COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Topic.1

What are communication skills?

Communication skills are the abilities you use when giving and receiving different kinds of
information. Some examples include communicating new ideas, feelings or even an update on
your project. Communication skills involve listening, speaking, observing and empathizing. It is
also helpful to understand the differences in how to communicate through face-to-face
interactions, phone conversations and digital communications like email and social media. Being
able to communicate effectively is perhaps the most important of all life skills. It is what enables
us to pass information to other people, and to understand what is said to us. You only have to
watch a baby listening intently to its mother and trying to repeat the sounds that she makes to
understand how fundamental the urge to communicate is.

Communication, at its simplest, is the act of transferring information from one place to another.
It may be vocally (using voice), written (using printed or digital media such as books, magazines,
websites or emails), visually (using logos, maps, charts or graphs) or non-verbally (using body
language, gestures and the tone and pitch of voice). In practice, it is often a combination of
several of these. Communication skills may take a lifetime to master—if indeed anyone can ever
claim to have mastered them. There are, however, many things that you can do fairly easily to
improve your communication skills and ensure that you are able to transmit and receive
information effectively. This page provides an introduction to communication skills. It is also a
guide to the pages on Skills You Need that cover this essential area to enable you to navigate
them effectively.

Examples of communication skills

There are different types of communication skills you can learn and practice to help you become
an effective communicator. Many of these skills work together making it important to practice
communication skills in different contexts whenever possible.

Active listening

Active listening means paying close attention to the person who is speaking to you. People who
are active listeners are well-regarded by their co-workers because of the attention and respect
they offer others. While it seems simple, this is a skill that can be hard to develop and improve.
You can be an active listener by focusing on the speaker, avoiding distractions like cell phones,
laptops or other projects and by preparing questions, comments or ideas to thoughtfully respond.

Adapting your communication style to your audience. Different styles of communication are
appropriate in different situations. To make the best use of your communication skills, it’s
important to consider your audience and the most effective format to communicate with them.

For example, if you are communicating with a potential employer, it’s better to send a formal
email or call them on the phone. Depending on the situation, you may even need to send a
formal, typed letter over other forms of communication. In the workplace, you may find it’s
easier to communicate complex information in person or via a video conference than in a long,
dense email.

Friendliness

In friendships, characteristics such as honesty and kindness often foster trust and understanding.
The same characteristics are important in workplace relationships. When you’re working with
others, approach your interactions with a positive attitude, keep an open mind and ask questions
to help you understand where they’re coming from. Small gestures such as asking someone how
they’re doing, smiling as they speak or offering praise for work well done can help you foster
productive relationships with both colleagues and managers.

Confidence

In the workplace, people are more likely to respond to ideas that are presented with confidence.
There are many ways to appear confident such as making eye contact when you’re addressing
someone, sitting up straight with your shoulders open and preparing ahead of time so your
thoughts are polished. You’ll find confident communication comes in handy not just on the job
but during the job interview process as well.

Giving and receiving feedback. Strong communicators can accept critical feedback and provide
constructive input to others. Feedback should answer questions, provide solutions or help
strengthen the project or topic at hand.

Volume and clarity

When you’re speaking, it’s important to be clear and audible. Adjusting your speaking voice so
you can be heard in a variety of settings is a skill and it’s critical to communicating effectively.
Speaking too loudly may be disrespectful or awkward in certain settings. If you’re unsure, read
the room to see how others are communicating.

Empathy

Empathy means that you can understand and share the emotions of others. This communication
skill is important in both team and one-on-one settings. In both cases, you will need to
understand other people’s emotions and select an appropriate response. For example, if someone
is expressing anger or frustration, empathy can help you acknowledge and diffuse their emotion.
At the same time, being able to understand when someone is feeling positive and enthusiastic can
help you get support for your ideas and projects.

Respect

A key aspect of respect is knowing when to initiate communication and respond. In a team or
group setting, allowing others to speak without interruption is seen as a necessary
communication skill. Respectfully communicating also means using your time with someone
else wisely—staying on topic, asking clear questions and responding fully to any questions
you’ve been asked.

Understanding nonverbal cues

A great deal of communication happens through nonverbal cues such as body language, facial
expressions and eye contact. When you’re listening to someone, you should be paying attention
to what they’re saying as well as their nonverbal language. By the same measure, you should be
conscious of your body language when you’re communicating to ensure you’re sending
appropriate cues to others.

Responsiveness

Whether you’re returning a phone call or sending a reply to an email, fast communicators are
viewed as more effective than those who are slow to respond. One method is to consider how
long your response will take. Is this a request or question you can answer in the next five
minutes? If so, it may be a good idea to address it as soon as you see it. If it’s a more complex
request or question, you can still acknowledge that you’ve received the message and let the other
person know you will respond in full later.

The Importance of Good Communication Skills

Developing your communication skills can help all aspects of your life, from your professional
life to social gatherings and everything in between. The ability to communicate information
accurately, clearly and as intended, is a vital life skill and something that should not be
overlooked. It’s never too late to work on your communication skills and by doing so, you may
well find that you improve your quality of life.

How to improve your communication skills?

With experience and practice, you can learn and improve communication skills. Start by
identifying your strengths and then practice and develop those areas. Ask a close friend or
colleague for constructive criticism. It can be hard to know how you are perceived as a
communicator. To get an objective opinion, ask a trusted friend for their honest feedback.
Understanding your areas of improvement for communication can help you identify what to
focus on. Practice improving communication habits. Many communication skills are habits you
have developed over time. You can improve those skills by practicing new habits that make you
a better communicator. That might include being more responsive to communications when they
are sent, reminding yourself to make eye contact, practicing giving positive feedback and asking
questions in conversations.

Attend communication skills workshops or classes. There are several online and offline
seminars, workshops and classes that can help you become a better communicator. These classes
may include instruction, role play, written assignments and open discussions. Seek opportunities
to communicate. Seek opportunities, on and off the job, that require you to use communication
skills. This will help you improve existing skills and allow you to practice new ones.

Communicating effectively in the workplace

While there are several communication skills you will use in different scenarios, there are few
ways you can be an effective communicator at work. Be clear and concise. Making your message
as easy to consume as possible reduces the chance of misunderstandings, speeds up projects and
helps others quickly understand your goals. Instead of speaking in long, detailed sentences,
practice reducing your message to its core meaning. While providing context is helpful, it is best
to give the most necessary information when trying to communicate your idea, instruction or
message.

Practice empathy. Understanding your colleague’s feelings, ideas and goals can help you when
communicating with them. For example, you might need help from other departments to get a
project started. If they are not willing to help or have concerns, practicing empathy can help you
position your message in a way that addresses their apprehension. Assert yourself. At times, it is
necessary to be assertive to reach your goals whether you are asking for a raise, seeking project
opportunities or resisting an idea you don’t think will be beneficial. While presenting with
confidence is an important part of the workplace, you should always be respectful in
conversation. Keeping an even tone and providing sound reasons for your assertions will help
others be receptive to your thoughts.

Be calm and consistent. When there is a disagreement or conflict, it can be easy to bring emotion
into your communications. It is important to remain calm when communicating with others in
the workplace. Be aware of your body language by not crossing your arms or rolling your eyes.
Maintaining consistent body language and keeping an even tone of voice can help you reach a
conclusion peacefully and productively.

Use and read body language. Body language is a key part of communications in the workplace.
Pay close attention to the messages people are sending with their facial expressions and
movements. You should also pay close attention to the way you might be communicating
(intentionally or not) with your body language.
Communication skills are needed in almost all aspects of life:
Professionally, if you are applying for jobs or looking for a promotion with your current
employer, you will almost certainly need to demonstrate good communication skills.
Communication skills are needed to speak appropriately with a wide variety of people whilst
maintaining good eye contact, demonstrate a varied vocabulary and tailor your language to your
audience, listen effectively, present your ideas appropriately, write clearly and concisely, and
work well in a group. Many of these are essential skills that most employers’ seek. Verbal
communication skills are ranked first among a job candidate’s ‘must have’ skills and qualities.
According to a 2018 survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE).As
your career progresses, the importance of communication skills increases; the ability to speak,
listen, question and write with clarity and conciseness are essential for most managers and
leaders. In your personal life, good communication skills can improve your personal
relationships by helping you to understand others, and to be understood.
It is almost a cliché that personal relationships need communication. Failure to talk has been
blamed for the breakdown of any number of partnerships and relationships—but the ability to
listen is also an important element. Communication is also vital in wider family relationships,
whether you want to discuss arrangements for holidays, or ensure that your teenage children are
well and happy. If this area is of particular interest, you may want to read our pages on
Communicating with Teenagers, Talking to Teenagers about Contraception, Pornography and
Consent, and Talking to Teenagers about Sex and Relationships. Our pages on Personal and
Romantic Relationship Skills also contain a number of pages touching on communication.
Communication skills can also ensure that you are able to manage interactions with businesses
and organizations
Over the course of your lifetime, you are likely to have to interact with a wide range of
organizations and institutions, including shops, businesses, government offices, and schools.
Good communication skills can ease these interactions, and ensure that you are able to get your
point across calmly and clearly and also take on board the responses. Being able to complain
effectively is an important skill, for example, as is handling criticism yourself.

Communication is a two-way process

Communication is not the same as broadcasting, or simply sending out information. It is a two-
way process. In other words, it involves both the sending and receiving of information. It
therefore requires both speaking and listening, but also—and perhaps more crucially—
developing a shared understanding of the information being transmitted and received. If you are
the ‘sender’ of information, this means communicating it clearly to start with (whether in writing
or face-to-face), then asking questions to check your listeners’ understanding. You must also
then listen to their replies, and if necessary, clarify further.
If you are the recipient, it means listening carefully to the information, then checking that you
have understood by reflecting back, or asking questions to ensure that you both have the same
understanding of the situation. It is, therefore an active process. There is nothing passive about
communication, in either direction.
Types
Interpersonal Communication Skills

Interpersonal skills are the skills we use when engaged in face-to-face communication with one
or more other people. For a good general introduction to the topic of interpersonal
communication skills, you may like to read our pages on Interpersonal Communication Skills,
What is Communication? And Principles of Communication. They will help you to understand
the basics and start to be aware of what you might need to improve. Our pages on Barriers to
Communication and The Ladder of Inference give you some ideas about what may be going
wrong in your personal communication processes. Improving Communication provides
information about how you might start to address those issues. There may, in particular, be issues
relating to Intercultural communication, especially if you work or interact with people from other
cultures on a regular basis. Our more specific pages on interpersonal communication skills are
divided broadly into Verbal Communication and Non-Verbal Communication and Listening.

Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is all about what we say, which is an important way of getting our
message across. Verbal communication can be both written and spoken, but these pages focus
mainly on spoken communication. The words that we choose can make a big difference to
whether other people understand us. Consider for example, communicating with a young child,
or with someone who does not speak our own language very well. Under those circumstances,
you need to use simple language, short sentences, and check understanding regularly. It is quite
different from a conversation with an old friend whom you have known for years, and with
whom you may not even need to finish your sentences. Equally, a conversation with a friend is
very different from a business discussion, and the words that you choose might be considerably
more technical when talking to a colleague.

See our pages on Verbal Communication and Effective Speaking.

Reflection and clarification are both common techniques used in verbal communication to ensure
that what you have heard and understood is what was intended. Reflection is the process of
paraphrasing and restating what the other person has just said, to check that you have
understood. Clarification is the process of seeking more information to inform your
understanding, for example, by asking questions. You can find out more on our pages on
Reflecting and Clarification. Questioning skills are one very important area of verbal
communication, often used in clarification, but also to extract more information, and as a way to
maintain a conversation. Find out more in our pages on Questioning Skills and Types of
Questions. Finally, two specific areas where you will need verbal communication skills, and
which are worth considering separately are making a speech, and in conversation

Non-verbal Communication

Using our voice is only the tip of the iceberg. We actually communicate far more information
using Non-verbal Communication. This includes non-verbal signals, gestures, facial expression,
body language, tone of voice, and even our appearance. These can serve to either reinforce or
undermine the message of our spoken words, so are worth considering carefully. If you want to
say something outrageous, wear a suit. The late Dr Joe Jaina, Organizational Psychologist at
Canfield School of Management. You can find more about this on our pages on Body Language,
Face and Voice, Personal Presentation and Personal Appearance.

Listening

Listening is also a vital interpersonal communication skill. As we said above, communication is

a two-way process. Listening is an essential part of receiving information. When we
communicate, we spend 45% of our time listening. Most people take listening for granted, but it
is not the same as hearing and should be thought of as a skill. Our Listening Skills page acts as
an introduction to the subject and you may also be interested in the Ten Principles of Listening.
Our page on Active Listening provides a lot more information about how to listen effectively and
can also help you to avoid misunderstandings, while Types of Listening explains more about the
theory of listening. We also have pages on Ineffective Listening and Listening Misconceptions.
It is always worth thinking about what you should not do, as well as what you should do, when
trying to develop your skills. You may find that you recognise some of the bad habits you or
other people have picked up when listening.

Topic.2

PRINCIPLES OF GOOD WRITING

Managers and leaders must express their ideas clearly, concisely, and completely when speaking
and writing. If your written messages aren't clear or lack important details, people will be
confused and will not know how to respond. In addition, if your written messages are too
lengthy, people simply don't read them. The process of good writing involves three basic steps -
preparing, writing, and editing. Practicing the following 16 principles will help you be a more
effective writer.

1. Know your objective

Think before you write. What's your goal? Make sure you fully understand
the assignment. Are you writing a one-paragraph executive summary or a five-page report? Try
answering this question: What specifically do I want the reader to know, think, or do?

2. Make a list

Write down the ideas or points you want to cover. Why? This helps you get started in
identifying the key ideas you want to discuss. If you have trouble getting started, try discussing
your ideas with someone else. "Kicking an idea around" often helps you clarify your objective
and fine-tune what you are trying to accomplish

. 3. Organize your ideas

Just as it's difficult to find what you want in a messy, disorganized desk drawer, it's hard to find
important ideas in a poorly organized message. Here are a few ways you can organize your
ideas:

 Importance
 Begin with the most important piece of information and then move on to the next most
important.
 Chronological order - Describe what happened first, second, third. • Problem-Solution -
Define the problem, and then describe possible alternatives or the solution you
recommend.
 Question-Answer - State a question and then provide your answer. Organize your ideas
so the reader can easily follow your argument or the point you are trying to get across.
4. Back it up
Have an opinion but back it up - support with data. There are a number of ways you can support
your ideas, including explanations, examples, facts, personal experiences, stories, statistics, and
quotations. It's best to use a combination of approaches to develop and support your ideas.

5. Separate main ideas

Each paragraph should have one main point or idea captured in a topic sentence. The topic
sentence is normally the first sentence in the paragraph. Each paragraph should be started by an
indentation or by skipping a line.

6. Use bullets or numbers

If you are listing or discussing a number of items, use bullets or number your points like I have
done in this paper. Here's an example of using bullets. Join the Business Club to

: • Increase sales

• Gain new marketing ideas

• Make new friends

• Give back to your profession

7. Write complete sentences

A sentence is about someone doing something - taking action. The someone may be a manager,
employee, customer, etc. The "doing something - taking action" can include mental processes
such as thinking, evaluating, and deciding, or physical actions such as writing and talking. A
good rule to practice is to have subjects closely followed by their verbs.

8. Use short sentences

Sentences should be a maximum of 12 to 15 words in length. According to the American Press

Institute, sentences with 15 or fewer words are understood 90% of the time. Sentences with eight
or fewer words are understood 100% of the time.

9. be precise and accurate.

Words like "large," "small," "as soon as possible," "they," "people," "teamwork," and "customer
focus" are vague and imprecise. The reader may interpret these words to mean something
different than what you intended. Reduce communication breakdowns by being specific and
precise. Define terms as needed. The reader may not understand certain acronyms and
abbreviations.

10. Use commas appropriately

Use a comma to separate the elements in a series of three or more items: His favorite colors are
red, white, and blue. Use a comma to set off introductory elements: After coffee and donuts, the
meeting will begin. Use a comma to separate adjectives: That tall, distinguished, good-looking
professor teaches history

11. Use the correct word

Here are several words that cause confusion.

• You’re a contraction for "you are" Your means possession, such as "your coat."

• It's is a contraction for "it is." Its indicates possession.

• Their means possession/ownership-"their house." There means location. There is a contraction

for "they are."

12. Avoid redundancies

It is a redundancy to use multiple words that mean or say the same thing. For example, consider
the following:

• Redundant - My personal beliefs… Beliefs are personal, so just state, My beliefs...

• Redundant - I decided to paint the machine gray in color. Gray is a color, so just state, I
decided to paint the machine gray.

13. Numbers

When using numbers in the body of your paper, spell out numbers one through nine, such as
"Three men decided…" When using numbers 10 or above it's proper to write the number, such as
"The report indicated 68 customers…"

14. Have a conclusion

Would you really enjoy watching a movie or sporting event that had no conclusion? No. The
conclusion ties your points together. The reader wants to know the final score - the bottom line
massage.

15. Edit your work Read what you have written several times.

• On your first read, focus on organization and sentence structure. Shorten long sentences. Cross
out unnecessary words and phrases. Reorganize material as needed.

• Read it again and make sure commas are used appropriately and that there is punctuation mark
at the end of every sentence.

• Read it a third time and focus on word choice. Are there certain words that are vague or
unclear? Replace them with specific words.

• Read what you have written aloud to yourself or to a friend to see if he or she (and you) can
understand it and improve it in any way. A significant part of good writing involves editing.
Very few people can sit down and write a perfect paragraph on their first try. It requires multiple
rewrites.

16. Get help

There are several web sites that can help you improve your writing. Check out the following:
This very website has useful articles on business writing. Dictionary.com helps with spelling and
Summary

You don't have to be a great writer to be successful manager/leader. However you must be able
to clearly and succinctly explain your thoughts and ideas in writing. Strive to be simple, clear,
and brief. Like any skill, "good writing" requires practice, feedback, and ongoing improvement.
Making sure you're using the word correctly, and also has links to lots of other resources.

Topic.3

Understanding composition process

“Composing process” refers to the entire action of creating a written text, involving three stages
—planning, formulating, and revising—where writer’s recursively apply such specific activities
as generating ideas, rehearsing, and word-searching. Pedagogical process approaches were
developed in response to product-oriented ones and have been incorporated into recent
genre/social approaches that combine product and process. Major differences between advanced
and novice writers have been identified at each composing stage. Specific composing process
teaching activities, such as concept mapping for planning and peer feedback for revising, have
proved effective with diverse groups of student writers.

The process through which the writer passes to produce an effective piece of writing varies with
the writer and the writing task, but this summary describes the process through which most
effective writers pass most of the time.

Prewriting

Collect. Effective writing requires an abundant inventory of specific, accurate information.

Information is collected through reading, interviewing, observing, and remembering. Connect.
Meaning emerges as pieces of information connect and evolve into patterns. The writer plays
with the relationships between pieces of information to discover as many patterns of meaning as
possible. Rehearse. Mentally and on paper, the writer uses writing to explore and move toward
meaning. The writer rehearses titles, leads, partial drafts, sections of a potential piece, or
sketches of a piece of writing to discover the voice and the form that will lead to meaning and
effective communication.

Writing

Draft. The writer completes a discovery draft, usually written as fast as possible, often without
notes, to find out what he/she knows and does not know, what works and does not work. The
writer is particularly interested in what works, since most effective writing is built from
extending and reinforcing the positive elements in what has been written.

Rewriting

Develop. The writer explores the subject by developing each point through definition,
description, and documentation which show as well as tell the writer, and then the reader, what
the piece of writing means. The writer usually needs to add information to understand the
potential meaning of what has been written and often must restructure the successive drafts.
Clarify. The writer anticipates and answers the readers’ questions. At this stage the writer cuts
what is unnecessary and adds those spontaneous touches we call “style.” These changes produce
the illusion of easy writing that makes for easy reading edit. The writer goes over the piece line
by line, often reading aloud, to make sure that each word, each mark of punctuation, contributes
to the effectiveness of the piece of writing.

Topic.4

Writing Clearly

What does writing clearly and concisely mean?

Writing clearly and concisely means choosing your words deliberately, constructing your
sentences carefully, and using grammar properly. By writing clearly and concisely, you will get
straight to your point in a way your audience can easily comprehend.

Why should I write clearly and concisely?

In order to succeed in your communication task, you need to keep your audience’s attention.
Writing clearly and concisely is one way to capture and retain their interest. Rambling on,
conversely, may lose your audience’s attention.

How do I write clearly and concisely?

Several techniques can help you learn to write clearly and concisely in order to motivate your
audience to read and respond favorably to your communication.

Choose your words deliberately

The words you choose can either enhance or interfere with your meaning and your audience’s
comprehension. Follow these guidelines to develop a strategy for choosing the most effective
words for your communication task.

Use simple words

Paul Anderson, in his book Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach, points to
studies that show users comprehend simple words more quickly, even when they’re familiar with
a more elaborate counterpart .

This table shows some commonly-used elaborate words and their simple alternatives.

Elaborate word Simple word

Ascertain Begin

Commence Make up

Constitute Build

Fabricate Begin

Initiate End

Terminate Send

Transmit Use

Utilize find out

This guideline doesn’t mean you should eliminate all elaborate terms.

You may be familiar with technical processes and their related terms. If your entire audience will
understand technical terms, use them. If not, either substitute with simple terms instead, or if
there are no substitutes, explain the meaning of the technical term using one of these methods.

Use a synonym: “memory” instead of “RAM.”Describe the term: “RAM allows your computer
to run more quickly and efficiently.”Compare the term with a common concept: “RAM is like
having a large desk with numerous drawers for storage. You can quickly and efficiently access
your files at a moment’s notice”. Define the term: “RAM, or random access memory, is one type
of computer data storage systems. It allows your computer to quickly and efficiently access
files”.

Replace vague words with specific ones

Vague words tend to be abstract and can conceal your meaning. Specific words, on the other
hand, precisely and shortly convey your meaning. For instance, suppose you are describing a
new product your company is developing:

Vague:

The Acme Corporation is developing a new consumer device that allows users to communicate
vocally in real time.

Specific:

The Acme Corporation is developing a new cell phone. Readers may not immediately understand
what the first sentence describes. Is this a brand new kind of device? Or a device they’ve never
heard of? The second sentence, on the other hand, says exactly what the product is, leaving little
room for doubt.

Eliminate unnecessary words

Unnecessary words come in many forms. Like vague words, they can conceal instead of reveal
your meaning.

Excessive detail

Before: I received and read the email you sent yesterday about the report you’re writing for the
project. I agree it needs a thorough, close edit from someone familiar with your audience.

After: I received your email about the project report and agree it needs an expert edit.

Extra determiners and modifiers

Before: Basically, the first widget pretty much surpassed the second one in overall performance.

After: The first widget performed better than the second.

Repetitive words

Before: The engineer considered the second monitor an unneeded luxury.

After: The engineer considered the second monitor a luxury.

Redundant words
Before: The test revealed conduction activity that was peculiar in nature.

After: The test revealed peculiar conduction activity.

Replace multiple negatives with affirmatives

Multiple negatives require your readers to interpret your meaning. Affirmatives, instead, convey
concise meaning that needs no interpretation.

Before: Your audience will not appreciate the details that lack relevance.

After: Your audience will appreciate relevant details.

Avoid noun strings

Noun strings can confuse readers, as they are difficult to understand.

Before: The Acme Corporation continues to work on the cell phone case configuration revision
project.

After: The Acme Corporation is developing a redesigned cell phone case.

Sentences express and connect the meaning of your ideas. Follow these guidelines to write clear
and concise sentences that your audience can comprehend quickly and easily.

Pay attention to sentence length

In his book, Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach, Paul Anderson

recommends varying the lengths of sentences. Use short sentences to emphasize a point; use
longer sentences to connect ideas: This report provides operational information about the
electrical equipment the Acme Corporation recently installed at their headquarters in Los
Angeles (long sentence). The equipment will increase energy efficiency by 25% (short sentence).

TOPIC.5

WORDS

Definition
 A speech sound or series of speech sounds that symbolizes and communicates a
meaning usually without being divisible into smaller units capable of independent use the entire
set of linguistic forms produced by combining a single base with various inflectional elements
without change in the part of speech elements . A written or printed character or combination of
characters representing a spoken word

The number of words to a line sometimes used with the first letter of a real or pretended taboo
word prefixed as an often humorous euphemism The first man to utter the f word on British TV
Time

We were not afraid to use the d word and talk about death

Erma Bombeck

Any segment of written or printed discourse ordinarily appearing between spaces or between a
space and a punctuation mark

2a: a brief remark or conversation

Would like to have a word with you

B: something that is said

Cwords plural

(1): TALK, DISCOURSE

Putting one’s feelings into words

(2): the text of a vocal musical composition

In so many words, she wasn't fit to be seen — Jean Stafford of few words: not inclined to say
more than is necessary.

Topic.6

Sentence and paragraphs

What is a sentence?
In simple terms, a sentence is a set of words that contain: a subject (what the sentence is about,
the topic of the sentence), and predicate (what is said about the subject) look at this simple
example: sentence subject predicate verb You speak English. The above example sentence is
very short. Of course, a sentence can be longer and more complicated, but basically there is
always a subject and a predicate. Look at this longer example: sentence subject predicate verb
Ram and Tara speak English when they are working. Note that the predicate always contains a
verb. Sometimes, in fact, the predicate is only a verb: sentence subject predicate verb Smoke
rises. So we can say that a sentence must contain at least a subject and verb. There is one
apparent exception to this – the imperative. When someone gives a command (the imperative),
they usually do not use a subject. They don't say the subject because it is obvious - the subject is
YOU! Look at these examples of the imperative, with and without a subject: sentence subject
predicate verb Stop! Wait a minute! You look! Everybody look! Note that a sentence
expresses a complete thought. Here are some examples of complete and incomplete thoughts:
complete thought? Sentence He opened the door. YES Come in, please. Do you like coffee?
not a sentence people who work hard NO a fast-moving animal with big ears Note also that a
sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (AmE period) or a question mark or
an exclamation mark (AmE exclamation point).

Paragraph

What is a Paragraph?

A paragraph is a group of sentences that convey an idea. Each sentence works together as part of
a unit to create an overall thought or impression. A paragraph is the smallest unit or cluster of
sentences in which one idea can be developed adequately. Paragraphs can stand alone or
function as part of an essay, but each paragraph covers only one main idea. The most important
sentence in your paragraph is the topic sentence, which clearly states the subject of the whole
paragraph. The topic sentence is usually the first sentence of the paragraph because it gives an
overview of the sentences to follow. The supporting sentences after the topic sentence help to
develop the main idea. These sentences give specific details related to the topic sentence. A final
or concluding sentence often restates or summarizes the main idea of the topic sentence.

Effective Paragraphs
An effective paragraphs contains:

 A topic sentence that states the main point of the paragraph

 Supporting sentences with details and specific examples as proof of your point
 Logical, coherent thoughts that are developed in order from one sentence to the next
 A concluding idea that wraps up the point of the paragraph
 Below is a paragraph model. It contains a topic sentence with concrete details and
examples in the supporting sentences. Notice how the writer sums up the point of the
paragraph with a concluding sentence.

Also, because this is academic writing, the writer indents the first line five spaces to mark the
beginning of a paragraph. This practice is not always followed in commercial or instructive
writing, or in business letters or memos.

My First Day

My first day of college was a disaster. First, I went to the wrong classroom for math. I was sitting
in the class, surrounded by people taking notes and paying attention to how to do equations,
which would have been okay if I was supposed to be in an algebra class. In reality, I was
supposed to be in geometry, and when I discovered my error, I had already missed the first
twenty minutes of a one-hour class. When I got to the correct class, all twenty-five students
turned and looked at me as the teacher said, “You’re late.” That would have been bad enough,
but in my next class my history teacher spoke so fast I could not follow most of what they said.
The only thing I did hear was that we were having a quiz tomorrow over today’s lecture. My day
seemed to be going better during botany class, that is, until we visited the lab. I had a sneezing fit
because of one of the plants in the lab and had to leave the room. When I finally finished my
classes for the day, I discovered I had locked my keys in the car and had to wait for my brother
to bring another set. My first day of school was so bad that I know the rest will have to be better.

In the above paragraph, the topic sentence appears in bold and the concluding sentence in italics.
The sentences in between support and develop the topic sentence by giving specific examples
and details. These examples are the writer’s “proof” of their bad first day of school.

Effective Topic Sentences

An effective topic sentence:

 Informs the reader of the subject that will be discussed in the paragraph
 Asserts the writer’s point of view or attitude
 Intrigues the reader to continue reading
 Creates a sense of action
 Is not vague, rambling, too narrow or too broad

Topic.7

Persuasive Writing

Definition:

Persuasive writing also known as the argumentative writing. It uses logic, and reason to show
one idea is more legitimate than anothers.The definition of persuasive is someone or something
with the power to convince.

Example:

An example of persuasive is an arguments or an idea that changes someone's mind.

Steps of Persuasive writing

 State your claim clearly

 Understand your audience
 Engage through emotion
 Focus on the one-side of the arguments
 Keep organized
 Use active language

Structure

What is persuasive writing structure?

When writing a persuasive essay, there is a structure you can follow to help make your argument
clear and effective. The essay is typically made up of 3 main sections: the introduction, the
body , and the conclusion.

Introduction

1. Body
2. Conclusion.

To write an effective persuasive essay, each section should contain specific points you want to
discuss.

1. Introduction:

 Topic and controversial issue introduced effectively

 Both sides of opinions presented with brief reason

 Your own position stated clearly

 Three suppoting reasons stated in parallel structure

2. Body

 Paragraph 1

 Topic sentence(stating 1st reason) presented clearly

 Example sufficient, relevant and specific

 Closing remarks relating the example to topic sentence

 Paragraph 2

 Topic sentence (starting 2nd reason) presented clearly

 Example sufficient, relevant and specific

 Closing remarks relating the example to topic sentence

 Paragraph 3
  Topic sentence(stating 3rd reason) presented clearly

 Example sufficient, relevant and specific

 Closing remarks relating the example to topic sentence

3. Conclusion

 Three reasons summed up in a unique way

 Pointed out solution or called for action, giving the reader a sense of ending

Topic:8

What are the basic skills for Note taking in class room and elaborate skills
for exams?

Skills for taking notes:

Adequate notes are necessary adjunct to efficient studying and learning in college. Follow the
Some following suggestions and improve your note taking system.

 Listen lecture actively. If possible, think before you writ- but don’t get behind.
 Be open-minded about points you disagree on. Don’t let arguing interfere with your note
taking.
 Raise question if appropriate.
 Develop and use a standard method of note-taking including punctuation, abbreviations,
margins, etc.
 Take and keep notes in a large notebook. The only merit to a small notebook is ease of
carrying and test is not your main objective. a large notebook allows you to adequately
indent and use an outline form.
 Leave a few spaces blank as you move from one point to next point to text so that you can
fill in additional points later if necessary. Your objective is to take helpful notes, not to
save paper.
 Do not try to take down everything that the lecture says. It is impossible and unnecessary
because everything is not of equal importance. Spend more time listening and attempt to
 take down the main points. If you are writing as fast as you can, you cannot be as
discriminating a listener. There may be some times, however, when it is more important to
write than to think.
 Listen for cues to important point’s transitions from one point to the next, repetition of
points for emphasis, changes in voice inflections, enumeration of a series of points etc.
 Many lectures attempt to present a few major points in lecture. The rest is explanatory
material and samples.
 Try to see the main points and do not get lost in a barrage of minor points that do not seem
related to each other. The relationship will represent itself if you listen closely for it. Be
alert to cues about what the professor thinks is important.
 Make your original notes legible enough for your own reading and use abbreviations of
your own invention when possible. The effort required to recopy notes can be better spent
in rereading them and thinking about them. Although neatness is virtue in some respect, it
does not necessarily increase your learning.
 Copy down everything on the board. Did you ever stop to think that every blackboard
scribble might be a clue to an exam item? You may not be able to integrate what is on
the board into your lecture notes, but if you copy it, it may serve as a useful clue for your
later. If not, what the heck – You haven’t wasted anything. You were in the classroom
anyway.
 Sit as close to the front of the class as possible – there are fewer distractions and it is
easier to hear, see and attend to important material.
 Mark assignments and suggestions precisely – ask question if you are not sure.

Rule for taking notes:

 Write the course name, lesson topic, and date in your page header to keep notes
organized.
 Paraphrase only the most important information to stay focused.
 Key points, dates and concepts
 Definitions and Examples
 Avoid writing complete sentences, so you can save time and keep up.
  Highlight any point the teacher, text, or video repeat. Instead use of short phrases,
symbols, contractions and abbreviations.
 Leave blank spaces between main ideas so you can insert additional information
later.
 Review your notes within 24 hour to ensure you understand what you have written
and nothing any questions you may have about material.

Skills for Exams:

Skills for preparing exams:

 Set your goal

 Read the course overview to understand what the course will cover how it
scored. Indentify your goal concrete terms.
 Manage your time
 Time management skills can help you in take control of your study overload,
achieve more, and stress out less.
 There are many ways to make time work with you, instead of against you.
Purchase an academic dairy to make study plan etc.
 Identify your learning style:
 Take a learning style assessment test and find out if you are a visual, auditory, or
kinesthetic learner.
 This self – knowledge can help you make more effective use of your time.
 Remember, your learning style is different from that of family members and
friends.
 Develop a study plan:
 For each course, figure out how much time you will need to spend outside
of class, in order to keep up and in order to do well.
 Plan a study schedule that allows you to stay in control of the academic
overload.
 Keep with reading :
  Particularly in college or university, staying up – to – date in terms of
your critical reading to your success.
 When you attend lecture without having completed the reading, you lose
a opportunity add to your understanding.

Some important point to be remembered for exams:

a. Develop effective note taking techniques.

b. Attend classes regularly
c. Work with concentrations
d. Surround yourself with learning
e. Use all your intelligence

Exams skills for attempting paper:

 First of all you need to be cautious of your overall paper presentations.

Here are the few things you need to consider:
 Draw a line on the right and left of the page with a cut marker
 Keep your paper neat and clean
 Giver Proper important headings
 Fill all the page don’t leave any space
 Stay on the topic will answering the question
 After finishing the question draw a line at the end of the answer
 Don’t leave extra space at the end of the page.
 Answer only the number of the question asked don’t attempt extra question. But if do
attempt extra question, and then do not write the word “EXTA QUESTION” with it.
 Putting first things first, you need the followings to attempt your paper effectively.
 Putting first things first, you need the followings to attempt a paper:
 A large transparent scale.
 A blue cut marker
 A small scale
 A good blue pen
 A pencil, an eraser and a sharpener.