LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET)

Refresher Course
WHAT TO EXPECT
FOCUS: GENERAL EDUCATION
AREA: MATHEMATICS
LET Competencies:
1. Properties of Numbers
2. Number Theory
3. Integers
4. Fractions and Decimals
5. Operations with whole numbers, decimals, fractions and decimals
6. Ratio and Proportion
7. Percents
8. Measurement
9. Plane and Solid Geometry
10. Basic Statistics and Probability
11. Basic Algebra
12. Basic Trigonometry and Analytic Geometry

PART I: Content Update

I. PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS
A. SETS OF NUMBERS
Real Numbers (R)

-9, , , 0, 1, ,
5

Rational Numbers (Q) Irrational Numbers (H)

-9, , 0, 1, ,5 , ,

Integers (Z) Non-Integers

… -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,
,
…

Negative Integers Whole Numbers (W)

… -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …

Zero Natural Numbers (N)

0 1, 2, 3, …
 The Real Number System

Set Definition

Real Numbers  All numbers that we encounter everyday

(R)  Consist of rational and irrational numbers

Numbers that can
a be expressed as the quotient or ratio of two integers a and b,
b
 represented as , where b ≠ 0
 Have a specific place on the number line.
Can be written as terminating (e.g. 1.75, 2.5) or repeating decimals (e.g.
Rational 0.1111…, 2. 090909…)
Numbers (Q)
Subsets Definition

Natural Numbers (N)  Consist of the numbers 1, 2, 3, ….

Whole Numbers (W)  Consist of the natural numbers and zero

 Consist of the natural numbers, their negatives, and
Integers
zero
Irrational  Numbers that cannot be expressed as fractions
Numbers (H)  Have decimal representations that are non-terminating and non-repeating

B. THE ORDER OF OPERATIONS

When performing multiple operations, remember PEMDAS:
P Parentheses (grouping symbols)
E Exponents
M Multiply and divide from left to
D right
AS Add and subtract from left to right

C. NUMBER PROPERTIES
Property Definition Examples
 When we add or multiply any element in a 14 + 25 + 44 + 52 = 135
Closure Property set of numbers, the sum or product is a
unique real number which belongs to that
same set. 23 x 14 x 10 = 3 220
 states that changing the position of the 33 + 10 = 10 + 33
Commutative Property addends or the factors does not affect the
sum or the product 18 x 9 = 9 x 18
 states that changing the grouping of (5 + 6) + 7 = 5 + (6 + 7)
Associative Property addends in a sum or the grouping of
factors in a product does not change the
resulting sum or product 2 x (4 x 6) = (2 x 4) x 6
 The sum of any number
and zero is the same 512 + 0 = 512
Addition
number.
 0 is the identity.
Identity Property
 The product of any
number and one is the 512 x 1 = 512
Multiplication
same number.
 1 is the identity
Distributive Property of 
Multiplication over states that multiplication distributes over 7(9 + 12) = 7(9) + 7(12)
addition and subtraction
Addition / Subtraction
II. NUMBER THEORY
A. DIVISIBILITY RULES
Divisibility
Rule
by
2 If the number is an even number

3 If the sum of all individual digits in the number is divisible by 3

4 If the last two digits of the number is divisible by 4

5 If the last digit of the number is 0 or 5

6 If the number is even and is divisible by 3

Double the last digit. Subtract the doubled last digit from the number without the
7
last digit. If the difference is a multiple of 7, then it is divisible by 7.
8 If the last three digits of the number is divisible by 8

9 If the sum of the individual digits in the number is divisible by 9

10 If the last digit of the number is 0

11 If after subtracting and adding the digits successively the result is divisible by 11

B. FACTORS and MULTIPLES

 The factors of integer n are the positive integers that divide n evenly without remainder.
Ex: factors of 24: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24

 The multiples of n are the integers that n divides without any remainder.
Ex: multiples of 7: 7, 14, 21, 28, 35…

C. PRIME and COMPOSITE NUMBERS

 Prime Numbers – counting numbers that have exactly two distinct, positive divisors
e.g. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19 …

 Composite Numbers – counting numbers greater than 1 that have positive factors other than 1 and
itself
e.g. 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16…

Prime Factorization
 expressing a number as a product of factors, each of which is a prime number

Methods in Finding the Prime Factors of a Given Number

Factor Tree Method Continuous Division Method

56 2 56
2 28
2 14
7 8
7

56 = 7 x 8 56 = 7 x 8
2 4 = 7 x (2 x 4)
= 7 x (2 x 4)
=7x2x2x2 =7x2x2x2
56 = 23 x 7 56 = 23 x 7
2 2

D. GCF and LCM

 Greatest Common Factor (GCF)
 Refers to the largest common factor of two or more numbers

Ex: Find the GCF of 45 and 60

 METHODS
Intersection of Sets
For each of the given numbers, list their factors in ascending order, and pick out the factor that is
common to both lists.
Factors of 45  {1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 45}
Factors of 60  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60}
Common Factors  {1, 3, 5, 15}

GCF  15

Prime Factorization Repeated Division by Primes

3 45
60
5 15
45  3 ∙ 3 ∙ 5
20
60  2 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 5 3
4
GCF  3 ∙ 5 = 15 The resulting quotients, 3 and 4 have no common factors.
Therefore, the GCF of 45 and 60 is the product of their
common factors:
(3)(5) = 15

GCF  15

 Least Common Multiple (LCM)

 Refers to the smallest number that two or more numbers will divide without remainder

Ex: Find the LCM of 18 and 20

METHODS
Intersection of Sets
For each of the given numbers, list their multiples in ascending order, and pick out the smallest non-
zero multiple that is common to both lists.
Multiples of 18  {18, 36, 54, 72, 90, 108, 126, 144, 162, 180, 198…}
Multiples of 20  {20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200}
Common Multiple  180
LCM  180

Prime Factorization Repeated Division by Primes

Write the prime factorization for each of the
given numbers in such a way that common, 2 18
and only common, prime factors are in the 20
same column. The LCM is the product of the 2 9
10
highest powers occurring in a column of any of
3 9
the prime factorizations. 5
1 3
= 2 x 32
8 5
2
= 22 x x 5
0
18 LCM  2 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 5
22 x 32 x 5 =
0  180

LCM  180
III. INTEGERS
 Integers – refer to the set of whole numbers and their opposites
 Absolute Value – the number of units a number is away from 0 in a number line
Ex: -7 = 7

 Integer Operations
Operatio
Like Signs Unlike Signs
n
Add the integers and keep the sign. Subtract the integers and take the sign
of the integer with the largest absolute
Addition

Examples: value.
5+3=8 Examples:
(-6) + (-10) = -16 7 + (-4) = 3
(-9) + 4 = -5
Subtraction

Change the sign of the subtrahend, and then proceed to addition.

Examples:
4 – (-6) = 4 + 6 (-9) – (-5) = (-9) + 5
4 + 6 = 10 (-9) + 5 = -4

If the signs of the factors or If the signs are different, the

Multiplication

product/quotient is negative.
and Division

dividend/divisors are the same, the

product/quotient is positive.
Examples: Examples:
(3)(7) = 21 (-9)(5) = -45
(-32) ÷ (-8) = 4 100 ÷ (-10) = -10

IV. FRACTIONS
 Fractions
 A number whose value can be expressed as the quotient or ratio of any two numbers a
a
and b, represented as b , where b ≠ 0. It is a part of a whole or a set.

 Reducing Fractions to Lowest Terms

Divide the numerator and the denominator by its GCF.
Example:
÷ =

 Conversions
Mixed Number to Improper Fraction Improper Fraction to Mixed Number
1. Multiply the denominator to the whole 1. Divide the numerator by the denominator.
number. 2. The quotient is the whole number for the
2. Add the product to the numerator. mixed number.
3. The sum is the new numerator, then copy 3. The remainder is the new numerator over
the same denominator. the same denominator.
Example: Example:
77
1 6 = 77 ÷ 6 = 12 r. 5
3
3 = (3 x 3) + 1 = 10 → new numerator
1 10 77 5
3 12
6 = 6
3 = 3
 FRACTION OPERATIONS
A. Addition and Subtraction
a. Of Similar Fractions:
  Just add/subtract the numerators and copy the denominator.
Examples:
+ = - =
b. Of Dissimilar Fractions:

 Convert the fractions first to similar fractions. Then add/subtract the

numerators and keep the denominators. Reduce to lowest terms if
necessary.

Changing Dissimilar Fractions to Similar Fractions

 Find the LCM of the denominators involved (hence called Least Common
Denominator or LCD). Divide the LCD by each of the denominators, and then
multiply each quotient to their corresponding numerators.
Examples:
The LCD of 5 and 6 is 30
3 1 18  5 23 30 ÷ 5 x 3 = 18
5 + 6 = 30 = 30 30 ÷ 6 x 1 = 15

The LCD of 7 and 8 is 56

6 1 42  8 34 17 56 ÷ 8 x 6 = 42
8 - 7 = 56 = 56 or 28 56 ÷ 7 x 1 = 8

B. Multiplication of Fractions
 Simply multiply the numerators, and multiply the denominators. Reduce the
product to lowest terms, if necessary.
Example:
3 8 24
4 x 9 = 36
24 12 2
36 ÷ 12 = 3

C. Division of Fractions
 Take the first fraction and multiply it by the reciprocal of the second fraction.

Example:
5 3 5 2 10
8 ÷ 2 = 8 x 3 = 24
10 2 5
24 ÷ 2 = 12

 Complex Fractions
 Fractions whose numerator and/or denominator is/are also fraction/s
 To simplify these fractions, remember that the fraction bar means to divide. Rewrite the
fraction as a division problem, and follow the procedure for dividing fractions.
Example:
8
15
Simplify 4 .
8 8
15 15
4 = ÷4
8 1 8 2
= 15 x 4 = 60 or 15

V. RATIO and PROPORTION

Ratio Rate Proportion
A comparison of two or more Refers to a ratio whose two An equation or statement that
amounts or quantities, such as amounts represent different expresses the equality of two
a and b, which can be quantities ratios.
expressed in the following
ab a
b
 Examples: May be expressed as:
35 , 5
equivalent ways: a:b, ,
1) = , or
2) a : b = c : d

In each form, b and c are called

means, and a and d are called
extremes.
 In any proportion, the product of the means is equal to the product of the extremes.
a c
From b = d or a : b = c : d, we get ad = bc

 Finding the Missing Terms of a Proportion

 To find the missing term of a proportion, use the Extremes-Means Property and solve for
the unknown.
Example:

4 : x = 8 : 10

(8)(x) = (10)(4)
8x = 40
x = 5

 TYPES OF PROPORTIONS
A. Direct Proportion
 As one quantity increases, the other also increases.

Example:
If 4 kg of mangoes cost as much as 3 kg of guavas, how many kg of mangoes would
cost as much as 75 kg of guavas?

Solution:
Equate the ratio of the terms in the first condition to the ratio of the terms in the
second condition. So, we have:

First Condition Second Condition

Using the Extremes-Means Property, solve for the unknown.

n=
n = 100

Answer: 100 kg of mangoes would cost as much as 75 kg of guavas.

B. Inverse Proportion
 As one quantity increases, the other quantity decreases, and vice versa.

Example:
If the food in a crate is sufficient to feed 15 castaways in 14 days, how many days
would it last for 30 castaways?

Solution:
Equate the product of the terms in the first condition to the product of the terms of the
second condition. So, we have:

First Condition Second Condition

(15 castaways)(13 (30 castaways)(n
=
days) days)

n=
n=7
 Answer: The food supply will last for only 7 days for 30 castaways.

C. Partitive Proportion
 One quantity is being partitioned into different proportions.

Example:
A piece of wood 150 cm long is cut in the ratio 2:3:5. Find the measure of each part.

Solution:
1. Add the terms of the ratio.
2 + 3 + 5 = 10
2. Divide the whole measure that was partitioned by the sum of the terms.
150 cm ÷ 10 = 15 cm
3. Multiply the quotient to each term of the ratio to find the measure of each part.
2 (15 cm) = 30 cm
3 (15 cm) = 45 cm
5 (15 cm) = 75 cm

Answer: The measures of the cut parts of wood are 30 cm, 45 cm, and 75 cm.

 APPLICATIONS INVOLVING RATIOS and PROPORTIONS

A. Scales
When working with scale models, the scale is often given as the ratio:
model measurement : actual measurement

Example:
If the scale model of a boat measures 6 inches and the model has a scale of 1:20,
what is the actual measurement of the boat?
Solution: = =
=
x = 120
Answer: The actual measurement of the boat is 120 in., or 10 ft.
B. Similarity
 When figures have corresponding sides that are in proportion with one another and
corresponding angles with the same measure, the figures are similar.
 Proportions can be used to determine that figures are similar, and calculate the
missing part/s of known similar figures

Example:
Find the missing side of the larger triangle.
D Solution:
A
10 cm 15 cm AB BC 10 6
DE = EF → 15 = x
B C
6 cm 10x = 90
E F x=9
x

Answer: The measure of the missing side of the larger triangle is 9 cm.

VI. DECIMALS
Thousandths

Thousandths

Thousandths
Hundredths
Thousands

Thousands

Thousands

Hundreds
Hundred

Hundred
Tenths
Ones
Tens
Ten

Ten

100 000 10 000 1 000 100 10 1 0 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001

A. CONVERSIONS
Decimal to Fraction / Mixed Fraction to Decimal Mixed Number to Decimal
Number
 Recognize that a fraction bar
Separate and keep the whole
means ‘to divide’. Thus, to
Simply use the place value number part (this is the number
change a fraction to a
and then reduce to lowest to the left of the decimal point).
decimal, simply divide the
terms, if necessary. Then divide the fractional part
numerator by the
as described on the left.
denominator.

Example: Example: Example:

18.6 = 18 + 0.6 6 3 3
6 12
15 = 6 ÷ 15 4 = 12 + 4
= 18 + ( 10 ) 6 = 12 + (0.75)
3 15 = 0.4 3
12
= 18 + ( 5 ) 4 = 12.75
3
18.6 = 18 5

B. DECIMAL OPERATIONS
a) Addition and Subtraction
 Make sure to LINE UP the decimal points first. Add trailing zeroes if necessary to
avoid careless mistakes. Then perform the indicated operation.

b) Multiplication
Steps:
1. Multiply the numbers without regard to the decimal point to obtain a whole number
product.
2. Count the number of digits that are to the right of the decimal point of BOTH factors.
3. Alter the whole number product to have the same number of digits to the right of the
decimal point, as counted in step 2.

c) Division
Steps:
1. Set up the long division problem.
2. Count how many digits there are to the right of the decimal point in the divisor.
3. Move the decimal point in the dividend with the amount from step 2.
4. Raise the newly placed decimal point up to the quotient.
5. Divide as usual, as if there were no decimal points.

VII. PERCENTS
 Percent
 Literally meaning ‘per hundred’, it refers to a special ratio that compares a numerical
quantity to 100.

 CONVERSIONS

Between Decimals and Percents Between Fractions and Percents

A. Percent to Decimal A.
 Remove the percent symbol (%) and 
Percent to Fraction
move the decimal point two places to
Use the proportion = , and cross-
the left.
multiply to solve for the variable x.
B.
B. Decimal to Percent 
Fraction to Percent
1. Multiply the decimal by 100; or
Remove the percent symbol (%) and
2. Move the decimal point two places to
multiply the number by .
the right and write a percent symbol

 PERCENTAGE, BASE, and RATE

Percent Formula:
Part = Percent x Whole

Remember, in Mathematics:
 “Of” usually means multiply.
 “Is” usually means equals.
 75 is 30% of 250

Percentage (P) Rate (R) Base (B)

(the number usually before (the number usually in (the number usually before
or after the word “is”) “percent”) or after the word “of”)

Formulas:
P P
P=RxB R= B B= R

 APPLICATIONS INVOLVING PERCENT

A. Percent Increase or Decrease
 To increase a number by a certain percent, (1) add 100% to the given percent, (2)
convert the sum to a decimal, and (3) multiply the number by that decimal.

Example: increase 40 by 45%

Solution: 45% + 100% = 145% = 1.45
40 x 1.45 = 58

B. Simple Interest Rate

I  interest charged or paid out
I = Prt P  principal amount that is saved or borrowed
r  percentage rate written as a decimal
t  time in years
Example:
If Cedric borrows P15,000 at an interest rate of 17% for 18 months, how much will he
have paid in simple interest at the end of the 18 months?

Solution:
P  P15,000 I = Prt
r  17% I = (P15,000)(17%)(1.5)
t  18 months = 1.5 years
I = P3,825

Answer: At the end of 18 months, Cedric will pay P3,825 in simple interest.

C. Compound Interest
To compute for compound interest:
- Use the simple interest formula, I – Prt, where t is the period of time for compounding.
- Add the interest to the principal to create a new value for the principal
- Continue the first and second steps until the entire period is covered
The interest on an investment is reflected every
- 3 months if compounded quarterly
- 2 months if compounded bimonthly
- 6 months if compounded semiannually, and
- 12 months if compounded annually
Example:
What is the interest on P100,000 borrowed for 4 years at 16% interest rate per year
compounded annually.
Solution:
Compute the compound interest at the end of each year.
After year 1: P100, 000 x 0.16 = P16,000
After year 2: (P100,000 + P16,000) x 0.16 = P18, 560
After year 3: (P116,000 + P18,500) x 0.16 = P21, 529.60
After year 4: (P134, 560 + P21,529.60) x 0.16 = P24,974.34
Total Interest after 4 years = P16,000 + P18,560 + P21,529 + P24,974 = P81,063.94

D. Discount
D Discount
D=Pxr P  marked price
N=P-D r  discount rate written as a decimal
N  net price
 Example:
Find the net price and discount on a product with marked price of P120 at a discount rate
of 70%.
P  P15,000 D=Pxr
r  70% D = (P1200)(70%)
D = P840
N=P–D
N = P1200 – P840
N = P360

VIII.PLANE GEOMETRY
A. BASIC NOTIONS
LINEAR NOTIONS
Term Definition Illustration

Point A B
point A, point B
m
Line A B

line m, line AB or BA

l
Collinear D E F
Points that lie on the same line Line l contains points D, E, and F.
Points
Points D, E, and F belong to line l.
Points D, E, and FGare collinear.
Point D, E, and G are not collinear.
A subset of a line that contains
Line two points of the line and all
Segment points between those two X Y
points
A subset of a line that contains
the endpoint and all points on
Ray
the line on one side of the M N
point.

PLANAR NOTIONS
Term Definition Illustration

D
Coplanar Points that lie in the same
Points plane
A
B
C

Coplanar Lines that lie in the same

Lines plane Points A, B, and C are coplanar.
Points A, B, C, and D are noncoplanar.

Lines AB, BC, and AC are coplanar.

Two coplanar lines with
Intersecting
exactly one point in
Lines Lines AB and AC are intersecting lines. They
common.
intersect at point A.
Concurrent Lines that contain the same
Lines point Lines AC, BC, and DC are concurrent.
Lines that do not intersect,
Skew Lines and there is no plane that Lines AB and CD are skew lines.
contains them
 Two distinct coplanar lines
Parallel Lines that have no points in
common. l is parallel to m, written as l  m.

Lines in the same plane

Perpendicula
that intersect at one point
r Lines
and form four 90° angles.

B. OTHER PLANAR NOTIONS

 ANGLES
 An angle is formed by two distinct rays sharing the same endpoint.

a. Classification of Angles
Type of
Description
Angle
Acute Measure is between 0° and 90°

Right Measures exactly 90°

Measure is between 90° and
Obtuse
180°
Straight Measures exactly 180°

b. Special Angle Pair Relationships

Term Definition Illustration

Complimentary Any two angles whose combined

Angles measures equal to 90°.

Supplementary Any two angles whose combined

Angles measures equal to 180°.

Formed when two lines intersect;

Two angles that share a common vertex A transversal cuts
Vertical Angles but share no common sides through two parallel lines:

Ex: 1 4; 2 3; 5 8; 6 7
Two angles on the same side of the
transversal, but one is in the interior of the
Corresponding
parallel lines, the other on the exterior
Angles 1 2
3 4
Ex: 1 5; 2 6; 3 7; 4 8
Two angles on different sides of the
5 6
transversal, both in the interior of the
Alternate Interior 7 8
parallel lines
Angles
Ex: 3 6; 4 5
Two angles on different sides of the
transversal, both in the exterior of the
Alternate
parallel lines
Exterior Angles
Ex: 1 8; 2 7

C. POLYGONS
 Polygon
 A simple and closed geometric figure which have sides that are line segments
  A point where two sides of a polygon meet is a vertex.

 TRIANGLES

TRIANGLE

According to the Angles According to the Sides

Acute Obtuse Scalene Isosceles

Triangle Triangle Triangle Triangle
Right
Triangle
Equilateral
Triangle

Name Definition Illustration

A triangle containing one

Acute Triangle
right angle

According to
A triangle in which all the
the Angle Right Triangle
angles are acute
Measures

A triangle containing one

Obtuse Triangle
obtuse angle
CLASSIFICATION

A triangle with no
Scalene Triangle
congruent sides

According to
A triangle with at least
the Measures Isosceles Triangle
two congruent sides
of Sides

A triangle with three

Equilateral Triangle
congruent sides
  QUADRILATERALS
QUADRILATERAL

Kite Trapezoid

Parallelogram Isosceles
Trapezoid

Rhombus Rectangle

Square

Name Definition Illustration

A quadrilateral with at least one pair of

Trapezoid
parallel sides

A quadrilateral with two adjacent sides

Kite congruent and the other two sides
also congruent

A trapezoid with exactly one pair of

Isosceles Trapezoid
congruent sides

A quadrilateral in which each pair of

Parallelogram
opposite sides is parallel

Rectangle A quadrilateral with 4 right angles

Rhombus A quadrilateral with all sides congruent

A quadrilateral with 4 right angles and 4

Square
congruent sides

IX. MEASUREMENT

PLANE FIGURES
Formula
Figure Name of Figure
Perimeter Area

w
Rectangle 2l + 2w lw

Square 4s s2
 b
Parallelogram 2a + 2b bh
h

b1 b2
b1
2
a1 h a2 Trapezoid a1 + a2 + b1 + b2
( )h
b2

s s Triangle s+s+s ½ bh
h
s


r Circumference:
Circle r2
2 r

SOLID FIGURES
Formula
Figure Name of Figure
Total Surface Area Volume

Rectangular Prism 2lw + 2wh + 2hl lwh

6e2
Cube e3
(e = edge)
  
Cylinder 2 r2 + 2 rh r2h

s2 + 2sl
s = side of the base
Pyramid ⅓ bh
l = slant height of the
pyramid
  
Cone r2 + rs ⅓ r2h

 4
Sphere 4 r2 3
r3

 METRIC SYSTEM

Metric System
Dimension
Prefix Equivalent
Length Capacity Mass
kilo 1000

Greek hecto 100

deca 10
meter liter gram
deci 1/10

Latin centi 1/100

milli 1/1000

 UNIT CONVERSIONS
 Length: 1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)
1 yard (yd) = 3 feet
1 mile (mi) 5280 feet 1760
= =
yards
1 inch 2.54
=
centimeters
1 foot = 0.3 meter
1 meter = 1.1 yards
1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Area: 1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft.

1 sq. m. = 640 acres
=
Mass: 1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz)
1 ton = 2000 pounds
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds

Time 1 minute 60 seconds (s)

=
(min)
1 hour (hr) = 60 minutes
1 day (d) = 24 hours
1 year (yr) = 365 days
1 decade = 10 years
1 millennium = 1000 years

Volume: 1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts (qt)

1 quart = 2 pints (pt)
1 cup = 16 tablespoons
1 liter = 1.06 quarts

X. PROBABILITY
A. SIMPLE PROBABILITY
 The probability (P) of an event (E) is defined as:
Number of favorable outcomes
P(E) = Total number of possible outcomes
Example:
A gumball machine has 18 pieces remaining (6 blue, 5, yellow, 7, red). The probability of
6 1
getting a blue gumball is 18 or 3 .

B. COUNTING TECHNIQUES
a) Permutation
 refers to the number of possible arrangements for a given set of objects

Case 1: All of the objects are considered for each different arrangement
(nPn, read as “the permutation of n objects taken n at a time”)
This is represented by this operation:
nPn = n! (read as “n factorial”)

The factorial of a whole number is the product of that whole number and each of
the natural numbers less than the number.
n! = n x (n – 1) x (n – 2) x … x 1

Example:
In how many ways can 6 books be placed on a shelf?

Solution: 6! = 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 720
Answer: There are 720 ways that 6 books can be placed on a shelf.

Case 2: Not all of the objects are considered for each different arrangement
(nPr, read as “the permutation of n objects taken r at a time”)
n!
Pr = (n  r)!
n

Example:
 How many different arrangements of 5 students can be made in a row of 3
desks?

Solution:
n!
Pr = (n  r)!
n

5! 5! 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 ·1
5P3 =
(5  3)! → 5P3 = 2! = 2 ·1 = 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 = 60

Answer:
There are 60 different arrangements of 5 students that can be made in a row
of 3 desks.

b) Combination
 refers to the total number of groupings of a set of objects.
 The order of the objects is not important when dealing with combinations.
n!
nCr = (n  r)!r!
Example:
How many different 4-person committees can be formed from a total of 8 people?

Solution:
n!
nCr = (n  r)!r!
8! 8! 8 · 7 · 6 ·5 · 4 · 3 · 2 ·1 8 · 7 · 6 ·5
8 C4 = (8  4)!4! → 4!4! = (4 · 3 · 2 · 1)(4 · 3 · 2 · 1) = 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 70

Answer: There are 70 different 4-person committees that can be formed from 8 people.