Department of Computer Science and Engineering (CSE)

BRAC University

Fall 2022

CSE250 – Circuits and Electronics

CIRCUIT LAWS

PURBAYAN DAS, LECTURER (ADJUNCT)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (CSE)
BRAC UNIVERSITY
 Resistance
• What determines the level of current that results when a particular voltage is applied across a
wire? The answers lie in the fact that there is an opposition to the flow of charge in the system that
depends on the components of the circuit. This opposition to the flow of charge through an electrical
circuit, called resistance.
• This opposition, due primarily to collisions and friction between the free electrons and other
electrons, ions, and atoms in the path of motion, converts the supplied electrical energy into
heat that raises the temperature of the electrical component and surrounding medium.

• So, resistance is a physical property of materials that refers to the

ability to resist current.
• The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area
𝐿
A depends on A and its length ℓ. Mathematically, 𝑅 = 𝜌 , where
𝐴
𝜌 is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters (-m).
• The measuring unit for resistance is ohm ()

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 Conductance
• By finding the reciprocal of the resistance of a material, we have a measure of how
well the material conducts electricity. The quantity is called conductance, has the
symbol G, and is measured in siemens (S) or mhos (℧)
• So, the conductance is a measure of how well an element will conduct electric
current.
1
• 𝐺= [1 ℧ = 1 A/V = 1 Siemen (S)]
𝑅
1 𝐴 𝜎𝐴
• 𝐺 = = = , where 𝜎 = 𝜌1 is a material-specific parameter called
𝑅 𝜌𝐿 𝐿
conductivity, measured in siemens per meter (𝑆𝑚−1 )

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 Open circuit
• An open circuit is two isolated terminals not connected by an element of any kind.
𝑣
• Any element with 𝑅 → ∞ is an open circuit. 𝑖 = 0 = lim 𝑅
𝑅→∞
• Indicating that, an open circuit can have a potential difference (voltage) across its
terminals, but the current is always zero amperes.

In the event of an excessive current flow,

a fuse opens to protect appliances.
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 Short circuit
• A short circuit is a very low resistance, direct connection between two terminals of
a network
• Any element with 𝑅 = 0 is a short circuit. 𝑣 = 0 = lim 𝑖𝑅
𝑅→0
• Indicating that, a short circuit can carry a current of a level determined by the
external circuit, but the potential difference (voltage) across its terminals is always
zero volts.

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 I−V characteristics

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 Circuit laws, methods of analysis, & theorems

Circuit Laws
• Ohm’s Law Circuit Theorems
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law • Source transformation
• Superposition theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem
• Norton’s theorem
Methods of analysis • Maximum power transfer theorem
• Nodal analysis
• Mesh analysis

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 Ohm’s Law
𝐶𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒
• One of the basic equations for any physical system is, 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = . Every conversion of
𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
energy from one form to another can be related to this equation.
• In electric circuits, the effect we are trying to establish is the flow of charge, or current. The
potential difference, or voltage, between two points is the cause (“pressure”), and the
opposition is the resistance encountered. Substituting the terms,
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉
• 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑒  I=𝑅

• Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a resistor is directly

proportional to the current flowing through the resistor.
• That is, 𝑣 ∝ 𝑖 or 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖. Ohm defined the constant of proportionality
for a resistor to be the resistance, R, measured in ohm (). [1  = 1
V/A]
𝑣2
• 𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 = (always +ve for passive elements like resistor)
𝑅
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 Example 1 Solution
The voltage across the resistor is the same as the
source voltage (30 V) because the resistor and the
• In the circuit shown below, calculate voltage source are connected to the same pair of
the current i, the conductance G, terminals. Hence, the current is,
and the power p. 𝑣 30
𝑖= = = 0.006 𝐴 = 6 𝑚𝐴
𝑅 5 × 103
The conductance is,
1 1
𝐺= = = 0.0002 𝑆 = 0.2 𝑚𝑆
𝑅 5 × 103
The power can be calculated in various ways
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 30 × 6 × 10−3 = 0.18 𝑊 = 180 𝑚𝑊
Or,
𝑝 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 = 6 × 10−3 2 × 5 × 103 = 180 𝑚𝑊
Or,
𝑣2 302
𝑝= = = 180 𝑚𝑊
𝑅 5 × 103

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 Problem 1
i. For the circuit shown below, ii. Draw the I-V characteristics
calculate the voltage v, the of a 10 k resistor using
conductance G, and the the following template. Label
power p. the axes appropriately.

I (amperes)

V (volts)
5 10 15 20 25
Ans: (i) 𝒗 = 𝟑𝟎 𝑽; 𝑮 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝝁𝑺; 𝒑 = 𝟗𝟎 𝒎𝑾
0

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 Problem 2
• Find the hot resistance of a light bulb rated 60 W, 120 V.

Ans: 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 

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 Problem 3
(a) Calculate current 𝑖 when the switch is in position 1.
(b) Find the current when the switch is in position 2.

Ans: (a) 𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟒 𝑨; (b) 𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔 𝑨;

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 Nodes, Branches, & Loops
• A branch represents a single element such as a
voltage source or a resistor. In other words, a
branch represents a two-terminal element.
• A node is the point of connection between
two or more branches.
• A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a 👉 5 branches: 10 V source, 2 ,
node, passing through a set of nodes, and 3 , and 5  resistors, 2 A
returning to the starting node without passing current source
through any node more than once.
👉 3 nodes: a, b, c
• A loop is said to be independent if it contains
👉 3 independent loops
at least one branch which is not a part of any
other independent loop. 👉 3 dependent loops

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 Problem 4
• Determine the number of branches, nodes, and loops in the following circuits

❶
❷

❸
Ans:
1. b = 6; n = 4; l = 3 + 3
2. b= 5; n = 3; l = 3 + 3
3. b = 6; n = 2; l = 5 + 10

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 Circuit laws, methods of analysis, & theorems

Circuit Laws
• Ohm’s Law Circuit Theorems
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law • Source transformation
• Superposition theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem
• Norton’s theorem
Methods of analysis • Maximum power transfer theorem
• Nodal analysis
• Mesh analysis

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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) the algebraic sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the
algebraic sum of the currents leaving the node.
• Mathematically, σ𝑁 𝑛=1 𝑖𝑛 = 0, where N is the number of branches connected to the node and
In is the nth current entering (or leaving) the node.
• Assume a set of currents ik(t), k = 1, 2,…, flow into a node. The algebraic sum of currents at the
node is, 𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡 = 𝑖1 𝑡 + 𝑖2 𝑡 + 𝑖3 𝑡 + … …

• Integrating both sides, 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡 = 𝑞1 𝑡 + 𝑞2 𝑡 + 𝑞3 𝑡 + … … , [𝑞𝑘 𝑡 = ‫]𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝑘𝑖 ׬‬

• The law of conservation of electric charge requires that the algebraic sum of electric charges at
the node must not change; that is, the node stores no net charge. Thus,
qTotal(t) = 0 → iT(t) = 0, confirming the validity of KCL.
• For the node shown beside, 𝑖1 + (−𝑖2 ) + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 + (−𝑖5 ) = 0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑖1 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖5
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 Example 2
(i) Find i1, i2, and i3 (ii) Find i1, i2

Note that, in both the circuits

A, B, and C are the same
nodes. It is more appropriate
to call them point in this case.

KCL at point A, KCL at point C, KCL at point B,

𝑖1 + 1 + −6 = 0 2 = −2 + 𝑖3 𝑖1 = −8 + (−6)
 𝑖1 = 5 𝐴  𝑖3 = 4 𝐴  𝑖1 = −14 𝐴
KCL at point B, KCL at point C,
𝑖2 + 2 = − 6 𝑖2 + (−6) = 4
 𝑖2 = − 8 𝐴  𝑖2 = 10 𝐴

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 Example 3
• Find 𝑉0 and power absorbed/supplied by the dependent source with appropriate
± sign.
The voltage across the dependent source is,

𝑉𝑥 = 10 + 10 × 25 + 2𝑉0 = 24 𝑉

With the polarity of 𝑉𝑥 and the direction of the

current (2𝑉0 ) given, according to the passive
sign convention, the dependent source is
supplying power. So,

𝑝 = − 24 × 2𝑉0 = 571.2 𝑊
Current through the series resistances = 25 + 2𝑉0

According to the Ohm's law, The power is positive, hence, the dependent
source is actually absorbing power. This is true
𝑉0 = −10 × 25 + 2𝑉0 as V0 is negative, the current 2V0 is actually
𝑉0 = −11.9 𝑉 flowing in the opposite direction.

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 Problem 5
• Determine 𝑣0 and 𝑖0

Ans: v0 = 13.85 V; i0 = 6.92 A.

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 Problem 6
• Find the 𝐼 and 𝑉 shown in the following circuit.

Ans: V = - 15 V; I = 5.25 A.

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 Circuit laws, methods of analysis, & theorems

Circuit Laws
• Ohm’s Law Circuit Theorems
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law • Source transformation
• Superposition theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem
• Norton’s theorem
Methods of analysis • Maximum power transfer theorem
• Nodal analysis
• Mesh analysis

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 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path
(or loop) is zero.
• Mathematically, σ𝑀𝑚=1 𝑣𝑚 = 0, where M is the number of voltages (or branches) in the loop
th
and vm is the m voltage.
• To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit shown. The sign on each voltage is the polarity of the
terminal encountered first as we travel around the loop.
• If we start with the voltage source and go clockwise around the loop as shown; then
voltages would be −v1, +v2, +v3, +v4, and −v5, in that order. For example, as we reach
branch 3, the positive terminal is met first; hence, we have +v3. For branch 4, we reach the
negative terminal first; hence, −v4. Thus, KVL yields
−𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 − 𝑣4 + 𝑣5 = 0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + 𝑣5 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣4
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises
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 Example 4
• Determine 𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣3 using KVL

KVL at loop 1,
−40 − 50 + 20 + 𝑣1 = 0
Loop 2
𝑣1 = 70 𝑉
KVL at loop 2,
−20 + 30 − 𝑣2 = 0
Loop 1 Loop 3 𝑣2 = 10 𝑉
KVL at loop 3,
−𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 = 0
−70 + 10 + 𝑣3 = 0
𝑣3 = 60 𝑉

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 Example 5 Let's assume that the current through the
series circuit is 𝑖.

• Determine 𝑉0 using KVL. Applying KVL around the loop,

−10 + 16𝑖 + 14𝑖 + 25 = 0
𝑖 = −0.5 𝐴
𝑉0 can be found either by applying KVL
through the loop consisting of 𝑉0 , 14 ,
and 25 V or applying KVL through the
loop consisting of 𝑉0 , 16 , and 10 V.
That is,
− 𝑉0 + 14𝑖 + 25 = 0, or 𝑉0 = 18 𝑉
Or,
−10 + 16𝑖 + 𝑉0 = 0, or 𝑉0 = 18 𝑉

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 Problem 7
• Find 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 in the circuit

Ans: v1 = 16 V; v2 = - 8 V.

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 Problem 8
• Find the voltages and currents shown in the following circuit.

Ans: v1 = 6 V; v2 = 4 V; v3 = 10 V.
i1 = 3 A; i2 = 0.5 A; i3 = 2.5.A

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 Problem 9
• Find 𝑉0 and 𝐼 in the circuit

Ans: v0 = 48 V; I = - 8 A.

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 Problem 10
• Find 𝑉𝑥

Ans: Vx = 4.167 V.

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 Thank you for your attention

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