CD ⋅ AB = 0
Let D ( x, y, z ) be the point on line AB then

CD =( x − 5, y + 4, z − 2 ) and
 
CD ⋅ AB = −2 ( x − 5 ) + 4 ( y + 4 ) + 2 ( z − 2 )
=−2 x + 10 + 4 y + 16 + 2 z − 4
=−2 x + 4 y + 2 z + 22
But
 x= 2 − 2r

 y = 1 + 4r
 z = 1 + 2r

Then
−2 ( 2 − 2r ) + 4 (1 + 4r ) + 2 (1 + 2r ) + 22 =
0
x = 4
⇒ −4 + 4r + 4 + 16r + 2 + 4r + 22 =0 
 y = −3
⇒ 24r + 24 = 0  z = −1

⇒ r =−1
And point D has coordinates ( 4, −3, −1)

(iii) If the plane π contains the line AB, the vector CD
is perpendicular to the plane π since this vector
is also perpendicular to the line AB. So this is a
contradiction, no plane can contain the line AB and
be parallel to CD.
2π 2π 2π
=
19. U cis = cos + i sin
5 5 5
446
Evaluation answers
1 1 2π 2π
=
a) = cos − i sin
U cos 2π + i sin
2π 5 5
5 5
1 1 1 2π 2π 2π 2π 
 U +=  cos + i sin + cos − i sin 
2 U 2 5 5 5 5 
1 2π  2π
= = 2 cos  cos as required
2 5  5
5

5 2π 2π 
b) U  cos
= + i sin 
 5 5 
5 × 2π 5 × 2π
=cos + i sin =cos 2π + i sin 2π =1
5 5
2π
c) Since U = cis
5
0 0 × 2π 1× 2π 2 × 2π 4π
=U cis =, U 1 cis = 1,= U 2 cis = cis ,
5 5 5 5
3 × 2π 6π 4 × 2π 8π
= U 3 cis
= cis= , U 4 cis
= cis
5 5 5 5
These are five fifth roots of unit. Then, their sum must
be zero. Hence, U 4 + U 3 + U 2 + U + 1 =0
8π 6π 4π 2π
d) U 4 + U 3 + U 2 + U + 1 = cis + cis + cis + cis +1
5 5 5 5
8π 6π 4π
U 4 + U 3 + U 2 + U + 1 = cos + cos + cos
5 5 5
2π  8π 6π 4π 2π 
+ cos + 1 + i  sin + sin + sin + sin 
5  5 5 5 5 
Take the real party
8π 6π 4π 2π
cos + cos + cos + cos +1 = 0
5 5 5 5
We know that= cos α cos ( 2π − α ) , then
8π  8π  2π
cos = cos  2π − =  cos
5  5  5
6π  6π  4π
cos = cos  2π − =  cos
5  5  5
4π 2π
Also, cos
= 2α 2 cos 2 α − 1 ⇒ cos
= 2 cos 2 −1
5 5
447
2π 2π 2π 2π
cos + 2 cos 2 − 1 + 2 cos 2 − 1 + cos + 1 =0
5 5 5 5
2π 2π
⇒ 4 cos 2 + 2 cos − 1 =0
5 5
1 2π
But x =U + = 2 cos
U 5
2π 2π 2
Then, 4 cos 2 + 2 cos − 1 = x 2 + x − 1 or x + x − 1 =0
5 5
2
e) x + x − 1 =0
∆ = 1+ 4 = 5
−1 + 5 −1 − 5
=x1 = , x2
2 2
−1 − 5 is to be rejected.
x2 =
2
−1 + 5 2π −1 + 5 2π −1 + 5
For x1 = , 2 cos = ⇒ cos =
2 5 2 5 4
20. a) Taking 5 men together, 4 women together, 3 children
together we have 3! ways.
But 5 men can be permuted among them in 5! ways,
4 women can be permuted among them in 4! ways
and 3 children can be permuted among them in 3!
ways
The total ways is 3!5!4!3! = 103680 ways
 x C y = xC y +1
b)  x
 4 ( C y ) = 5 ( C y −1 )
x
x x x! x!
Cy = C y +1 ⇔ =
y !( x − y ) ! ( y + 1) !( x − y − 1) !
⇒ ( y + 1) !( x − y − 1)=! y !( x − y ) !
⇒ ( y + 1) y !( x − y − 1)=! y !( x − y )( x − y − 1) !
⇒ y +1 = x − y
⇒ − x + 2 y = −1
448
Evaluation answers
x! x!
4 ( x Cy ) =
5 ( xC y −1 ) ⇔ 4 5
=
y !( x − y ) ! ( y − 1)!( x − y + 1)!
⇒ 4 ( y − 1) !( x − y + 1=
)! 5 y !( x − y )!
⇒ 4 ( y − 1) !( x − y + 1)( x − y ) ! = 5 y ( y − 1) !( x − y ) !
⇒ 4 ( x − y + 1) =5y
⇒ 4x − 4 y + 4 =5y
⇒ 4x − 9 y = −4
− x + 2 y =−1 −4 x + 8 y =−4
 ⇔
4 x − 9 y =−4 4 x − 9 y =−4
− y =−8 ⇒ y =8
− x + 2 y =−1
⇒ − x + 16 = −1
⇒x= 17
Thus, S = {(17,8 )}
c)
n−2
Cm + 2 ( n − 2Cm −1 ) + n − 2Cm − 2 =
n
Cm
( n − 2 )! + 2 ( n − 2 )!
+
( n − 2 )!
m !( n − m − 2 ) ! ( m − 1) !( n − m − 1) ! ( m − 2 ) !( n − m ) !
n! n! n!
2
n ( n − 1) n ( n − 1) n ( n − 1)
= + +
m !( n − m ) ! m ! ( n − m ) ! m !( n − m ) !
( n − m )( n − m − 1) m n − m m ( m − 1)
n !( n − m )( n − m − 1) 2n ! m ( n − m ) n !m ( m − 1)
= + +
m !( n − m ) !n ( n − 1) m !( n − m ) !n ( n − 1) m !( n − m ) !n ( n − 1)
n!  ( n − m )( n − m − 1) + 2m ( n − m ) + m ( m − 1) 
=  
m !( n − m ) !  n ( n − 1) 
n!  n 2 − nm − n − mn + m 2 + m + 2mn − 2m 2 + m 2 − m 
=  
m !( n − m ) !  n ( n − 1) 
n!  n2 − n  n!
=   =
m !( n − m ) !  n 2 − n  m !( n − m ) !
= nCm as required
449
References
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Mathematics, Oxford University Press 1987.
[2] Arthur Adam Freddy Goossens: Francis Lousberg.
Mathématisons 65. DeBoeck,3e edition 1991.
[3] David Rayner, Higher GCSE Mathematics, Oxford University
Press 2000
[4] Frank Ebos, Dennis Hamaguchi, Barbana Morrison & John
Klassen, Mathematics Principles & Process, Nelson Canada
A Division of International Thomson Limited 1990
[5] George B. Thomas, Maurice D. Weir & Joel R. Hass, Thomas’
Calculus Twelfth Edition, Pearson Education, Inc. 2010
[6] Geoff Mannall & Michael Kenwood, Pure Mathematics 2,
Heinemann Educational Publishers 1995
[7] H.K. DASS...Engineering Mathematics. New Delhi, S.
CHAND&COMPANY LTD, thirteenth revised edition 2007.
[8] Hubert Carnec, Genevieve Haye, Monique Nouet,
ReneSeroux, Jacqueline Venard. Mathématiques TS
Enseignement obligatoire.Bordas Paris 1994.
[9] Jean Paul Beltramonde, VincentBrun, ClaudeFelloneau,
LydiaMisset, Claude Talamoni. Declic 1re S Mathématiques.
Hachette-education, Paris 2005.
[10] JF Talber & HH Heing, Additional Mathematics 6th Edition
Pure & Applied, Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 1995
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Horril. Pure Mathematics 2.Longman, third edition 1985,
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Mathematics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Learner’s Book
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Senior Five, Fountain Publishers Ltd, 2017.
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451

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Advanced Mathematics

for Rwanda Schools

© Emmanuel Ngezahayo, Pacifique Icyingeneye 2017

All rights reserved; no part of this book may be reproduced,

Unit 1 Complex numbers.............................................1

Unit 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions............75

Unit 3 Taylor and Maclaurin’s Expansions.................141

Lesson 4.16. Integration by parts .............................. 209

Unit 6 Intersection and Sum of Subspaces................281

Lesson 9.5. Expected value, variance and standard

1.1. Instruction to the user

1.2. General introduction to the new curriculum

1.3. Competences to be developed

work with others, participate and collaborate. It gives

1.4. Techniques to develop competences

1.5. Cross cutting issues to be addressed

1.6. Equipments needed for the subject

1.7. General guidance on activities and exercises

Group Work icon

Pairing Activity icon

Research Activity icon

When organising groups or pairs:

1.8. General guidance on assessment

h) Provide feedback to learners, parents and teachers.

Unit Title Complex numbers Logarithmic and exponential

Assessments • Formative assessments • Formative assessments

Unit Title Taylor and Maclaurin’s Integration

Equipment, Instruments of geometry and Instruments of geometry

Assessments • Formative assessments • Formative assessments

Unit Title Differential equations Intersection and Sum of

Assessments • Formative assessments • Formative assessments

Unit Title Transformation of Matrices Conics

Number of 29 + homework 35 + homework

Assessments • Formative assessments • Formative assessments

Unit Title Random variables

Number of Periods 33 + homework

Key Unit competence Calculate and interpret the parameters of

DESCRIPTION OF TEACHING AND

5 minutes Request some Learners will

Learner’s Book pages 1 - 79

Key unit competence

Vocabulary or key words concepts

Guidance on the problem statement

18 Multiplication and division of complex 1

Lesson 1.1. Concepts of complex numbers

Activity 1.1 Learner’s Book page 2

In this lesson, the following generic competence and

6 + −36 and x = b= 6 − −36

Exercise 1.1 Learner’s Book page 4

Lesson 1.2. Definition and properties of the

In this lesson, the following generic competence and

i 6 =i 2i 2i 2 =( −1) × ( −1) × ( −1) =−1

The powers of imaginary unit can be generalised as

Exercise 1.2 Learner’s Book page 5

Lesson 1.3. Geometric representation of

Activity 1.3 Learner’s Book page 5

In this lesson, the following generic competence and

Exercise 1.3 Learner’s Book page 7

Lesson 1.4. Modulus of a complex number

Activity 1.4 Learner’s Book page 7