A Voice For Global Citizens. A UN World Citizens Initiative

A Voice for
Global Citizens:
a UN World Citizens’ Initiative
A Report of the Campaign for
Democracy Without Borders

Democracy International
CIVICUS: World Alliance for Citizen Participation
A Voice for Global Citizens: a UN World Citizens’ Initiative
A Report of the Campaign for a UN World Citizens’ Initiative
Authored by Dr. James Organ and Dr. Ben Murphy
Published in 2019 by Democracy Without Borders, Democracy International,

This work is published under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-

NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). To view a copy of the
license, visit www.creativecommons.org
We wish to thank Global Justice Now for their kind support.
Cover design & layout: Rafael Natal – www.rafaelnatal.com
ISBN 978-3-942282-16-1
Visit our website at

www.worldcitizensinitiative.org
A Voice for
Global Citizens:
A Report of the Campaign for
By Dr. James Organ and Dr. Ben Murphy

Contents
Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Citizen participation at the international level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Preliminary challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
The democratic value of citizens’ initiatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
The European Citizens’ Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Implementing the World Citizens’ Initiative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Step 1: Establishing a citizens’ initiative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Step 2: Collecting support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Step 3: Submission and response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Conclusion: World Citizens’ Initiative: Time to act. . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Annex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Endnotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Executive Summary
The present report recommends that the United Nations (UN)

should develop its democratic legitimacy through the creation
of the instrument of a World Citizens’ Initiative (WCI) by which
global citizens can place proposals on the agenda of the UN Gen-
eral Assembly or the UN Security Council. This paper makes the
case that a WCI is legally feasible and aims to provide the impetus
for the discussions that will lead to its establishment.
The paper offers background on the concept of citizens’ initiatives

and discusses challenges to the formalisation of direct citizens’
participation in the environment of the UN. The experience of the
European Citizens’ Initiative (ECI), a European Union instrument
that allows citizens to propose legislation to the European Com-
mission, and lessons to be learned from it are examined. A legal
framework for the establishment of a WCI is considered in detail.
The report recommends that the instrument of a WCI could be
established as a subsidiary organ of the UN, under Article 22 of
the UN Charter, if such an instrument was supported by a two-
7
Executive Summary
thirds majority of the General Assembly. This would include the

adoption of detailed rules of procedures and the creation of a WCI
Administrative Board.
According to this report, the functioning of a WCI would follow

three steps: (1) Registration, (2) collection of support and (3) sub-
mission and response.
The report recommends that each WCI would be registered by an

organising committee that consists of individuals who may not
hold an official political office and who are not formal represen-
tatives of civil society organisations. Further, the WCI organising
committee is to be geographically representative and its member-
ship should cover UN regions at least in the following way: five
members from African and Asian States, one from Eastern Euro-
pean States, two from Latin American States, and two from West-
ern European and Other States.
Once established, a WCI committee would draft its proposal and

then formally register it with the WCI Administrative Board for
collection of support. The report suggests that only such proposals
should be eligible that are in line with the purposes of the UN
Charter as stated in Article 1. Within this framework, proposals
may have a broad scope. In particular, this includes being able to
make reform proposals or propose changes to the UN Charter. Ap-
peals against decisions of the WCI Administrative Board would be
handled by an independent Ombudsperson.
The report recommends that a WCI would qualify for submission

within 18 months after registration if it (1) collects the support of
8
Executive Summary
at least 0.5 percent of the population of each of ten UN member

states following the same geographical criteria as above for the
composition of WCI organising committees and (2) if an absolute
threshold of five million signatures is reached. According to the
report, anybody should be able to support a WCI and robust digital
tools should be established to facilitate the collection of support.
Verification would be undertaken based on random samples, resi-
dency information and date of birth.
The reports envisages that a successful WCI proposal will be

placed automatically on the agenda of the General Assembly or
the Security Council and that it obliges either of them to draft a
resolution in response to the proposal and then to vote on this
resolution. It is recommended that the WCI organising commit-
tee can make representations during the debate and that states are
obliged to publish an ‘explanation of the vote’ whether they vote in
favour of the resolution or not, in order to provide transparency to
the WCI organisation committee.
9
Foreword
In 2020 the United Nations will commemorate its 75th anniversa-

ry under the theme “The future we want, the United Nations we
need: reaffirming our collective commitment to multilateralism”.01
Many observers believe that the holistic and universal nature of
the Agenda 2030 represents a global consensus on what the inter-
national community wishes to achieve within the next ten years.
Thus, for the time being, full implementation of the Sustainable
Development Goals could be the future we want.
The second part of the anniversary’s theme is more tricky. With re-
gards to the UN we need, a debate needs to be held. The world has
changed significantly in the decades since the UN was established.
It is necessary to take stock and examine what changes are re-
quired. From our point of view the UN is an indispensable centre
for global deliberation, collaboration and action. The role of the UN
as conscience keeper and upholder of universal norms and values
remains steadfast. However, the notion of multilateralism needs to
evolve beyond purely intergovernmental engagement.
11
Foreword
A commitment to multilateralism at present should acknowledge

more than ever that the UN’s success depends on strong partner-
ships with major groups and stakeholders across the world. As the
Earth Summit 2012 stated, sustainable development requires their
meaningful involvement and active participation in processes that
contribute to decision-making, planning and implementation of
policies and programmes at all levels.02 With the present report
we wish to go a step further. Unfortunately, there is no formal UN
instrument to enable individual citizens to influence its work. The
UN we need and the UN we want welcomes and seeks the input of
“We the Peoples” in whose name it was established 75 years ago. A
global organization that wishes to leave no one behind – as mem-
ber states pledged when they adopted the Agenda 203003 – needs
to include everyone. In fact, the UN General Assembly has repeat-
edly stated the “right to equitable participation of all, without any
discrimination, in domestic and global decision-making”.04
This report recommends the creation of a World Citizens’ Initiative

to help make this happen. This instrument will enable global citi-
zens to submit proposals to the UN General Assembly or the UN
Security Council if they manage to collect sufficient support from
fellow citizens across the world. Similar mechanisms exist in many
countries at the national or sub-national levels. An important ex-
ample this report draws upon is the European Citizens’ Initiative,
the first transnational instrument of this kind, to help explain in
detail how a World Citizens’ Initiative would function. Certainly,
many technical details need to be discussed further and political
will mobilized. Still, we emphasize the observation in this report
that a World Citizens’ Initiative is feasible and that all challenges can
be overcome in the interests of the participation of “We the Peoples.”
12
Foreword
We are convinced that the UN, member states, civil society and
global citizens alike will benefit from the direct connection a
World Citizens’ Initiative will establish, and that its creation will
represent an important step forward for the UN. Clearly, a World
Citizens’ Initiative is a proposal that is complementary to other
ongoing efforts such as the inclusion of major groups and civil
society in the UN’s work or the establishment of a United Nations
Parliamentary Assembly.
The World Citizens’ Initiative is a proposal that is in line with the

concept of people-centered multilateral cooperation in a spirit of
global citizenship.05 It may be a key element in the long-sought re-
vitalization of the UN General Assembly. We urge representatives
of UN member states to study this report and to launch an open and
inclusive preparatory process for the establishment of a UN World
Citizens’ Initiative. We invite civil society groups and individuals to
join the international Campaign for a UN World Citizens’ Initiative
and to provide their own comments and thoughts on the recom-
mendations and reflections put forward in this report.
On behalf of the Campaign for a UN World Citizens’ Initiative
Andreas Bummel, Executive Director,

Democracy Without Borders
Bruno Kaufmann, Board Member,

Democracy International
Lysa John, Secretary-General,

13
Abbreviations
ECI European Citizens’ Initiative

ECOSOC Economic and Social Council of the UN
EU European Union
ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
MEP Member of the European Parliament
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
TEU Treaty on European Union
UN United Nations
WCI World Citizens’ Initiative
15
Introduction
Traditionally, discussion of democratic legitimacy and proposals

for new forms of democracy have focussed on state or sub-state
level governance structures. However, in the context of globalisa-
tion and increased co-operation in issues that were formerly under
the exclusive competence of the state, international institutions
have in recent times significantly expanded the scope of their op-
erations, taking action in response to an increasing range of global
issues: from peace, economics and humanitarian affairs, to trade
and environmental matters. As a result of this expansion, interna-
tional institutions increasingly exercise power in a way that has a
significant (often negative) impact upon individuals. Manifested in
concerns about ‘governance without government’,06 the increas-
ing normative influence of autonomous international institutions
– from the World Trade Organization, the International Monetary
Fund, to the United Nations in particular – has triggered a marked
change in attitudes among states, scholars and wider civil society.
We thus note a shift in emphasis towards the consideration of the
question of democratic legitimacy beyond the state, and particular-
17
Introduction
ly with reference to international institutions.07 Indeed, the demo-

cratic deficit of international law and global governance has been
called ‘one of the central questions – perhaps the central question
– in contemporary world politics’.08 This move towards democra-
tisation of international law and global governance regimes is part
of a so-called third democratic transformation09 and reflects the
reduction in the autonomy of nation-states in an increasingly in-
ter-connected world.
One of the organising assumptions in this report is that the UN

should attempt to develop its democratic legitimacy and that this
is possible, whilst recognising that there are inherent difficulties
in implementing democracy in a new political environment such
as the UN. De Burca has proposed a ‘democratic striving approach’,
which supports the presumption that international organisations
can and should be democratically legitimised:
Although the dominant model of democracy cannot simply be

transposed from the national domain, we can and should try to
translate the core values of democracy into a realizable institu-
tional form when designing or reforming transnational gover-
nance practices. The democratic striving approach takes as its ini-
tial building block the principle of fullest possible participation by
and representation of all those concerned with a commitment to
ensuring the public-regarding nature of the process.10
The distinction between representation and participation high-

lighted by De Burca above is central to democratic debates at all
levels of governance, including those relating to democratic reform
of global governance.
18
Introduction
From the representation perspective, a move towards democrati-

sation may be premised on the idea of the ‘sovereign equality of
states’ (UN Charter, Article 2(1)). Within the plenary organ of the
UN General Assembly, for example, each UN member state is rep-
resented, and decision-making operates through a system of ‘one
state one vote’. This provides a degree of representative democracy
at the international level.11 However, with this understanding of
representation beyond the nation-state being rooted in a tradi-
tional state-centric paradigm of international law, it can only take
the debate so far. As Peters has articulated, ‘global governance is
transitively democratically legitimate only to the extent that in-
ternational bodies are accountable through states to citizens’.12 In
this light, interest has turned more recently to the idea of a World
Parliamentary Assembly, as a citizen-elected global representative
institution,13 and participation as a means of democratising global
governance in, for example, a global citizens assembly.14 This re-
port contributes to this debate about how we might develop the
participation of global citizens by examining the legal feasibility of
establishing a World Citizens’ Initiative (WCI). Democratic partici-
patory instruments of this type are used at the member state level
in several regions of the world. The proposal is that a citizens’ ini-
tiative is adapted to the context of the UN to enable global citizens
to launch and support policy proposals. Once organisers of a WCI
have gathered sufficient support, the proposal would be put on the
agenda of one of the principal political organs of the UN: the Gen-
eral Assembly or, if the initiative concerned the maintenance of
international peace and security, the Security Council. The overall
conclusion of the report is that the establishment of a WCI mech-
anism would be both legally feasible and politically beneficial for
global democracy generally, and for the UN in particular.
19
Introduction
The proposal to implement a WCI is split into the following five

sections. First, several examples are given of existing mechanisms
for individual participation in global governance structures. Sec-
ond, some challenges to the formalisation of direct citizen partic-
ipation in UN agenda-setting are acknowledged, and some com-
ments are made about how these challenges might be qualified.
Third, a general definition of citizens’ initiatives is provided, and
the basis for the democratic value of a citizens’ initiative is ex-
plained. The fourth section comments on lessons to be learnt from
the experience of the ECI. In the final section, the report offers a
legal framework for the establishment of a WCI, which is split into
three phases: the registration of a WCI, collecting support, and the
submission of a successful initiative.
20
Citizen
participation at the
international level
The ongoing discussions pertaining to increased participation at

the international level have focussed on the role of civil society.
The importance of civil society in global governance was acknowl-
edged at the ‘We the Peoples Millennium Forum of 2000’,15 and at
the 2002 Sustainable Development Summit, in particular.16 In his
‘Millennium Report’, former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan
stated that the UN:
Must be opened up further to the participation of many actors

whose contributions are essential to managing the path of global-
ization. Depending on the issues in hand, this may include civil
society organizations, the private sector, parliamentarians, local
authorities, scientific associations, educational institutions and
many others.17
Furthermore, in resolutions on the ‘[p]romotion of a democratic

and equitable international order’, the General Assembly has re-
peatedly emphasised that achieving such an order would require
23
Citizen participation at the international level
the realisation of the ‘right to equitable participation of all, with-

out any discrimination, in domestic and global decision-making’.18
The expert report on the UN’s relations to civil society (Cardoso
Report) outlined the ‘deficits of democracy in global governance’,
and noted that ‘[o]ne of the key principles of representative de-
mocracy is connecting citizens to the decisions that affect them
and ensuring public accountability for those decisions’.19 Impor-
tantly, the Cardoso Report specifically emphasised the potential
role of the UN in this regard, arguing that it should be at the centre
of any efforts to ‘reshape’ democracy to make it more relevant to
today’s global realities and needs.20
In this light, in recent years, individuals have obtained some lim-

ited, formal participatory opportunities within global governance
regimes. A good example is the compliance-control of the Aar-
hus Convention on environmental information. The compliance
committee may receive communications brought forward by
NGOs and individuals.21 Another international complaint mecha-
nism available to individuals is the World Bank Inspection Panel.
Groups of two or more individuals who believe they have been
negatively impacted by World Bank-financed projects can re-
quest an inspection. The Panel examines whether a failure of the
World Bank to follow its own operational policies and procedures
or contractual documents during the design, appraisal, or imple-
mentation of a project has adversely affected the material rights
or interests of those persons.22 In these procedures, the individual
petitioners also have participatory rights.23 Additionally, in inter-
national criminal proceedings before the International Criminal
Court, victims have the right to participate in the proceedings and
enjoy a limited right to be informed of the progress of the criminal
24
Citizen participation at the international level
trial.24 Each of these examples envisages individuals participating

retrospectively, as opposed to having the competence to proactive-
ly influence the UN’s policy agenda.
25
Preliminary
challenges
However, there are at least three principal challenges to imple-

menting direct citizen participation in UN policymaking. The first
challenge is practical in nature. With a constituency of 7.7 billion
people, it is difficult for citizens to directly influence policy agen-
das or decision-making. Traditionally, democratic theory has been
sceptical of the possibility of large-scale democracy.25 However, de-
velopments in democratic theory, particularly in participatory and
deliberative democratic literature, have recognised its feasibility in
recent years. Dahl, for example, accepted the possibility of large-
scale democracy beyond the state in his later writing.26 At a practi-
cal level, the development of EU democracy has been an important
demonstration of the possibility of reconceptualising democracy
beyond the nation-state. Of most relevance to this report is the
introduction of the ECI in 2012. This demonstrated the possibility
of using participatory instruments at a supranational level and is
an example, therefore, of how to enable citizens to influence global
policy through the UN.
27
Preliminary challenges
The second challenge relates to the general nature of the interna-

tional legal system. States are the primary actors in international
law.27 Individuals are still considered as ‘an object on which to be-
stow or recognize rights, not as agents from whom emanates the
power to do such bestowing … as an object or, at best, as a consumer
of outcomes, but not as an agent of processes’.28 Individuals cannot
conclude treaties, and their behaviour does not constitute relevant
practice which could lead to the formation of customary interna-
tional law. Although individuals have rights and obligations, in a
system based on the consent and mutual reciprocity of individu-
al nation-states, there is no formal role for the individual in the
law-making process. That said, there is some evidence to suggest
that a broad interpretation of the right to political participation
as guaranteed in Article 25 ICCPR might circumvent this doctri-
nal problem. The logical legal consequence of the citizens’ right to
political participation in global governance is that individuals are
upgraded from mere passive international legal subjects (as hold-
ers of rights and bearers of obligations) to active international legal
subjects. The legally relevant difference is that passive subjects are
only capable of having rights, whereas active legal subjects are ca-
pable of creating law.29 In this context, it has been argued that ‘the
international human right to political participation includes … the
right to contribute to the creation of international law’.30
The third challenge relates, more specifically, to the institutional

architecture of the UN. The traditional anxiety regarding the dis-
tance between rulers and ruled is further exaggerated at the UN
level. Notwithstanding the invocation of ‘We the Peoples of the
United Nations’ in the preamble of the UN Charter, there remains
no formal role for non-governmental actors of any kind in the
28
Preliminary challenges
work of the primary organs of the UN. The UN is exclusively com-

posed of states and there are no bodies in which individual citi-
zens are formally represented. A common point of departure when
thinking through these questions is Article 71 of the UN Charter.31
Article 71 is the only provision of the Charter which applies to
NGOs. It grants the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) the
competence to ‘make suitable arrangements for consultation with
non-governmental organizations’. As a result, many NGOs enjoy
‘consultative status’ on the ECOSOC. NGOs with general consul-
tative status,32 and NGOs with special consultative status,33 may
propose items for the Council’s provisional agenda,34 their repre-
sentatives may attend public meetings of the ECOSOC Commis-
sion and its subsidiary organs as observers,35 and they may submit
written statements.36 NGOs listed on the Roster, who make ‘occa-
sional … contributions to the work of the Council or its subsidiary
bodies or other UN bodies within their competence’, may also ful-
fil these functions when matters being discussed fall within their
field of competence, and upon the recommendation of the Secre-
tary-General and at the request of the Commission may be heard
by the Commission.37 It is important to note, however, that even
under this regime NGOs do not enjoy equal standing with states.
The right of consultation does not amount to a right of partici-
pation. Instead, it is directed towards assisting ECOSOC to fulfil
its mandate.38 It is also confined, of course, to the areas of compe-
tence covered by ECOSOC’s mandate. That said, the fact that the
Charter itself acknowledges the possibility of entities other than
states enjoying a formally recognised status in the UN provides a
springboard to consider how this might apply in other contexts.
29
The democratic value
of citizens’ initiatives
Democracy at its core is based on popular sovereignty and politi-

cal equality. This is the belief that all people affected by decisions
should have an equal and effective opportunity to influence them.
What this means in practice and how we recognise when these
principles are sufficiently met is the subject of much debate. The
democratic criteria of Robert Dahl underpin the analysis in this
report.39 He established five democratic criteria ‘from within the
enormous and often impenetrable thicket of ideas about democ-
racy’: effective participation, voting equality, gaining enlightened
understanding, exercising final control over the agenda, and the
inclusion of adults.40 These characteristics are the democratic at-
tributes that need to be in place for the members of a political
system to be politically equal in determining the policies of the
association. The introduction of the WCI aims to strengthen the
extent to which the UN meets some of these criteria and enhance
its democratic legitimacy.
Democratic instruments such as the WCI are the institutionalisa-
31
The democratic value of citizens’ initiatives
tion of participatory democracy and therefore, by definition, relate

to increased and more effective participation. This, in turn, is ex-
pected to strengthen the democratic legitimacy of a polity or an
international organisation such as the UN.41 For this participation
to be meaningful though, it also needs to tangibly influence policy
decisions. This means that analysis of a citizens’ initiative focuses
on Dahls’ criteria of inclusion, effective participation and exercis-
ing final control over the agenda. These fall into two categories
in terms of their specific relevance to an evaluation of the imple-
mentation of a World Citizens’ Initiative: inclusion and process,
and impact.42 Inclusion addresses the question of who participates;
process the question of how citizens participate; and impact the
question of what happens after citizens participate.43
Inclusion and process are linked because they both focus on the
effectiveness of the participation opportunity that the WCI gives
to citizens. Having an inclusive opportunity for all citizens to en-
gage in institutional decision-making that affects them has long
been an essential criterion for democracy, and this requirement
of inclusion is important in all concepts of democracy, even elitist
ones.44 The WCI needs to increase the number and range of citizen
voices directly heard in UN decision-making to increase UN dem-
ocratic legitimacy. To maximise this, the design of the WCI should
ensure that all citizens are able to use it to place issues on the UN
political agenda in an equal and inclusive manner. In other words,
no citizens should be excluded directly or indirectly from using
the WCI, and all citizens should be treated equally when they try
to organise or support a WCI. This is a significant challenge when
trying to develop democracy on a global scale. Effective partici-
pation also means that the burden and barriers in terms of pro-
32
cedural complexity and resources that it imposes on citizens, as

both organisers and supporters, such as funding, time, numerical
thresholds etc., are kept to a minimum. The design of the WCI
must minimise any restrictions it places on citizens’ ability to take
up this democratic opportunity.45
A citizens’ initiative is a form of direct democracy that enables

citizens to influence political decision-making, through placing
an issue on the political agenda and triggering an institution-
al response, once a defined level of support has been reached.46
Broadly speaking, there are two categories of citizens’ initiatives.47
Full-scale citizens’ initiatives oblige a political institution to act,48
often by holding a public vote, such as in Switzerland and Califor-
nia. The more common agenda-setting citizens’ initiatives place an
issue on the agenda of a sitting political body, usually the parlia-
ment of a state, but leave the final decision about how to respond
to that institution.49 The expectation is that the WCI will be an
agenda-setting initiative because of the non-binding nature of the
decisions of the UN General Assembly,50 as is reflected in the repe-
tition of the word recommendation in Articles 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14
of the UN Charter. The significance of an agenda-setting initiative
is not therefore in the obligation to initiate a legal process, but in
the political influence that citizens can exert through the citizen’
initiative process.
The two elements of impact are: influencing the political agenda

and influencing the subsequent decision-making. The first element
relates to ensuring that citizens can use the WCI to place items
on the UN agenda for discussion. Without this opportunity, the
WCI would be a token gesture controlled by the institutions that
33
control the agenda. In the case of the UN, the WCI would need
to influence the agenda of the General Assembly or the Security
Council. The second aspect, if an instrument such as the WCI is to
strongly influence the UN’s democratic legitimacy, is for participa-
tion through the WCI to have an influence over UN resolutions.
In the next section, the report focuses on the experience of the

ECI. The report then concludes with an analysis of the three key
stages of a citizens’ initiative campaign, and the design features in
them, such as the support threshold and the obligation that a WCI
imposes. The analysis of citizens’ initiatives that is presented and
the proposals made for the implementation of a WCI are based
on the principles outlined above; namely that citizen participation
using the WCI should be inclusive, minimise barriers to participa-
tion, and should have an impact on the UN’s political agenda and
the decisions it makes.
34
The European
Citizens’ Initiative
Citizens’ initiatives are well-established as state-level democratic

instruments,51 but the only transnational application is the ECI,
which is a major democratic innovation introduced following the
EU’s Lisbon Treaty in 2008. It acts as an example for all transna-
tional organisations struggling with criticisms of their democrat-
ic legitimacy. The ECI provides the closest applicable example for
introducing a citizens’ initiative into the UN governance structure
and is evidence that a WCI reporting to the UN could succeed.
The potential significance of the ECI for EU democratic legitimacy

is widely recognised,52 and, upon its inception, the European Com-
mission believed that it would be ‘a significant step forward in
the democratic life of the Union’ and add a ‘whole new dimension
of participatory democracy’.53 These high expectations have only
been partly met, however, and there have been challenges to over-
come. For example, the Commission initially took a cautious ap-
proach to ECI proposals that limited the numbers of ECIs,54 there
have been administrative and practical barriers to overcome,55 and
37
The European Citizens’ Initiative
campaigners are concerned about the impact of successful ECIs.56

Despite these challenges, the dozens of ECIs launched have mo-
bilised millions of citizens and ECI proposals have influenced EU
policy-making. The ECI, therefore, provides a positive basis on
which to propose a World Citizens Initiative. In the same way that
the idea of a World Parliamentary Assembly can draw some inspi-
ration and best practice from regional parliamentary bodies,57 the
WCI can draw on the experience of the ECI.
The ECI is an example of an agenda-setting initiative that invites,

rather than obliges, the European Commission to propose an EU
legal act. The ECI has had an influence on political debate and the
policy agenda, but it has had a limited concrete impact on EU law
or policy. In other words, the ECI is closer to being an instrument
of incumbent rather than critical democracy that can challenge
policy to some degree, but its impact remains controlled by the ex-
isting institutions.58 Expectations would have to also be carefully
managed in relation to the WCI because the WCI legal framework,
as is the case for the ECI, would oblige a formal response from
the UN institutions, but would not oblige the UN to pass a resolu-
tion on the WCI proposal. Ultimately, the final decision as to what
political impact a successful WCI could have rests with the UN
members states. The impact of the WCI, therefore, would largely
depend on the political influence that it could bring to bear rather
than its legal strength.
The ECI regulations and process set the context for discussion of
a WCI. Art 11(4) Treaty of European Union establishes the Euro-
pean Citizens Initiative as an opportunity for citizens to invite the
Commission to make a proposal for a legal act:
38
The European Citizens’ Initiative
Not less than one million citizens who are nationals of a signifi-
cant number of member states may take the initiative of inviting
the European Commission, within the framework of its powers, to
submit any appropriate proposal on matters where citizens con-
sider that a legal act of the Union is required for the purpose of
implementing the Treaties.59
The phrases highlighted above in Art 11(4) establish the treaty ba-
sis for the support thresholds, the ECI’s strength of legal obliga-
tion, and the limits on the subject matter of the ECI.60 These are
the key characteristics that define the scope and type of citizens’
initiative for the ECI.61 A successful ECI needs support from 1 mil-
lion citizens from across the EU, it can invite but not oblige the
Commission to start the legislative process, and an ECI propos-
al can relate to any EU competence where citizens think reform
is needed.62 The WCI design also needs to consider these issues
raised by the text highlighted in Art 11(4) TEU. A decision needs
to be taken about the number of citizens and states that represent
a level of legitimacy that can trigger a response from the UN Gen-
eral Assembly or Security Council; what response is obliged from
these bodies; and what proposals are appropriate for a WCI. Art
11(4) was implemented by Regulation 211/2011, which defined
these characteristics in more detail,63 and established the ECI pro-
cess.64 The report discusses below how this translates to a WCI
process whose proposals would be presented to the UN, and in
light of the criteria described above relating to Inclusion and Pro-
cess, and Impact.
39
Implementing the
World Citizens’
Initiative
Step 1: Establishing a citizens’ initiative
The Committee
The first formal step for a citizens’ initiative is to establish an or-

ganising committee that will take responsibility for the citizens’
initiative process. This committee is formed for two broad purpos-
es: planning and leading the campaign for the collection of support
for the citizens’ initiative proposal, and the dissemination of the
ideas within the proposal. As the European Parliament stated in
relation to requiring the establishment of a committee for each
ECI: the committee is ‘to encourage the emergence of Europe-
an-wide issues and to foster reflection on those issues’.65 The WCI
committee would, similarly, be tasked with ensuring that the pro-
posal reaches a global audience.
Secondly, the committee is responsible for ensuring the initiative

follows procedures appropriately. An understanding and imple-
41
Implementing the World Citizens’ Initiative
mentation of the relevant legal framework and funding transpar-

ency are needed during the life of a citizens’ initiative campaign. As
the European Parliament stated: the nomination of a lead person
from the committee is “for the sake of transparency and smooth
and efficient communication”.66 Similarly, a WCI would need a lead
contact for liaison with the UN.
The WCI committee members would serve as the data controllers

of the information collected within the statements of support giv-
en by citizens, and therefore they are legally responsible for the se-
curity of the data. Committee members are also responsible for the
publication of information about any funding received to ensure
transparency of the supporters of an initiative. These legal require-
ments could be problematic for a WCI that has a global reach and
operates within many different legal jurisdictions. One possibility
is that the UN itself takes on responsibility for these issues as far
possible – for example by providing the IT infrastructure for stor-
ing information and agreeing on a legal jurisdiction under which
this is held. The WCI could also allow organising committees to
have a legal personality to reduce liability issues.
An ancillary purpose of the WCI committee is to increase the ex-

tent to which a proposal starts with wide geographical support. The
ECI requires the formation of an organising committee of at least
7 EU citizens, resident in 7 different member states, prior to the
application to register an ECI. To increase the extent to which the
WCI reflects the interests of a global audience, it is recommended
that the composition of the organising committees for WCIs con-
tain at least 10 people. The composition of the committee should
comply with the principle of ‘equitable geographical distribution’
42
set out in Article 23(1) of the Charter. General Assembly Resolu-

tion 1991 (XVIII), adopted in 1963, formally apportions non-per-
manent seats on the Security Council, for example, according to
a specific geographical ‘pattern’. The geographical pattern set out
in the resolution, and which WCI organising committees should
reflect, is as follows:
(a) five African and Asian States;

(b) one Eastern European States;
(c) two Latin American States;
(d) two Western European and Other States.67
In order to ensure genuine geographical representation, the sce-

nario whereby the committee is made up of representatives of five
Asian states, or five African states, with no representation from
the other region, should be avoided. The only minor change to the
pattern that is recommended, therefore, is that there should be an
explicit requirement that three Asian states are represented, and
two African states. Considering the rationale underpinning the
establishment of a WCI, that is, enhanced citizen participation, the
considerably larger population of Asian states compared to Afri-
can states should be acknowledged.
It is also recommended that the organising committee is made up

of ‘natural persons’. In other words, the members of the commit-
tee cannot be politicians or formal representatives of civil society
organisations. This would serve to increase the WCI’s status as an
initiative for citizens and not corporate or political interests and
reduce the chance of lobby capture. However, in practice, given the
global reach of a WCI and the resource requirements this implies,
43
it is likely that civil society organisations will play a central role in

the WCI campaigns, as they do for the ECI.
Initiative Registration
Having established a committee, the WCI organisers need to draft

their proposal and then register it for collection of support. The
amount and type of information that organisers need to submit
at registration vary greatly between citizens’ initiatives. Clarity
is important so that citizens and the UN institutions understand
the proposal, but excessive requirements will act as a barrier to
participation. The ECI takes a relatively light-touch approach, only
requiring the title of the ECI and a brief explanation of its sub-
ject matter and aims. The authors recommend that WCI proposals
should be more detailed and presented as a draft General Assembly
or Security Council resolution, depending on which body’s com-
petence the proposal falls under. This will provide clarity in terms
of the proposal and increase the certainty in terms of the expected
outcome of a WCI process that has to reach a global audience, but
it is worth noting that this could mean that WCI organisers need
to seek legal advice to help write the draft resolution.
The next step in a citizens’ initiative process is the formal registra-

tion of the initiative. At this point, there will typically be an eligibil-
ity check to make sure the citizens’ initiative proposal meets certain
criteria. Usually, these will require that the proposal is appropriate
and within the powers of the institution that will receive a success-
ful citizens’ initiative proposal. The review of citizens’ initiative pro-
posals at registration though should not excessively limit the public
discourse a citizens’ initiative proposal can develop. On the other
44
hand, it is important that organisers of a citizens’ initiative are clear

from the outset whether their proposal could have the desired im-
pact, and whether legally the institution receiving the citizens’ ini-
tiative proposal can make the policy change requested.
The eligibility check for the ECI has four criteria: 1 – forming the
committee, 2 – the proposal in the ECI must not be ‘manifestly
outside the framework of the Commission’s powers to propose a
legal act’, 3 – the ECI is not manifestly abusive, frivolous or vexa-
tious, and 4 – is not manifestly contrary to the values of the Union.
This report recommends that the UN establish a similar registra-
tion process that ensures a WCI proposal meets the procedural
requirements, is within the competence of the UN, and fits within
the principles of the UN.
The most controversial registration criteria for the ECI is point 2.

The hybrid supranational/intergovernmental nature of the EU and
the fact that EU laws are directly applicable in its member states
means this question of competence creep is a particular concern
for the EU’s member states. The Commission was over-zealous in
guarding against this problem in the early years of the ECI.68 They
refused to register a high percentage of ECIs through an overly strict
registration review of proposals that decided they were outside the
powers of the Commission. The competences of the UN General
Assembly, however, are not legally binding on the member state so
this question of citizen participation increasing the control of the
supranational organisation over the member states should be less
of an issue for a citizens’ initiative presented to the UN. The com-
petences of the UN General Assembly are also very wide-reaching,
and so the competence check at registration should be straightfor-
45
ward assuming that WCI proposals are welcome on all issues that
are within the competence of the UN General Assembly.
One important decision taken by the UN committee at registration

is whether the WCI falls within the competence of the UN General
Assembly or the UN Security Council. The process for proposals
that are within the competence of either body is the same up to the
point of presentation of a successful WCI. The obligation imposed
on the Security Council and the General Assembly after that differ
and are discussed in section 4 below.
The other criteria for ECI registration have not led to any ECIs be-
ing refused registration and should not raise any issues for a WCI.
The forming of the committee is a simple procedural check. The
experience of the ECI indicates that the question of whether a WCI
proposal is malicious, frivolous or vexatious is likely to only arise
on very rare occasions. The administrative organ of the UN would
need to make a judgment on those occasions. In order to make this
judgment, the organ should be driven, first and foremost, by the
purposes of the UN Charter as stated in Article 1. It is logical that
the registration criteria should mirror the founding purposes of
the organisation that will receive the proposal. Article 1(3) which
emphasises the importance of ‘promoting and encouraging respect
for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without
distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion’, will be particular-
ly relevant. The fundamental principles of the Universal Declara-
tion of Human Rights may also be taken into consideration at this
point. Only those proposed initiatives that would manifestly run
contrary to the purposes of the UN would not meet this criteri-
on. For these reasons, the registration of a WCI is unlikely to be a
46
burdensome process for the UN administration or for organisers.

This is beneficial in democratic terms because it allows a wider
range of issues to be debated publicly and placed on the political
agenda, and means there is a low barrier to entry for starting the
democratic process. This sort of ‘light-touch’ registration approach
is also easier to justify for an agenda-setting initiative such as the
WCI that has little legal obligation built-in because there is little
risk to the overall political environment or to fundamental rights.
In short, the lower the barriers at registration, the more citizens

will use the WCI and the more impact it is likely to have on the
democratic legitimacy of the UN through increasing inclusivity
and citizen influence over and decision-making
One final substantive question is whether a WCI should be able

to advance reform proposals or charter changes. Using the ECI to
propose a fundamental change to the EU treaties is a controversial
question and one that is not clearly resolved by the law establish-
ing the ECI in Art 11(4). On the one hand, it is argued that an ECI
is unlikely to ever have the level of support that would legitimise a
request to change fundamental law and that it is the states that are
members of the EU and responsible for initiating change to the EU
treaties. On the other hand, it is argued that the ECI process en-
dows a right on citizens through their EU citizenship, rather than
their member state citizenship, and so citizens should be entitled
to use the ECI to propose a change to all EU laws, including the
treaties themselves. Also, to exclude proposals that require trea-
ty change is to exclude some of the most important EU political
issues from the scope of the ECI, which substantially limits the
democratic value of this instrument. Moreover, the fact that the
47
ECI obliges just a political response to a proposal and is only an

agenda-setting instrument means that it would only have an im-
pact on the treaties where the other EU institutions agreed with
the proposal. The recommendation is therefore that the WCI has
a broad scope that includes being able to make reform proposals
or propose changes to the UN charter. Given the controversy this
issue is likely to raise, the WCI framework should make it clear
that this is possible.
Registration Administration
The WCI implies administrative discretion, requires policy over-

sight of the WCI implementation, and the process itself requires
administrative oversight. For example, an entity would be required
to ensure that WCI registration decisions meet the required crite-
ria (see discussion above), and later in the process, verification of
signatures. The WCI will, therefore, necessitate the establishment
of a new organ of the UN. For ease, the new organ will be referred
to as the ‘WCI Administrative Board’.
Of course, the Board could be established through a treaty between

member states of the UN. The treaty would set out an explicit in-
stitutional relationship with the General Assembly, but the organ
would not be categorised as a subsidiary organ. Another option is
that the General Committee administers the process. The Gener-
al Committee is a microcosm of the General Assembly, to which
the President of the General Assembly, the twenty-one Vice-Presi-
dents of the General Assembly, as well as the chairpersons of each
of the six main committees, belong.69 The General Committee is
responsible for organising the work of the session and for recom-
48
mending to the General Assembly the scheduling and handling of

each item on the agenda. For this option, the General Assembly
would have to amend its Rules of Procedure to establish a WCI
instrument and provisions for its management.
A third option, which the authors recommend, is the establish-

ment of the WCI Administrative Board as a new organ with sole
competency in this area. Article 7(2) of the Charter generally pro-
vides for the establishment of subsidiary organs by the principal
organs of the United Nations. Under Article 22 of the UN Charter,
‘the General Assembly may establish such subsidiary organs as it
deems necessary for the performance of its functions’. The deci-
sion to establish a subsidiary organ may be viewed as an ‘import-
ant decision’, per Article 18(2). If this was the case, it would require
a two-thirds majority rather than a simple majority. However, it
is debatable whether this would be required. In most cases, the
General Assembly requires consensus and a roll-call vote does not
tend to be taken. However, considering the democratic role of the
WCI, our recommendation would be that the original founding act
of establishing the WCI Administrative Board have this minimal-
ist requirement of democratic legitimacy.
Subsidiary organs are essentially characterised by three features,

which speak to only a limited autonomy:
1. Subsidiary organs are created by a principal organ of the UN;

2. the membership, structure and terms of the subsidiary organ are
determined and modified by the principal organ;
3. subsidiary organs may be terminated or suspended by a principal
organ.70
49
However, the subsidiary organ would necessarily possess a certain

degree of independence, since otherwise, the entity would simply
be a part of the principal organ.71 In this light, Szasz identifies a
category of ‘quasi-autonomous bodies’.72 The WCI Administrative
Board might potentially be best viewed in this light. It is import-
ant that the Board maintains a degree of independence from the
very institution that WCI’s will be established to influence.
In general, the initiative for establishing subsidiary organs comes

from the General Assembly itself. Interestingly though, the Gen-
eral Assembly has also founded subsidiary organs on the recom-
mendation of international conferences. For example, the United
Nations Environment Programme was initiated by a recommen-
dation of the Conference on the Human Environment in Stock-
holm in 1972. NGOs played a pivotal role in the drafting of the
Stockholm Declaration and the Action Plan for Human Environ-
ment which were instrumental in lobbying the General Assembly
to act. The World Food Council was also established in 1974 by
the General Assembly on the recommendation of the World Food
Conference.73
Although negative registration decisions are likely to be rare,

there may still be times when WCI organisers may want to appeal
against registration decisions. The ECI registration appeals go to
the Court of Justice of the EU.74 There is no comparable primary or-
gan in the UN, so an independent adjudicatory process would need
to be set up. Our recommendation is to establish an independent
Ombudsperson office, similar to the UN Office of the Ombudsper-
son, which was established in 2009 to mitigate unfairness to indi-
viduals in UN Security Council sanctions decision-making.75 The
50
Ombudsperson is not an adjudicatory process but instead fulfils

a fact-finding inquisitorial role that examines maladministration.
Upon receipt of a request of delisting, the Ombudsperson engages
in a four-month period of information gathering. At the end of
this process, the Ombudsperson prepares a report outlining the
information she has received and lays out the main arguments re-
lating to the request. If the Ombudsperson recommends delisting,
the individual will be removed from the list unless, within sixty
days, the Sanctions Committee decides to maintain the listing. The
Committee is obliged to give reasons for rejecting the request.76
A similar process that focuses on administrative issues, such as
the duty to give reasons, could be followed in relation to appeals
against WCI registration decisions.
Step 2: Collecting support
Once registered, a citizens’ initiative can start the process of col-

lecting support for its proposal. ECI organisers have 18 months
to collect the requisite level of support. The organisers inform the
Commission of the start date, which must be within 3 months of
the ECI registration decision.77
Support threshold
The support threshold is the most complicated aspect of this phase

of a citizens’ initiative. The success threshold for a citizens’ initia-
tive is the point at which the political body has decided that the
proposal has the legitimacy to influence their decision-making.
The higher the level of support required, the more legitimate it
is for a citizens’ initiative to have an impact on decision-making.
51
If set too low, the legitimacy of a citizens’ initiative proposal will

be limited and reduce the chance that unwilling political actors
will respond to a proposal that is put to them, even if it meets the
threshold. However, the higher the threshold is set and the more
complicating factors that are included, the more it will act as a
barrier and reduce the likelihood of the WCI being used.
The degree of obligation that a citizens’ initiative can impose in-

fluences the threshold decisions. In general, the stronger the obli-
gation that a citizens’ initiative imposes, the higher the threshold
for support. Higher support and greater legitimacy are needed to
oblige a political institution to act. For example, in Hungary, there
are three levels at which an initiative obliges action: an agenda
initiative needs 50,000 signatures; at 100,000 signatures Parlia-
ment has to decide whether a binding or an advisory referendum
is held; 200,000 signatures are required to initiate an obligatory
and binding referendum.78 As the WCI is a form of agenda-setting
initiative, the threshold requirements at which a WCI would be
submitted to the UN General Assembly or Security Council can be
set relatively low.
The threshold also reflects the level of difficulty for organisers to

collect the support needed. The ECI has to collect support from
a relatively low percentage of the population when compared to
national citizens’ initiatives. This reflects, in part, the large geo-
graphical area that organisers need to reach. This issue would also
arise for the WCI, and so setting a relatively low support threshold
will be needed to avoid a prohibitively high level of difficulty for
WCI organisers.
52
The threshold requirements must also reflect the sources of legitimacy

for the political institution that a proposal is seeking to influence. The
ECI threshold, for example, balances member state legitimacy with
the supranational legitimacy of the number of citizens and reflects
the fact that the EU is a hybrid intergovernmental/supranational pol-
ity. For national citizens’ initiatives, the threshold is usually just an
absolute number of national citizens, which reflects the nation-state
as a single sovereign entity. This is not the case for the UN. As the UN
is an intergovernmental organisation, the WCI would need to reflect
support from a certain number of member states, perhaps also re-
gions, to be legitimate. Setting a level of member state and regional
support will also avoid WCI proposals coming from a relatively small
geographical area. Again, though, if this number is too high, then it
will become too difficult to collect support and the WCI will not be
used. In part, this could be mitigated by setting a longer time period
for collecting support. This report recommends that a WCI be given
18 months to try to collect the necessary level of support. Although
this is still a challenging timeframe, any longer and the topicality and
legitimacy of a proposal is reduced.
This report recommends that we use the same criteria as for the
composition of the WCI organising committee to ensure geo-
graphical representativeness. We recommend that a WCI be pre-
sented to the UN when it has sufficient support from citizens from
at least the following:
(a) five African and Asian States;

(b) one Eastern European State;
(c) two Latin American States;
(d) two Western European and Other States.79
53
This is the same as the pattern used for forming the organising
committee. For a state to be quorate and count towards the WCI
threshold, this report recommends that the WCI needs support
from 0.5% of the population of that state. This places a WCI to-
wards the lower end of national initiatives in terms of the per-
centage of support needed for a national citizens’ initiative. The
overall percentage of the world population supporting a WCI will
be much lower than this, and lower than the 0.2% of the total
EU population that the ECI needs. This approach treats all states
equally. The ECI takes a different approach. It uses a sliding scale
that means smaller states need a higher percentage of the popula-
tion to be quorate in support of an ECI proposal than larger mem-
ber states. This scale is based on the allocation of MEPs. The aim
is to balance the influence of population size against influence as a
member state through smaller states getting proportionately more
MEPs than larger states. The ECI sliding scale reduces the tempta-
tion to seek support just from smaller member states. However, we
do not recommend a sliding scale for the WCI because there is no
pre-existing agreement to base the scale on, and more importantly,
the UN works on a ‘one state - one vote’ principle in the General
Assembly. A sliding scale of population support for states to be
quorate for a WCI would run counter to this.
This report also recommends that an absolute level of support is

required before a WCI proposal is presented to the UN. The UN
does not need the transnational legitimacy that an absolute fig-
ure bestows for it to act, and there is no UN citizenship. However,
the need for an absolute figure takes the WCI beyond the confines
of the intergovernmental framing of the UN and its member state
focus, and still confers extra legitimacy. It also helps maintain a
54
balance between the value of larger and smaller states to the col-
lection process... This report, therefore, recommends that a WCI
get support from 5 million people before it can be presented to the
UN institutions.
The European Parliament recognised the practical difficulties and

potential costs of reaching the support thresholds for an ECI in a
polity such as the EU and proposed a number of mitigating mea-
sures.80 To this end, they requested the provision by the Com-
mission of an online system for the collection of signatures,81 a
comprehensive user guide and a help desk for providing advice.82
An EU data server and translation services have also been made
available to organisers. It is suggested that the UN should establish
a body to support citizens wishing to use the WCI process and
help mitigate what can be a costly process with these types of ser-
vices and initiatives. This body will need to offer the same level of
support that ECI organisers are offered, and make sure that there
is the highest level of data security for information collected from
supporters of a WCI. Although a paper collection process should
still be available, the online collection system is even more import-
ant for a global campaign to collect support for a WCI proposal and
therefore warrants a high level of support.
Support Eligibility
Anybody should be able to support a WCI. For other citizens’ ini-

tiatives, there is a political boundary that usually limits those who
can support a proposal either based on residency or on citizenship.
The UN has no such political boundary. The question is then how to
identify the person supporting a WCI proposal. The ECI experience
55
has highlighted the impact that excessive identity requirements

can have on reducing the likelihood that someone will support a
proposal.83 This has led to a simplification of the identification re-
quirements in the new ECI regulation that encourages residency
as the basis for identification rather than identity documents that
vary from state to state. The recommendation, therefore, would be
that someone wishing to support a WCI should only be required
to provide residency information and date of birth. This also sim-
plifies the process to verify the support for WCI proposals, which
the UN would need to establish. The most straightforward and
proportionate process would be to verify a random sample of state-
ments of support for a WCI proposal to make sure that they are real
people and genuine supporters of the WCI proposal. The WCI pro-
cess will also need digital tools to ensure that robots and multiple
registrations cannot corrupt the collection of support. The UN will
also need to decide whether verification is carried out by each state
where citizens that support a proposal are resident, or whether they
centralise the verification of support into a UN body.
Step 3: Submission and response
The final phase for a successful citizens’ initiative is the submis-

sion of the proposal to a decision-making body. When designing
a citizens’ initiative this decision about the obligation that it im-
poses is key. One of the defining features of a citizens’ initiative
is that it imposes an obligation on a political body – otherwise
it is merely a petition. The degree and type of obligation though
vary significantly. In Finland, it obliges the Parliament to debate a
proposal and make a legislative recommendation. In Switzerland,
a citizens’ initiative can oblige holding a referendum.
56
The ECI just obliges the Commission to explain its decision to act or
not. This has led to something of an expectation gap between ECI
campaigners and the Commission, with campaigners wanting full
implementation of their proposals, and the Commission expecting
a compromise with existing policy positions. The Water Directive
was the first piece of EU legislation influenced by a successful ECI;
the Right to Water ECI.84 The Right to Water Campaigners though
were hoping for further impact from their campaign. The ‘One of
Us’ ECI campaign has gone as far as to ask for judicial review of the
Commission’s response to their ECI, which collected over two mil-
lion signatures.85 Without policy impact, there will be little incen-
tive to use the WCI, but the expectations of campaigners also need
to be managed to avoid disappointment with policy outcomes at
the end of the political process and to avoid challenges to follow-up
decisions. The proposals below try to strike this balance between
political discretion and campaigner expectations.
WCI proposal within the

competenceof General Assembly
For all matters other than international peace and security, the
General Assembly is the most appropriate forum to discuss a WCI
proposal. If the underlying rationale is to influence the political
agenda and to encourage states to support a proposal, the General
Assembly would be an ideal forum. The Assembly is ‘essentially a
debating chamber, a forum for the exchange of ideas and the dis-
cussion of a wide-ranging category of problems’.86
There are three options for placing a WCI proposal on the General
Assembly agenda:
57
First, the WCI may be added to the agenda to be discussed at the

initial general debate of each annual session while heads of state
and government are present. This would require the organising
committee to meet the required timescales and to comply with
the procedures of the General Committee, the body responsible
for setting the agenda.
Second, a WCI initiative might trigger a ‘special session’ of the Gen-

eral Assembly which can be called by the Secretary-General at the
request of the Security Council or a majority of member states.87
Third, it may be that instead of a plenary debate, it would be preferable

for the WCI proposal to be discussed in one of the six main com-
mittees that cover: disarmament and international security, economic
and financial, social, humanitarian and cultural, special political and
decolonisation; administrative and budgetary; and legal matters.
Further to this, this report recommends that a WCI obliges the

UN, either the General Assembly or the Security Council, to draft
a resolution in response to the proposal and then to vote on the
resolution.
The action that a citizens’ initiative can force also depends, of

course, on the powers of the political body that it addresses. The
UN General Assembly has the power to pass resolutions that mem-
ber states are expected to respond to, but are not legally binding. It
is itself a form of agenda-setting body. It is not a legislative or the
executive body in the mould of a state. However, the General As-
sembly is in a position to launch intergovernmental negotiations
under the auspices of the UN on new treaties or to put questions
58
in front of the International Law Commission for further consid-

eration, to name two relevant ways of taking action.
Furthermore, to organise a World citizens’ initiative is a major un-

dertaking. The effort that a successful citizens’ initiative requires
from citizens is an important consideration when deciding what
obligation a citizens’ initiative should impose on a political body.
If there is a very little meaningful impact from a citizens’ initiative
then citizens are unlikely to use the instrument. This is particu-
larly true for a global citizens’ initiative that requires organisation
across the world.
Excessive obligation from a citizens’ initiative runs the risk of le-

gitimacy issues. This is because a successful WCI will still only
have a relatively small percentage of citizens that support a pro-
posal. This is one of the reasons that states, such as Switzerland,
hold a referendum after a citizens’ initiative. A referendum pro-
vides a mandate from the whole population. The UN could take
another approach to try to address this issue of legitimacy and
complement the intergovernmental legitimacy for a WCI proposal
from the UN process. The aim would be to gain further transna-
tional legitimacy. Two possibilities are to establish a World Parlia-
mentary Assembly that would debate WCI proposals or to form a
global citizens’ assembly.
The authors envisage that a WCI proposal will be placed automat-

ically on the agenda of the General Assembly. It should be noted
that this bypasses the traditional route through the General Com-
mittee, which decides upon the agenda for each upcoming session
on an annual basis. A WCI proposal that is successful would be
59
presented to fall in line with this annual agenda-setting process.

This would require the organising committee to meet the required
timescales and to comply with the procedures of the General
Committee, the body responsible for setting the agenda.
It is recommended that the WCI organising committee can be rep-

resented, and make representations during the debate. Of course,
the ultimate vote on whether the resolution should be adopted
will be made by states. It would not be prudent to suggest a fun-
damental restructuring of the voting system of the General As-
sembly. The authors would recommend, however, that states are
obliged to publish an ‘explanation of the vote’ in order to provide
transparency to the WCI organisation committee.
WCI proposal within the competence

of the Security Council
If the subject matter of the initiative related to the maintenance of

international peace and security, the proposal would be submitted
to the UN Security Council. The Security Council has ‘primary re-
sponsibility for the maintenance of international peace and secu-
rity’.88 In carrying out this responsibility, member states agree that
the Council is acting on their behalf. The potential value in submit-
ting the proposal to the Security Council would be that decisions
of the Council are, contrary to recommendations of the General
Assembly, binding on all states in the international community.89
The potential challenge, however, is that the capacity to impose
binding enforcement measures is predicated on a determination
by the Council that the situation in question constitutes either a
‘threat to the peace, breach of the peace or an act of aggression’.90 It
60
is commonly accepted that this determination is a political ques-

tion, and not easily subjected to objective legal criteria. It is also
accepted that it is the Security Council, and the Council only, that
is competent to make this decision. Representatives of the WCI
organising committee may participate in the Security Council de-
bates preceding this decision, however, they would not be permit-
ted voting rights. The rules of procedure currently already allow
for the participation of “specially affected” non-Council member
states.91 The WCI organising committee might, in this light, be
seen as a ‘specialised agency’ along the lines of the relationship
between non-governmental organisations and the Economic and
Social Council. Support for this suggestion can be found in Ar-
ticle 70, which provides the ‘arrangements for representatives of
the specialized agencies to participate, without vote, in its delib-
erations’. In short, a successful WCI would oblige the Council to
discuss its proposal, but it would not translate into an obligation
to take definitive action. If the Council determines that a WCI does
not fall into its purview, it may automatically be submitted to the
General Assembly instead.
61
Conclusion: World
Citizens’ Initiative:
Time to act
This report proposes a major evolution for transnational democ-

racy: the introduction of a World Citizens’ Initiative that will give
global citizens the opportunity to directly influence UN policy-
making. This report discusses some of the key considerations for
those tasked with framing a World Citizen’s Initiative. These are
the registration criteria and scope of a WCI, the thresholds that
need to be reached for a WCI to oblige a response from the UN,
the principal technical requirements relating to the collection
and verification of support, and the impact that a successful WCI
should have. Also included are recommendations for some of the
most important design decisions, and indicates some of the fur-
ther tasks for the UN to establish a WCI. Although this report has
focussed on the most important aspects of WCI, a number of oth-
er questions will, of course, arise when the details of WCI design
are tackled, not least because of political considerations that are
outside the scope of a legalistic report such as this one. Neverthe-
less, this report has shown that a WCI is feasible and will hope-
fully provide the impetus for the discussions that might lead to
63
Conclusion: World Citizens’ Initiative: Time to act
its establishment. Such a move would complement other existing

mechanisms to enhance democratisation of global governance re-
gimes generally, and citizens’ participation in particular.
64
Annex
Campaign statement
At the launch of the Campaign for a UN World Citizens‘ Initiative

on 14 November 2019 civil society organizations and individual
citizens were invited to sign the following statement. To support
the statement and to see a current list of endorsements visit the
campaign’s website at www.worldcitizensinitiative.org.
67
Annex
We the Peoples
It’s time to give citizens a voice at the UN
The biggest challenges facing us such as climate change, violent

conflict and inequality are global and cross cutting in nature. They
need collective responses from the international community. The
UN is the key arena to make this happen.
As the UN celebrates its 75th anniversary, it’s time to give people a

direct voice in its affairs. The UN’s legitimacy, relevance and ability
to tackle contemporary challenges can be enhanced by making it
more open and accessible to ordinary citizens.
As global citizens and as representatives of civil society from around

the world, we urge the UN to establish the instrument of a World Citi-
zens’ Initiative which will enable citizens to put forward proposals on
key issues of global concern for discussion and further action at the
highest political level. The UN should put any matter that reaches a
certain threshold of support from people onto the agenda of the open-
ing debate of each annual session of the General Assembly.
We firmly believe that the addition of the new instrument of a

World Citizens’ Initiative will enhance the agency of citizens all
over the globe, empowering them, the UN and its member states
alike to tackle global challenges in our increasingly complex and
interconnected world more effectively.
The time has come to give a voice to citizens of the world and re-
alize the promise of the Preamble of the UN Charter which begins
with the words, “We the Peoples of the United Nations”.
68
Annex
Add your support to our call and join our campaign! We are stron-
ger together.
69
Endnotes
01 United Nations. Commemoration of the Seventy-Fifth Anniversary of the United

Nations. UN Doc. A/RES/73/299, 14 June 2019.
02 United Nations. The Future We Want: Outcome Document of the United Nations
Conference on Sustainable Development. UN Doc. A/RES/66/288, 27 July 2012.
Para. 42ff.
03 United Nations. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable De-
velopment. UN Doc. A/RES/70/1, 25 Sept. 2015. Preamble.
04 United Nations. Promotion of a Democratic and Equitable International Order.
UN Doc. A/RES/59/193, 20 Dec. 2004. Para. 4 (h); see also latest resolution A/
RES/73/169, para. 6 (h).
05 People-Centered Multilateralism: A Call to Action. 67th United Nations DPI
NGO Conference, Aug. 2018.
06 JN Rosenau & E-O Czempiel (eds), Governance without Government: Order and
Change in World Politics (Cambridge University Press 1992).
07 JS Nye, ‘Globalization’s Democratic Deficit: How to Make International Institu-
tions More Accountable’ (2001) 80(4) Foreign Affairs https://www.foreignaffairs.
com/articles/2001-07-01/globalizations-democratic-deficit-how-make-inter-
national-institutions-more.
71
Endnotes
08 A Moravcsik, ‘Is There a “Democratic Deficit” in World Politics? A Framework for

Analysis’ (2004) 39 Government and Opposition 336, 336.
09 R Dahl, Democracy and its Critics (Yale University Press 1989)
10 G De Burca, ‘Developing Democracy Beyond the State’ (2008) Columbia Journal
of Transnational Law 221, 276-277.
11 See, generally, TD Zweifel, International Organizations and Democracy: Ac-
countability, Politics, and Power (Lynne Rienner 2006).
12 A Peters, ‘Dual Democracy’ in J Klabbers, A Peters and G Ulfstein (eds), The Con-
stitutionalization of International Law (Oxford University Press 2009) 263, 264.
13 Jo Leinen and Andreas Bummel, A World Parliament: Governance and Democ-
racy in the 21st Century (Democracy Without Borders 2018); see also the Cam-
paign for a UN Parliamentary Assembly <www.unpacampaign.org>
14 J Dryzek, A Bachtiger & A MIlewicz, ‘Toward a Deliberative Global Citizens’ As-
sembly’ (2001) 2(1) Global Policy 33.
15 We the Peoples Millennium Forum Declaration and Agenda for Action,
‘Strengthening the UN for the 21st Century’ (26 May 2000) (UN Doc A/54/959).
See in this document notably Part F: ‘Strengthening and democratizing the Unit-
ed Nations and international organizations’ which suggested that the UN should
‘support the creation and funding of a Global Civil Society Forum to meet at least
every two to three years in the period leading up to the annual session of the
General Assembly, provided that such a forum is conducted democratically and
transparently and is truly representative of all sectors of civil society and all parts
of the world’.
16 Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (26 August--4 Sep-
tember 2002) UN Doc A/CONF.1999/20, at 64, section A(g), which listed as a
key objective: ‘Enhancing participation and effective involvement of civil society
and other relevant stakeholders … as well as promoting transparency and broad
public participation’.
17 UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, “We the Peoples’: The Role of the United Na-
tions in the 21st Century’ (Millennium Report) (2000) at 13.
72
Endnotes
18 UN Human Rights Council Resolution 18/6, ‘Promotion of a Democratic and

Equitable International Order’ (13 October 2011) UN Doc A/RES/72/172, para
6(h).
19 Report of the Panel of Eminent Persons on United Nations-Civil Society Rela-
tions, ‘We the Peoples: Civil Society, the United Nations and Global Governance’
(‘Cardoso Report’) UN Doc A/58/817 (11 June 2004), para 7.
20 Ibid, para 28.
21 UN Economic Commission for Europe, Decision I/7 Review of Compliance, An-
nex ‘Structure and Functions of the Compliance Committee and Procedures for
the Review of Compliance’ (2002) Doc ECE/MP.PP/2/Add.8, at para 18.
22 Resolution Establishing the World Bank Inspection Panel (22nd September 1993)
(IBRD Resolution No 93-10, IDA Resolution No 93-6).
23 World Bank Inspection Panel Operating Procedures, art 47.
24 See Art 68(3) ICC-Statute.
25 RA Dahl, ‘Can International Organizations be Democratic? A Skeptic’s View’ in
I Shapiro and C Hacker-Cordon (eds), Democracy’s Edges (Cambridge University
Press 1999) 19, 22: ‘the opportunities available to the ordinary citizen to partic-
ipate effectively in the decisions of a world government would diminish to the
vanishing point’.
26 Dahl, Democracy and its Critics (n 4).
27 The most famous exposition of this approach remains that of Oppenheim: ‘Since
the law of nations is based on the common consent of individual States, States
solely and exclusively are subjects of international law’. See LFL Oppenheim,
International Law: A Treatise (2nd edn, Longmans, Green and Company 1912)
19. See also SS Lotus [1927] PICJ Rep Ser A 10, at 18: ‘International law governs
relations between independent States’.
28 JHH Weiler ‘The Geology of International Law -- Governance, Democracy and
Legitimacy’ (2004) 64 Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völk-
errecht 547, 558.
29 Peters (n 7) 300.
73
Endnotes
30 A Peters, ‘Membership in the Global Constitutional Community’ in J Klabbers,

A Peters and G Ulfstein (eds), The Constitutionalization of International Law
(Oxford University Press 2009) 153, 161.
31 See, generally, S Hobe, ‘Article 71’ in B Simma, The Charter of the United Nations:
A Commentary (3rdedn, vol 2, Oxford University Press, 2012) 1788; C Algar, ‘The
Emerging Roles of NGOs in the UN System: From Article 71 to a People’s Millen-
nium Assembly’ (2002) 8 Global Governance 93.
32 ‘organizations that are concerned with most of the activities of the Council’,
ECOSOC Res 1993/31 (1993).
33 ‘organizations that have a special competence in … only a few fields of activity
covered by the Council’, ECOSOC Res 1996/31 (1996), at para 23.
34 Ibid, at para 34.
39 Robert Dahl, the preeminent democratic theorist of the 20th century, set out five
criteria in Dahl, Democracy and its Critics (n 4).
40 First set out in his book Dahl, Democracy and its Critics (n 4). Quoted here from
R Dahl, On Democracy, YUP (2000) 38-39.
41 Dahl defines effective participation in the following way: “Before a policy is ad-
opted by the association, all the members must have equal and effective opportu-
nities for making their view known to the other members as to what the policy
should be” in R Dahl, On Democracy (Yale University Press 2000) 37.
42 This reflects the input, throughput and output approach to democracy but is not
directly derived from that strand of literature, e.g. V Schmidt, ‘Democracy and
Legitimacy in the European Union Revisited: Input, Output and ‘Throughput”
(2012) 61(1) Political Studies 2. Papadopooulous and Warin also take a similar
four strand approach in Y Papadopoulos & P Warin, ‘Are Innovative, Participa-
tory and Deliberative Procedures in Policy Making Democratic and Effective?’
74
Endnotes
(2007) 46 European Journal of Political Research 445.

43 For the use of similar criteria to assess direct democracy instruments see G
Smith, Democratic Innovations - Designing Institutions for Citizen Participation
(Cambridge University Press 2009).
44 J Schumpter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (Allen and Unwin 1954).
45 Smith cites lack of impact and the heavy burden placed on citizens and institu-
tions as two issues with direct democracy in Smith (n 38).
46 Schiller and Setala, for example, define popular initiatives as ‘procedures that
allow citizens to bring new issues to the political agenda ... through collecting
a certain number of signatures in support of a policy proposal’, in M Setala and
T Schiller (eds), Citizens Initiatives in Europe: Procedures and Consequence of
Agenda Setting by Citizens (Macmillan 2012) 1. Similarly Uleri in P Uleri ‘Le
forme di consultazione diretta. Uno Schema di classificazione per l’analisi com-
parata’ (1981) 47 Rivista Italiana di Sciencia Politica described popular initiatives
as “a procedure enabling a predetermined number of registered electors to sub-
mit a political demand”, cited in V Cuesta Lopez, ‘A Comparative Approach to the
Regulation on the European Citizens Initiative’ (2012) Perspectives on European
Politics and Society 257, 258. For an outline of different forms of direct democra-
cy instruments see B Kaufmann and J Pichler (eds) The European Citizens’Initia-
tives -- Into new democratic territory, (Intersentia 2010) 33-42.
47 M Setala and T Schiller (eds), Citizens Initiatives in Europe: Procedures and
Consequence of Agenda Setting by Citizens (Macmillan 2012) 1 gives a detailed
explanation of the distinction between full scale and agenda initiatives and dis-
cusses several examples of each from across Europe.
48 Full-scale initiatives are also called popular initiatives.
49 Some academics do not classify agenda-setting initiatives as direct democracy,
eg, Smith (n 38).
50 South African Cases (Ethiopia v South Africa; Liberia v South Africa) [1966] ICJ
Rep 6, at para 98.
51 For examples from across Europe see M Setala and T Schiller (eds), ‘Citizens Ini-
75
Endnotes
tiatives in Europe: Procedures and Consequences of Agenda-setting by Citizens’

(Macmillan 2012).
52 See, for example, A Warleigh, ‘On the Path to Legitimacy? The EU Citizens Initia-
tive Right from a Critical Deliberativist Perspective’, in C Ruzza and V Della Sala
(eds), Governance and Civil Society in the European Union (Manchester Univer-
sity Press 2007) 55.
53 Quoted from speech by Vice President of the European Commission Maros Sef-
covic, ‘The Lisbon Treaty: Enhancing Democracy’ on Sept 30th 2010, at 2. europa.
eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-10-502_en.htm europa.eu/rapid/press-re-
lease_SPEECH-10-502_en.htm.
54 J Organ, ‘Decommissioning Direct Democracy? A critical analysis of Commis-
sion decision making on the legal admissibility of European Citizens Initiative
proposals’ (2014) 10(3) European Constitutional Law Review 422
55 C Berg & J Thompson (eds), An ECI that Works: Learning From the First Two
Years of the ECI (2014). Available online: <http://www.citizens-initiative.eu/
wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Berg_2014_Berg_Thomson_An_ECI_That_
Works.pdf>
56 A Karatzia, ‘The European Citizens Initiative and the EU Institutional Balance:
On Realism and the Possibilities of Affecting EU Lawmaking’ (2017) 54(1) Com-
mon Market Law Review 177.
57 See for instance, C Kissling, ‘The Legal and Political Status of International Par-
liamentary Institutions’ (Committee for a Democratic UN 2011)
58 R Blaug, ‘Engineering Democracy’ (2002) 50(1) Political Studies 102.
59 Art 11(4) TEU.
60 These important characteristics are defined more precisely in Regulation
211/2011, which implemented the ECI and is discussed further below.
61 For further comment on the type of democratic instrument that the ECI is de-
fined as see A Auer, ‘European Citizens Initiative’ (2005) 1 European Constitu-
tional Law Review 79. One point of disagreement is over the use of the term
Popular Initiative, which Auer limits to instruments that ‘grant the right to a
76
Endnotes
number of citizens to submit a draft constitutional or legislative provision to the

voters, with no possibility of it being blocked by Parliament’. The authors of the
present report would refer to these instruments as full-scale initiatives.
62 The phrase ‘for the purpose of implementing the treaties’ is taken by the Com-
mission to mean that an ECI cannot make a proposal that requires treaty change.
63 For example it set the number of members states that are needed for a successful
ECI.
64 “The procedure of an agenda initiative contains various steps and requirements.
The main elements are admissible topics, the registration of the proposal and
checking its legality, the quorum of required signatures, and the procedure of
presentation and consideration in the state parliament.” Schiller, in Setala and
Schiller (eds) at 94.
65 Recital 8 Reg. 211/2011 and also in Amendment 23 justification European Parlia-
ment report.
66 Recital 8 Reg. 211/2011.
67 UNGA Res 1991 (XVIII) (17 December 1963) UN Doc A/RES/1991.
68 Organ (n 49).
69 Rule 38, UNGA Rules of Procedure.
70 M Hilf & D-E Khan, ‘Article 22’ in B Simma, The Charter of the United Nations:
A Commentary (2nd edn, vol 1, Oxford University Press 2002) 420, 423.
71 See, importantly, D Sarooshi, ‘The Legal Framework Governing United Nations
Subsidiary Organs (1996) 67 British Institute of International Law 416.
72 P Szasz, ‘The Complexification of the United Nations System’ (1999) 3 Max
Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law 3, 3.
73 Article 22’ 429.
74 The first of these was Anagnostakis v European Commission Case C-589/15 P
75 See, UNSC Res 1904 (2009).
76 See, UNSC Res 2083 (2012) and 2161 (2014).
77 This is a change to the regulation about to be passed.
78 Schiller & Setala (n 41) 8.
77
Endnotes
79 UNGA Res 1991 (XVIII) (17 December 1963) UN Doc A/RES/1991.

80 Draft report on the proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and
of the Council on the citizens’ initiative, Committee of Constitutional Affairs -
COM(2010)0119 -- C7-0089/2010 -- 2010/0074(COD).
81 Ibid Amendment 33.
82 Ibid Amendment 61.
83 Claim based on the high percentage of people that abandon the online process to
support ECIs.
84 Details of ‘Right to Water ECI available at https://ec.europa.eu/citizens-initia-
tive/public/initiatives/successful/details/2012/000003
85 T-561/14 - One of Us and Others v Commission - http://curia.europa.eu/juris/
liste.jsf?language=en&num=T-561/14
86 MN Shaw, International Law (8th edn, Cambridge University Press 2017) 930.
87 Article 20 (UN Charter 1945).
88 Article 24, UN Charter (1945).
89 Article 25 and 103, UN Charter (1945).
90 Article 39, UN Charter (1945).
91 Art 31, UN Charter (1945) and Rule 37, Security Council Provisional Rules of
Procedure.
78
Humanity is faced with global challenges that require collective
global responses. The United Nations is the key arena to make this
happen. This report recommends that the UN should strengthen
its democratic legitimacy and its connection to global citizens
by enabling them to put proposals on the UN‘s agenda if they
mobilize sufficient support from across the world. The instrument
to implement this idea is a World Citizens‘ Initiative. This legal
study explores in detail how this could work. The time has come
to realize the promise of the UN Charter which begins with the
words, “We the Peoples of the United Nations”.
www.worldcitizensinitiative.org

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A Voice for

Democracy Without Borders

Authored by Dr. James Organ and Dr. Ben Murphy

Published in 2019 by Democracy Without Borders, Democracy International,

This work is published under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-

We wish to thank Global Justice Now for their kind support.

Cover design & layout: Rafael Natal – www.rafaelnatal.com

Visit our website at

By Dr. James Organ and Dr. Ben Murphy

Citizen participation at the international level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

The democratic value of citizens’ initiatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

The European Citizens’ Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Implementing the World Citizens’ Initiative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Conclusion: World Citizens’ Initiative: Time to act. . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

The present report recommends that the United Nations (UN)

The paper offers background on the concept of citizens’ initiatives

thirds majority of the General Assembly. This would include the

According to this report, the functioning of a WCI would follow

The report recommends that each WCI would be registered by an

Once established, a WCI committee would draft its proposal and

The report recommends that a WCI would qualify for submission

at least 0.5 percent of the population of each of ten UN member

The reports envisages that a successful WCI proposal will be

In 2020 the United Nations will commemorate its 75th anniversa-

A commitment to multilateralism at present should acknowledge

This report recommends the creation of a World Citizens’ Initiative

The World Citizens’ Initiative is a proposal that is in line with the

On behalf of the Campaign for a UN World Citizens’ Initiative

Andreas Bummel, Executive Director,

Bruno Kaufmann, Board Member,

Lysa John, Secretary-General,

ECI European Citizens’ Initiative

Traditionally, discussion of democratic legitimacy and proposals

ly with reference to international institutions.07 Indeed, the demo-

One of the organising assumptions in this report is that the UN

Although the dominant model of democracy cannot simply be

The distinction between representation and participation high-

From the representation perspective, a move towards democrati-

The proposal to implement a WCI is split into the following five

The ongoing discussions pertaining to increased participation at

Must be opened up further to the participation of many actors

Furthermore, in resolutions on the ‘[p]romotion of a democratic

the realisation of the ‘right to equitable participation of all, with-

In this light, in recent years, individuals have obtained some lim-

trial.24 Each of these examples envisages individuals participating

However, there are at least three principal challenges to imple-

The second challenge relates to the general nature of the interna-

The third challenge relates, more specifically, to the institutional

work of the primary organs of the UN. The UN is exclusively com-

Democracy at its core is based on popular sovereignty and politi-

Democratic instruments such as the WCI are the institutionalisa-

tion of participatory democracy and therefore, by definition, relate

cedural complexity and resources that it imposes on citizens, as

A citizens’ initiative is a form of direct democracy that enables

The two elements of impact are: influencing the political agenda

In the next section, the report focuses on the experience of the

Citizens’ initiatives are well-established as state-level democratic

The potential significance of the ECI for EU democratic legitimacy

campaigners are concerned about the impact of successful ECIs.56