4 Hydrokinetic fluid couplings and torque converters

A fluid drive uses hydrokinetic energy as a means 4.1 Hydrokinetic fluid couplings
of transferring power from the engine to the trans- (Figs 4.1 and 4.2)
mission in such a way as to automatically match The hydrokinetic coupling, sometimes referred to
the vehicle's speed, load and acceleration require- as a fluid flywheel, consists of two saucer-shaped
ment characteristics. These drives may be of a discs, an input impeller (pump) and an output
simple two element type which takes up the drive turbine (runner) which are cast with a number of
smoothly without providing increased torque or fiat radial vanes (blades) for directing the flow path
they may be of a three or more element unit of the fluid (Fig. 4.1).
which not only conveys the power as required Owing to the inherent principle of the hydro-
from the engine to the transmission, but also multi- kinetic coupling, there must be relative slip between
plies the output torque in the process. the input and output member cells exposed to each

Flywheel Turbine (T) Impeller (pump) (P)

~ Flow path of fluid~ii~ ==

~ -

cells

~ F I o w path of fluid
Torus
guide

Directior
of of
rotation rotation
Turbine Impeller (pump)
Fig. 4.1 Fluid coupling action
98
other, and the vortex flow path created by pairs of The two half-members are put together so that
adjacent cells will be continuously aligned and the fluid can rotate as a vortex. Originally it was
misaligned with different cells. common practice to insert at the centre of rotation a
With equal numbers of cells in the two half hollow core or guide ring (sometimes referred to as
members, the relative cell alignment of all the cells the torus) within both half-members to assist in
occurs together. Consequently, this would cause a establishing fluid circulation at the earliest moment
jerky transfer of torque from the input to the output of relative rotation of the members. These couplings
drive. By having differing numbers of cells within had the disadvantage that they produced consider-
the impeller and turbine, the alignment of each pair able drag torque whilst idling, this being due mainly
of cells at any one instant will be slightly different to the effectiveness of the core guide in circulating
so that the impingement of fluid from one member fluid at low speeds. As coupling development pro-
to the other will take place in various stages of gressed, it was found that turbine drag was reduced
circulation, with the result that the coupling torque at low speeds by using only a core guide on the
transfer will be progressive and relatively smooth. impeller member (Fig. 4.2). With the latest design

Ring Direction of fluid flow

gear

Impeller (pump)

Filler plug

Guide core

Turbine

Crankshaft Lip seal

Radial packing
seal

Spigot-
bearing \
Output
flange
Turbine
shaft
bearing

Fig. 4.2 Fluid coupling

99
these cores are eliminated altogether as this also by the impeller around its axis and secondly it
reduces fluid interference in the higher speed range circulates round the cells in a vortex motion.
and consequently reduces the degree of slip for a This circulation of fluid only continues as long as
given amount of transmitted torque (Fig. 4.6). there is a difference in the angular speeds of the
impeller and turbine, because only then is the cen-
4.1.1 Hydrokinetic fluid couplingprinciple of trifugal force experienced by the fluid in the faster
operation (Figs 4.1 and 4.3) moving impeller greater than the counter centri-
When the engine is started, the rotation of the fugal force acting on the fluid in the slower moving
impeller (pump) causes the working fluid trapped turbine member. The velocity of the fluid around
in its cells to rotate with it. Accordingly, the fluid is the couplings' axis of rotation increases while it
subjected to centrifugal force and is pressurized so flows radially outwards in the impeller cells due to
that it flows radially outwards. the increased distance it has moved from the centre
To understand the principle of the hydrokinetic of rotation. Conversely, the fluid velocity decreases
coupling it is best to consider a small particle of when it flows inwards in the turbine cells. It there-
fluid circulating between one set of impeller and fore follows that the fluid is given kinetic energy by
turbine vanes at various points A, B, C and D as the impeller and gives up its kinetic energy to the
shown in Figs 4.1 and 4.3. turbine. Hence there is a transference of energy
Initially a particle of fluid at point A, when the from the input impeller to the output turbine, but
engine is started and the impeller is rotated, will there is no torque multiplication in the process.
experience a centrifugal force due to its mass and
radius of rotation, r. It will also have acquired some 4.1.2 Hydrokinetic fluid coupling velocity
kinetic energy. This particle of fluid will be forced diagrams (Fig. 4.3)
to move outwards to point B, and in the process The resultant magnitude of direction of the fluid
of increasing its radius of rotation from r to R, will leaving the impeller vane cells, VR, is dependent
now be subjected to considerably more centrifugal upon the exit velocity, VE, this being a measure of
force and it will also possess a greater amount of the vortex circulation flow rate and the relative
kinetic energy. The magnitude of the kinetic energy linear velocity between the impeller and turbine, VL.
at this outermost position forces it to be ejected The working principle of the fluid coupling
from the mouth of the impeller cell, its flow path may be explained for various operating conditions
making it enter one of the outer turbine cells at assuming a constant circulation flow rate by means
point C. In doing so it reacts against one side of the of velocity vector diagrams (Fig. 4.3).
turbine vanes and so imparts some of its kinetic When the vehicle is about to pull away, the engine
energy to the turbine wheel. The repetition, of fluid drives the impeller with the turbine held stationary.
particles being flung across the junction between the Because the stalled turbine has no motion, the rela-
impeller and turbine cells will force the first fluid tive forward (linear) velocity VL between the two
particle in the slower moving turbine member members will be large and consequently so will the
(having reduced centrifugal force) to move inwards resultant entry velocity VR. The direction of fluid
to point D. Hence in the process of moving inwards flow from the impeller exit to turbine entrance will
from R to r, the fluid particle gives up most of its make a small angle O1, relative to the forward direc-
kinetic energy to the turbine wheel and subsequently tion of motion, which therefore produces consider-
this is converted into propelling effort and motion. able drive thrust to the turbine vanes.
The creation and conversion of the kinetic As the turbine begins to rotate and catch up to
energy of fluid into driving torque can be visualized the impeller speed the relative linear speed is
in the following manner: when the vehicle is at rest reduced. This changes the resultant fluid flow
the turbine is stationary and there is no centrifugal direction to 02 and decreases its velocity. The net
force acting on the fluid in its cells. However, when output thrust, and hence torque carrying capacity,
the engine rotates the impeller, the working fluid will be less, but with the vehicle gaining speed there
in its cells flows radially outwards and enters the is a rapid decline in driving torque requirements.
turbine at the outer edges of its cells. It therefore At high turbine speeds, that is, when the output
causes a displacement of fluid from the inner edges to input speed ratio is approaching unity, there will
of the turbine cells into the inner edges of the be only a small relative linear velocity and resultant
impeller cells, thus a circulation of the fluid will entrance velocity, but the angle 03 will be large.
be established between the two half cell members. This implies that the magnitude of the fluid thrust
The fluid has two motions; firstly it is circulated will be very small and its direction ineffective in
100
 VE = Impeller exit velocity
Vortex .... VL = Relative linear velocity of both
velocity pump and turbine
VR = Resultant effective velocity and
direction of fluid
Jr.

input

P
12 ¸
Vane -
(blade)

.-.__ ..

r
!
Fluid 6 g
path

Impeller Turbine
\ J
o
0 0.2 0-4 0.6 0.8
o
1.0
output . (n)
input speeo ratio
Vr

Fig, 4.4 Relationship of torque capacity efficiency and

speed ratio for fluid couplings
Stalled turbine

Medium speed
v, I 1i,
2O

V ~" 20 .. 10 ~

High speed 0
[/ ~ 1 =
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Engine speed (rev/min)

Fig. 4.5 Relationship of engine speed, torque and slip

Fig. 4.3 Principle of the fluid coupling for a fluid coupling

101
rotating the turbine. Thus the output member will in impeller speed, considerably raises the coupling
slip until sufficient circulating fluid flow imparts torque carrying capacity. A further controlling fac-
enough energy to the turbine again. tor which affects the torque transmitted is the
It can be seen that at high rotational speeds the quantity of fluid circulating between the impeller
cycle of events is a continuous process of output and turbine. Raising or lowering the fluid level in
speed almost, but never quite, catching up to input the coupling increases or decreases the torque
speed, the exception being when the drive changes which can be transmitted to the turbine (Fig. 4.4).
from engine driven to overrun transmission driven
when the operating conditions will be reversed.
4.3 Fluid friction coupling (Figs 4.6 and 4.7)
A fluid coupling has the take-up characteristics
4.2 Hydrokinetic fluid coupling efficiency and which particularly suit the motor vehicle but it
torque capacity (Figs 4.4 and 4.5) suffers from two handicaps that are inherent in
Coupling efficiency is the ratio of the power avail- the system. Firstly, idling drag tends to make the
able at the turbine to the amount of power supplied vehicle creep forwards unless the parking brake is
to the impeller. The difference between input and fully applied, and secondly there is always a small
output power, besides the power lost by fluid shock, amount of slip which is only slight under part load
friction and heat, is due mainly to the relative slip (less than 2%) but becomes greater when transmit-
between the two members (Fig. 4.4). A more useful ting anything near full torque.
term is the percentage slip, which is defined as the These limitations have been overcome for large
ratio of the difference in input and output speeds truck applications by combining a shoe and drum
divided by the input speed and multiplied by 100. centrifugally operated clutch to provide a positive
lock-up at higher output speeds with a smaller
i.e. %slip--(NNn ) xl00 coreless fluid coupling than would be necessary if
the drive was only to be through a fluid coupling.
The percentage slip will be greatly influenced by The reduced size and volume of fluid circulation in
the engine speed and output turbine load conditions the coupling thereby eliminate residual idling drag
(Fig. 4.5). A percentage of slip must always exist to (Fig. 4.6).
create a sufficient rate of vortex circulation which is With this construction there is a shoe cartier
essential to impart energy from the impeller to the between the impeller and flywheel attached to the
turbine. The coupling efficiency is at best about 98% output shaft. Mounted on this carrier are four brake
under light load high rotational speed conditions, shoes with friction material facings. They are each
but this will be considerably reduced as turbine output pivoted (hinged) to the cartier member at one end
load is increased or impeller speed is lowered. If the and a garter spring (coil springs shown on front view
output torque demand increases, more slip will occur to illustrate action) holds the shoes in their retrac-
and this will increase the vortex circulation velocity tion position when the output shaft is at rest.
which will correspondingly impart more kinetic When the engine is accelerated the fluid coupling
energy to the output turbine member, thus raising automatically takes up the drive with maximum
the torque capacity of the coupling. An additional smoothness. Towards maximum engine torque
feature of such couplings is that if the engine should speed the friction clutch shoes are thrown outwards
tend to stall due to overloading when the vehicle by the centrifugal effect until they come into con-
is accelerated from rest, the vortex circulation will tact with the flywheel drum. The frictional grip will
immediately slow down, preventing further torque now lock the input and output drives together.
transfer until the engine's speed has recovered. Subsequently the fluid vortex circulation stops
Fluid coupling torque transmitting capacity for a and the fluid coupling ceases to function (Fig. 4.7).
given slip varies as the fifth power of the impeller Relative slip between input and output member in
internal diameter and as the square of its speed. low gear is considerably reduced, due to the auto-
i.e. T ~ DSN 2 matic friction clutch engagement, and engine brak-
ing is effectively retained down to idling speeds.
where D = impeller diameter
N = impeller speed (rev/min) 4.4 Hydrokinetic three element torque converter
(Figs 4.8 and 4.9)
Thus it can be seen that only a very small A three element torque converter coupling is com-
increase in impeller diameter, or a slight increase prised of an input impeller casing enclosing the

102
 Flywheel
drum
Direction
of
Shoe rotation
and
lining

Shoe
pivot

Shoe
carrier

Impelle=
shaft

Garter
spring Shoe
and
lining
Impeller . . . . . .
Flywheel ------
drum

Retraction
spring

Turbine Shoe
pivot
Fig. 4.6 Fluid friction coupling

output turbine wheel. There are about 26 and 23

10
blades for the impeller and turbine elements respect-
ively. Both of these elements and their blades are
fabricated from low carbon steel pressings. The third
8
o== 100 element of the converter called the s t a t o r is usually
X L¢T Clutch \ " " 1 " " ~ 't. an aluminium alloy casting which may have some-
._~o
¢J'O
6
lock up
]/ \
\ I "
/
I
80
thing in the order of 15 blades (Figs 4.8 and 4.9).
¢0 m
O.O
point / .- \ i
The working fluid within a converter when the
t \ I.
60
®,2
0
J i \ L 40~
engine is operating has two motions:
1 Fluid trapped in the impeller and turbine vane
UJ
~ 2 • \\ I
\ J 20 cells revolves bodily with these members about
\ I their axis of rotation.
0 f I I i _.--L 0
0 0-2 0-4 0.6 0-8 1.0 2 Fluid trapped between the impeller and turbine
outpu,
Input speed ratio
(n) vane cells and their central torus core rotates in a
circular path in the section plane, this being
known as its v o r t e x m o t i o n .
Fig. 4.7 Relationship of torque carrying capacity, effici- When the impeller is rotated by the engine, it acts
ency and output speed for a fluid coupling as a centrifugal pump drawing in fluid near the

103
centre of rotation, forcing it radially outwards It therefore follows that the engine torque
through the cell passages formed by the vanes to the delivered to the impeller and the reaction torque
impeller peripheral exit. Here it is ejected due to its transferred by the fluid to the impeller are both
momentum towards the turbine cell passages and in transmitted to the output turbine through the media
the process acts at an angle against the vanes, thus of the fluid.
imparting torque to the turbine member (Fig. 4.8).
The fluid in the turbine cell passages moves i.e. Engine Reaction Output turbine
inwards to the turbine exit. It is then compelled to torque + torque -- torque
flow between the fixed stator blades (Fig. 4.9). The
reaction of the fluid's momentum as it glides over 4.4.1 Hydrokinetic three element torque
the curved surfaces of the blades is absorbed by the converter principle of operation (Fig. 4.8)
casing to which the stator is held and in the process When the engine is running, the impeller acts as
it is redirected towards the impeller entrance. It a centrifugal pump and forces fluid to flow radially
enters the passages shaped by the impeller vanes. around the vortex passage made by the vanes and
As it acts on the drive side of the vanes, it imparts core of the three element converter. The rotation
a torque equal to the stator reaction in the direction of the impeller by the engine converts the engine
of rotation (Fig. 4.8). power into hydrokinetic energy which is utilized in

Turbine (T) Stator (S) Impeller(pump)(P)

Flowpath
of
fluid

.Fluid
cells

~ Flowpath of f l u i d ~

OfrotationDirect~i°n ig~'\" v ~ ~ roDo~:=n

~:z::::z:::~==::::~
Turbine ~" ~/f-.~~.~X~ Impeller(pump)

Stator

Fig. 4.8 Three element torque converter action

104
 Ring
gear
urbine
~peller (pump)
uide core

- • Stato
• r (reacto r)
~ Direction of fluid flow
Crankshaft ~ ~ Freewheel
/--Turbine output
sha ,u,
I/ inlet Fluid
/ outlet

Stationary
housing
Spigot.
sleeve
bearing
Impeller
sleeve

Fig. 4.9 Three element torque converter

providing a smooth engine to transmission take-up to the impeller, the pressure generated in the impel-
and in producing torque multiplication if a third ler will be far greater than in the turbine. Subse-
fixed stator member is included. quently the fluid particle in the turbine curved
An appreciation of the principle of the converter passage will be forced inwards to the exit point D
can be obtained by following the movement and and in doing so will give up more of its kinetic
events of a fluid particle as it circulates the vortex energy to the turbine wheel.
passage (Fig. 4.8). The fluid particle, still possessing kinetic energy
Consider a fluid particle initially at the small at the turbine exit, now moves to the stator blade's
diameter entrance point A in the impeller. As the entrance side to point E. Here it is guided by the
impeller is rotated by the engine, centrifugal force curvature of the blades to the exit point F.
will push the fluid particle outwards to the impeller's From the fixed stator (reactor) blades the fluid
largest exit diameter, point B. Since the particle's path is again directed to the impeller entrance point
circumferential distance moved every revolution A where it imparts its hydrokinetic energy to the
will be increased, its linear velocity will be greater impeller, this being quite separate to the kinetic
and hence it will have gained kinetic energy. energy produced by the engine rotating the impeller.
Pressure caused by successive particles arriving Note that with the fluid coupling, the transfer of
at the impeller outermost cell exit will compel the fluid from the turbine exit to the impeller entrance
particle to be flung across the impeller-turbine is direct. Thus the kinetic energy gained by the
junction where it acts against the side of cell vane input impeller is that lost by the output turbine
it has entered at point C and thereby transfers some and there is no additional gain in output turning
of its kinetic energy to the turbine wheel. Because effort, as is the case when a fixed intermediate
the turbine wheel rotates at a lower speed relative stator is incorporated.

105
4.4.2 Hydrokinetic three element torque When the turbine is in the stalled condition and
converter velocity diagrams (Figs 4.9 and 4.10) the impeller is being driven by the engine, the direction
The direction of fluid leaving the turbine to enter of the fluid leaving the impeller will be determined
the stator blades is influenced by the tangential exit entirely by the curvature and shape of the turbine
velocity which is itself determined by the vortex vanes. Under these conditions, the fluid's direction
circulating speed and the linear velocity due to the of motion, 01, will make it move deep into the con-
rotating turbine member (Fig. 4.10). cave side of the stator blades where it reacts and is

Vortex velocity

P =Pump
T =Turbine
R = Reactor
FW = Freewheel

Input :put

Torque conversion stage Coupling stage

stator locked to casing I~ I
stator freewheeling
'

r.;f IT R ~"
P x,,._. ' r I R

"N
~ r-, ..
f

V
Rotation Locked Pun
Pump Turbine Reactor~ Rotation Freed
-- =.= ,,

Fluid path Fluid path

'~VE = V.
VT = Turbine exit velocity
Stall condition VL = Linear turbine velocity
V. = Resultant velocity

VR

Intermediate
speed

High 4,
speed

Fig. 4.10 Principle of the single stage torque converter

106
made to flow towards the entrance of the impeller in zero. Above this speed the stator is freewheeled.
a direction which provides the maximum thrust. This offers less resistance to the circulating fluid
Once the turbine begins to rotate, the fluid will and therefore produces an improvement in coup-
acquire a linear velocity so that the resultant ling efficiency (Figs 4.11 and 4.12).
effective fluid velocity direction will now be 192. This description of the operating conditions of the
A reduced backward reaction to the stator will be converter coupling shows that if the transmission
produced so that the direction of the fluid's is suddenly loaded the output turbine speed will
momentum will not be so effective. automatically drop, causing an increase in fluid
As the turbine speed of rotation rises, the fluid's circulation and correspondingly a rise in torque
linear forward velocity will also increase and, multiplication, but conversely a lowering of efficiency
assuming that the turbine's tangential exit velocity due to the increased slip between input and output
does not alter, the resultant direction of the fluid members. When the output conditions have changed
will have changed to O3 where it now acts on the and a reduction in load or an increase in turbine speed
convex (back) side of the stator blades. follows the reverse happens; the efficiency increases
Above the critical speed, when the fluid's thrust and the output to input torque ratio is reduced.
changes from the concave to the convex side of the
blades, the stator reaction torque will now act in the
opposite sense and redirect the fluid. Thus its result- 4.5 Torque converter performance terminology
ant direction towards the impeller entry passages will (Figs 4.11 and 4.12)
hinder instead of assist the impeller motion. The result To understand the performance characteristics of
of this would be in effect to cancel out some of the a fluid drive (both coupling and converter), it is
engine's input torque with further speed increases. essential to identify and relate the following terms
The inherent speed limitation of a hydrokinetic used in describing various relationships and conditions.
converter is overcome by building into the stator
hub a one way clutch (freewheel) device (Fig. 4.9). 4.5.1 Fluid drive efficiency (Figs 4.11 and 4.12)
Therefore, when the direction of fluid flow changes A very convenient method of expressing the energy
sufficiently to impinge onto the back of the blades, losses, due mainly to fluid circulation within a fluid
the stator hub is released, allowing it to spin freely drive at some given output speed or speed ratio, is
between the input and output members. The free-
wheeling of the stator causes very little fluid inter-
ference, thus the three element converter now "E 5000
becomes a two element coupling. This condition •~: Conversion Coupling
--~ range / range
prevents the decrease in torque for high output
speeds and produces a sharp rise in efficiency at "u
"" 4000 r"
i Design / 100
point
output speeds above the coupling point. == T
==
4.4.3 Hydrokinetic torque converter a.
° 3000I oO°'/ 8O
characteristics (Figs. 4.11 and 4.12)
Maximum torque multiplication occurs when there
is the largest speed difference between the impeller
~
c
-
/ " ooo,
2 0 0I0 ~ ~ ' ~, i
Conversion
speedrange 60 g
"0
and turbine. A torque output to input ratio of
about 2:1 normally occurs with a three element
converter when the turbine is stationary. Under o 40
"~ Coupling
such conditions, the vortex rate of fluid circulation == II ~retio i point
will be at a peak. Subsequently the maximum
hydrokinetic energy transfer from the impeller to i.~ 1.0 20

turbine then stator to impeller again takes place

(Figs 4.11 and 4.12). As the turbine output speed
increases relative to the impeller speed, the effi- 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
ciency rises and the vortex velocity decreases and Output turbine speed (rev/min)
so does the output to input torque ratio until even-
tually the circulation rate of fluid is so low that it
can only support a 1:1 output to input torque Fig. 4.11 Characteristic performance curves for a three
ratio. At this point the reaction torque will be element converted coupling

107
 2.5 v i 1 ! - impeller to turbine speed variation, with the result
[ .Stalltorque Design Coupling/I00 that the vortex fluid circulation and correspond-
tz/ °o,nt
ingly torque conversion are at a maximum, conver-
2.0 • sely converter efficiency is zero. Whilst these stall
r~.. /// I \' conditions prevail, torque conversion loading drags
o I --.<,o / ,, ~ \
the engine speed down to something like 60-70% of
1.5i " / ~ / I ~.60
I / ~ " ' the engine's maximum torque speed, i.e. 1500-2500
6"
o I / ', rev/min. A converter should only be held in the
stall condition for the minimum of time to prevent
,i. 1.oI , the fluid being overworked.

4.5.5 Design point (Figs 4.11 and 4.12)

o i/ .ons,.n o ° ,o Torque converters are so designed that their inter-
nal passages formed by the vanes are shaped so as
0 to make the fluid circulate with the minimum of
0 0-2 0.4 0-6 0.8 1.0
resistance as it passes from one member to another
Output
speed ratio member at definite impeller to turbine speed ratio,
Input
known as the design point. A typical value might be
0.8:1.
Above or below this optimum speed ratio, the
Fig. 4.12 Characteristic performance curves for a con-
resultant angle and direction of fluid leaving one
verter coupling plotted to a base of output (turbine speed)
to input (impeller speed) member to enter another will alter so that the flow
from the exit of one member to the entry of another
will no longer be parallel to the surfaces of the vanes,
to measure its efficiency, that is, the percentage in fact it will strike the sides of the passage vanes
ratio of output to input work done. entered. When the exit and entry angles of the vanes
do not match the effective direction of fluid motion,
Output work done some of its momentum will be used up in entrance
i.e. Efficiency = x 100
Input work done losses and consequently the efficiency declines as the
speed ratio moves further away on either side of the
4.5.2 Speed ratio (Fig. 4.12) design point. Other causes of momentum losses are
It is frequently necessary to compare the output internal fabrication finish, surface roughness and
and input speed differences at which certain events inter-vane or blade thickness interference. If the
occur. This is normally defined in terms of a speed design point is shifted to a lower speed ratio, say 0.6,
ratio of output (turbine) speed N2 to the input the torque multiplication will be improved at
(impeller) speed N1. stall and lower speed conditions at the expense of
an earlier fall-off in efficiency at the high speed ratio
N2 such as 0.8. There will be a reduction in the torque
i.e. Speed r a t i o - - -
N1 ratio but high efficiency will be maintained in the
upper speed ratio region.
4.5.3 Torque ratio (Fig. 4.12)
The torque multiplication within a fluid drive is 4.5.6 Coupling point (Figs 4.11 and 4.12)
more conveniently expressed in terms of a torque As the turbine speed approaches or exceeds that of
ratio of output (turbine) torque T2 to the input the impeller, the effective direction of fluid entering
(impeller) torque T1. the passages between the stator blades changes
T2 from pushing against the concave face to being
i.e. Torque ratio = m redirected towards the convex (back) side of the
T1
blades. At this point, torque conversion due to
fluid transfer from the fixed stator to the rotating
4.5.4 Stall speed (Figs 4.11 and 4.12) impeller, ceases. The turbine speed when the direc-
This is the maximum speed which the engine tion of the stator reaction is reversed is known as the
reaches when the accelerator pedal is fully down, the coupling point and is normally between 80 and 90%
transmission in drive and the foot brake is fully of the impeller speed. At this point the stator is
applied. Under such conditions there is the greatest released by the freewheel device and is then driven

108
in the same direction as the impeller and turbine. torque (drive speed) is greater than that of the
At and above this speed the stator blades will spin output member. If the conditions are reversed and
with the impeller and turbine which then simply act the output member's applied torque (or speed)
as a fluid coupling, with the benefit of increasing becomes greater than that of the input, the output
efficiency as the turbine output speed approaches member will overrun the input member (rotate
but never reaches the input impeller speed. faster). Thus the lock between the two members
will be automatically released. Immediately the
4.5.7 Racing or run-away point (Fig. 4.12) drive will be discontinued which permits the input
If the converter does not include a stator freewheel and output members to revolve independently to
device or if the mechanism is jammed, then the one another.
direction of fluid leaving the stator would progres- Overrun clutches can be used for a number of
sively change from transferring fluid energy to applications, such as starter motor pre-engagement
assist the impeller rotation to one of opposition drives, overdrives, torque converter stator release,
as the turbine speed catches up with that of the automatic transmission drives and final differential
impeller. Simultaneously, the vortex fluid circu- drives.
lation will be declining so that the resultant torque Most overrun clutch devices take the form of
capacity of the converter rapidly approaches zero. either the roller and wedge or sprag lock to engage
Under these conditions, with the accelerator pedal and disengage drive.
fully down there is very little load to hold back
the engine's speed so that it will tend to race or
run-away. Theoretically racing or run-away should 4.6.1 Overrun clutch with single diameter rollers
occur when both the impeller and turbine rotate at (Fig. 4.13)
the same speed and the vortex circulation ceases, A roller clutch is comprised of an inner and outer
but due to the momentum losses caused by internal ring member and a series of cylindrical rollers
fluid resistance, racing will tend to begin slightly spaced between them (see Fig. 4.13). Incorporated
before a 1:1 speed ratio (a typical value might be between the inner and outer members is a cage
0.95:1). which positions the rollers and guides so that they
roll up and down their ramps simultaneously. One
4.5.8 Engine braking transmitted through of the members has a cylindrical surface concentric
converter or coupling on overrun with its axis, this is usually made the outer member.
Torque converters are designed to maximize their The other member (inner one) has a separate wedge
torque multiplication from the impeller to the tur- ramp formed for each roller to react against. The
bine in the forward direction by adopting back- shape of these wedge ramps may be flat or curved
ward swept rotating member circulating passage depending upon design. In operation each roller
vanes. Unfortunately, in the reverse direction provides a line contact with both the outer internal
when the turbine is made to drive the impeller on cylindrical track and the external wedge ramp track
transmission overrun, the exit and entry vane guide of the inner member.
angles of the members are unsuitable for hydro- When the input wedge member is rotated
kinetic energy transference, so that only a limited clockwise and the output cylindrical member is
amount of engine braking torque can be absorbed prevented from rotating or rotates anticlockwise
by the converter except at high output overrun in the opposite direction, the rollers revolve and
vehicle speeds. Conversely, a fluid coupling with climb up the wedge ramps, and thereby squeeze
its fiat radial vanes is able to transmit torque in themselves between the inner and outer member
either drive or overrun direction with equal effect. tracks. Eventually the elastic compressive and
frictional forces created by the rollers against
these tracks prevents further roller rotation.
4.6 Overrun clutches Torque can now transfer from the input inner
Various names have been used for these mechan- member to the outer ring member by way of these
isms such as freewheel, one way clutch and overrun jammed (locked) rollers.
clutch, each one signifying the nature of the device If the output outer member tries to rotate in the
and is therefore equally appropriate. same direction but faster than the inner member,
A freewheel device is a means whereby torque the rollers will tend to rotate and roll down their
is transmitted from one stationary or rotating ramps, thereby releasing (unlocking) the outer
member to another member, provided that input member from that of the input drive.

109
 Outer cylindrical
Direction for race member
locked inner
and outer race
members /

~- "t - Roller

" / "" " " . . . . Cage

,.

" ,~ f ,~Nx.
~, Inner cam
\ race member

Y
N
N

Direction for ..
released inner ~
and outer race
members

Fig. 4.13 Overrun freewheel single diameter roller type clutch

4.6.2 Overrun clutch with triple diameter rollers If conditions change and the outer member
(Fig. 4.14) overruns the inner member, the rollers will be
This is a modification of the single roller clutch in compelled to revolve in the opposite direction to
which the output outer member forms an internal when the drive was established towards the diver-
cylindrical ring, whereas the input inner member ging end of the tracks. It thus releases the outer
has three identical external inclined plane profiles member and creates the freewheel phase.
(see Fig. 4.14). Situated between the inner and
outer tracks are groups of three different sized 4.6.3 Sprag overrun clutch (Fig. 4.15)
rollers. An anchor block and energizing shoe is A very reliable, compact and large torque-carrying
arranged, between each group of rollers; the blocks capacity overrun clutch is the sprag type clutch.
are screwed to the inner member while the shoes This dispenses with the wedge ramps or inclined
(with the assistance of the springs) push the rollers plane formed on the inner member which is
together and against their converging contact essential with roller type clutches (see Fig. 4.15).
tracks. The inclined plane profile required to The sprag clutch consists of a pair of inner and
match the different diameter rollers provides a outer ring members which have cylindrical external
variable wedge angle for each size of roller. It is and internal track surfaces respectively. Interlinking
claimed that the take-up load of each roller will the input and output members are circular rows of
be progressive and spread more evenly than short struts known as sprags. Both ends of the
would be the case if all the rollers were of the sprags are semicircular with their radius of curva-
same diameter. ture being offset to each other so that the sprags
When the input inner ring takes up the drive, the appear lopsided. In addition a tapered waste is
rollers revolve until they are wedged between the formed in their mid-region. Double cages are incor-
inclined plane on the inner ring and the cylindrical porated between inner and outer members. These
internal track of the outer member. Consequently cages have rectangular slots formed to equally
the compressive load and the frictional force thus space and locate the sprags around the inner and
created between the rollers and tracks locks solid outer tracks. During clutch engagement there will
the inner and outer members enabling them to be a slight shift between relative positions of the
transmit torque. two cages as the springs tilt, but the spacing will be

110
 Direction for /.,
locked inner z / .~
and outer race ~ / ~ / / / ~
Outer cylindrical
members
race member

Triple
diameter
rollers

Energizing
shoe

Inner cam
race member
Anchor block
Direction for
released inner
and outer race
members

Fig. 4.14 Overrun freewheel triple diameter roller type clutch

accurately kept. This ensures that each sprag turbine and stator members within the converter,
equally contributes its share of wedge action so that there are more stages of conversion
under all operating conditions. In between the (Fig. 4.16).
cages is a ribbon type spring which twists the sprags Consider the three stage torque converter. As shown
into light contact with their respective track when in Fig. 4.17, it is comprised of one impeller, three
the clutch is in the overrun position. interlinked output turbines and two fixed stator
When the inner ring member is rotated clockwise members.
and the outer ring member is held stationary or is Tracing the conversion vortex circuit starting
rotated anticlockwise, the spring tension lightly from the input rotating member (Fig. 4.18), fluid
presses the sprags against their track. This makes is pumped from the impeller P by centrifugal force
the inner and outer members move in opposite to the two velocity components Vt and Vr, making
directions. The sprags are thus forced to tilt anti- up the resultant velocity Vp which enters between
clockwise, consequently wedging their inclined the first turbine blades T~ and so imparts some of
planes hard against the tracks and thereby locking its hydrokinetic energy to the output. Fluid then
the two drive and driven members together. passes with a velocity VT~ to the first fixed stator,
As conditions change from drive to overrun and S~, where it is guided and redirected with a result-
the outer member rotates faster than the inner one, ant velocity Vsl, made up from the radial and
the sprags will rotate clockwise and so release the tangential velocities Vr and Vt to the second set of
outer member: a freewheel condition is therefore turbine blades T2, so that momentum is given to
established. this member. Fluid is now transferred from the exit
of the second turbine T2 to the entrance of the
second stator $2. Here the reaction of the curved
4.7 Three stage hydrokinetic torque converter blades deflects the fluid towards the third turbine
(Figs 4.16, 4.17 and 4.18) blades T3 which also absorb the fluid's thrust.
A disadvantage with the popular three element Finally the fluid completes its circulation cycle by
torque converter is that its stall torque ratio is again entering the impeller passages.
only in the region of 2:1, which is insufficient The limitation of a multistage converter is that
for some applications, but this torque multiplica- there are an increased number of entry and exit
tion can be doubled by increasing the number of junctions between various members which raise

lll
 Di r cage
:mmed "~Ribbon spring
ou ge
race ~"- _ , : ~ . _ . "~--Sprag_
Direction
of
jammed
inner
(a) Inner and outer race members locked together race

ction
°?efleased
r
Direction race
of
released
inner
race

(b) Inner and outer race members freewheeling

Fig. 4.15(a and b) Overrun freewheel sprag type clutch

the fluid flow resistance around the torus passages.

5.0 , ~ .. , , ~100 Subsequently, efficiency drops off fairly rapidly
Constantinput =] with higher speed ratios compared to the three
torqueno I element converter (Fig. 4.16).
,0 cou0n' t' 1.0
O
4.8 Polyphase hydrokinetic torque converter
(Figs 4.19 and 4.20)
The object of the polyphase converter is to extend
, 1 0
the high efficiency speed range (Fig. 4.20) of the
simple three element converter by altering the vane
or blade shapes of one element. Normally the stator
nstantinput is chosen as the fluid entrance direction changes
with increased turbine speed. To achieve this, the
11 !,_ __" i" -,-...i ~ ~20 stator is divided into a number of separate parts, in
this case three, each one being mounted on its
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0-8 1.0 own freewheel device built into its hub (Fig. 4.19).
Output The turbine exit and linear velocities VE and VL
Input speedratio
produce an effective resultant velocity VR which
Fig. 4.16 Characteristic performance curves of a three changes its direction of entry between stator blades
stage converter as the impeller and turbine relative speeds

112
 Casing

First stator (S1)

First turbine
vane ( T 1 ) / Second turbine
Impeller
vane (P)
-/ vane (1"2)
Second stator
vane (Sz)
- - - - T h i r d turbine
vane (Tz)
Impeller ~Turbine
member ,___ member

Input
shaft

Output
Seal -
shaft
Guide

Direction of
fluid flow

Fig. 4.17 Multistage (six element) torque converter

approach unity. It is this direction of fluid entering spin in the same direction as the input and output
between the stator blades which in phases releases elements. The two remaining fixed stators now
the various stator members. form the optimum blade curvatures for high
efficiency.
Initial phase
Under stall speed conditions, the fluid flow from Third phase
the turbine to the stator is such as to be directed With higher vehicle and turbine speeds, the fluid's
onto the concave (rear) side of all three sections of resultant direction of entry to the two remaining
the divided stator blades, thus producing optimum held stators changes sufficiently to push from the
stator reaction for maximum torque multiplication rear of the second set of stator blades $2. This section
conditions. will now be released automatically to enable the
third set of stator blades to operate with optimum
Second phase efficiency.
As the turbine begins to rotate and the vehicle is
propelled forwards, the fluid changes its resultant Coupling phase
direction of entry to the stator blades so that it Towards unity speed ratio when the turbine speed
impinges against the rear convex side of the first has almost caught up with the impeller, the fluid
stator blades $1. The reaction on this member is entering the third stator blades $3 will have altered
now reversed so that it is released and is able to its direction to such an extent that it releases this

113
 Vt = Tangential velocity component
Vr = Radial velocity component
Vp, VT1, Vsl, VT2 etc.
VT1 ~ Vr = Resultant particles leaving
blades
Vt

Vr
v0
l VT1 Vr V~s1
Vt

Output
turbine
Forward
direction direction

Fig. 4.18 Principle of the three stage torque converter

last fixed set of blades. Since there is no more The disadvantage of the early fall in efficiency
reaction torque, conversion ceases and the input with rising speed may be overcome by incorporating
and output elements act solely as a fluid coupling. a friction disc type clutch between the flywheel and
converter which is hydraulically actuated by means
of a servo piston (Fig. 4.21). This lock-up clutch is
4.9 Torque converter with lock-up and gear designed to couple the flywheel and impeller
change friction clutches (Figs 4.21 and 4.22) assembly directly to the output turbine shaft either
The two major inherent limitations with the torque manually, at some output speed decided by the
converter drive are as follows: driver which would depend upon the vehicle load
Firstly, the rapid efficiency decline once the and the road conditions or automatically, at a defi-
relative impeller to turbine speed goes beyond nite input to output speed ratio normally in the
the design point, which implies higher input speeds region of the design point here where efficiency is
for a given output speed and increased fuel con- highest (Fig. 4.22).
sumption. Secondly, the degree of fluid drag at idle To overcome the problem of fluid drag between
speed which would prevent gear changing with the input and output members of the torque con-
constant mesh and synchromesh gearboxes. verter when working in conjunction with either
114
 VT = Velocity and direction of fluid
leaving turbine
VL = Linear velocity of turbine
blade
VR = Resultant effective velocity
and direction of fluid

Input

Initial ~ I ~
1 rJ - I
I n
phase p T Vane
(blade)
/

)ine
Impeller Turbin, Stators (reactors7

VR
Second
phase

VL , ,~,'

Freed --~
VR
Third
phase
r

Freed ~
! I

Coupling VA
phase

VL ,

Freed ~

Fig. 4.19 Principle of a polystage torque converter

115
 100
4 Clutch
lock-up 100
5
2 3 . 80 ~in'~~JL . . . . . . . . __._

O A 80
60 "--" A

O"
t- ~'=e i Coupling 60
4o~ @

i,M
81 =
20 20
~ Constantinput torque
0 0
o0 o12 0:4 0'8 ole 1.2 10oo 2000 3000 4000 5000

Out0at
Input speed ratio
(;) Output speed(rev/min)

Fig. 4.22 Characteristic performance curves of a three

element converter with lock-up clutch
Fig. 4.20 Relationship of speed ratio, torque ratio and
efficiency for a polyphase stator torque converter

7///,I///////'/./%
.- - Gear change
clutch pressure
plate
Clutch
release
mechanism
Freewheel ~
m=~ / Release
~~.~ beering

ox
1
Cranksha ~, ~/"~ ~ Driven
.~ ~II I~
c'°rqe
! cre'°ss:h:v"°
plate

1/////f'/J
Fluid drive Frictiondrive
Fig. 4.21 Torque converter with lock-up and gear change function clutches

constant mesh or synchromesh gearboxes, a its disengaged position, the gearbox input primary
conventional foot operated friction clutch can be shaft and the output main shaft may be unified,
utilized between the converter and the gearbox. thereby enabling the gear ratio selected to be
When the pedal is depressed and the clutch is in engaged both smoothly and silently.

116