OPEN ACCESS International Journal of Botany

ISSN 1811-9700
DOI: 10.3923/ijb.2021.1.7

Research Article
Phytoremediation Potential of Zea mays L. and Panicum
coloratum L. on Hydrocarbon Polluted Soils
1
F.A. Anukwa, 2E.M. Onuoha, 1A. Nkang and 3J. Nkereuwem

1
Department of Botany, University of Calabar, Nigeria
2
Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Calabar, Nigeria
3
Department of Soil Science, University of Calabar, Nigeria

Abstract
Background and Objective: Contamination of soils by heavy metals poses a big risk to humans and the ecosystem through direct
ingestion or contact with contaminated soil and some plants can absorb, accumulate and immobilize environmental contaminants in
a growth matrix. The ability of Zea may and Panicum coloratum to take up heavy metals from a hydrocarbon polluted soil was
investigated. Materials and Methods: A Hydrocarbon polluted soil Sample was treated with OMF (Organo-mineral Fertilizer) for 10 weeks.
Zea may and Panicum coloratum were planted on the soil and left to grow for another 10 weeks. The plants were then harvested and
analyzed for selected heavy metals. Results: Results showed that spent engine oil caused a reduction in soil nutrients and increased
heavy metals concentrations in the soil. The use of Organo-mineral Fertilizer amendment and planting of Zea may and Panicum
coloratum for 10 weeks improved the soil nutrients with the plants accumulating between 7.86-93.32% heavy metals from the soil.
Conclusion: This study demonstrated that Zea may and Panicum coloratum were able to grow in a hydrocarbon polluted soil, with
nutrients support from the OMF used and were able to absorb heavy metals from the soil.

Key words: Phytoremediation, heavy metals, Zea may, Panicum coloratum, hydrocarbon, degradation, soil, treatment, pollution, organo-mineral

Citation: Anukwa, F.A., E.M. Onuoha, A. Nkang and J. Nkereuwem, 2021. Phytoremediation potential of Zea mays L. and Panicum coloratum L. on
hydrocarbon polluted soils. Int. J. Bot., 17: 1-7.

Corresponding Author: Ekeoma Malvina Onuoha, Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Calabar, Nigeria

Copyright: © 2020 F.A. Anukwa et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Competing Interest: The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files.
 Int. J. Bot., 17 (1): 1-7, 2021

INTRODUCTION Table 1: Permissible levels of heavy metals in soil

Target values Permissible values
Elements in soil (mg kgG1) in plants (mg kgG1)
The soil essentially provides a suitable environment for Cadmium (Cd) 0.8 0.02
plants to grow to their potential1. The nature of the soil is a Copper (Cu) 36 10
Lead (Pb) 85 2
critical factor in the plant's ability to extract water and
Nickel (Ni) 35 10
nutrients. Pollution caused by crude oil and oil-related Source: WHO9
activities is among the most prevalent environmental
problems in Nigeria. Over the years, various attempts have of plants. Uhegbu et al.10 reported that given the difficulty of
been made to solve the problem of soil contamination with cleaning and restoring oil-polluted sites using conventional
hydrocarbons and heavy metals. Different measures have techniques, the need to explore a more cost-effective,
been tried involving physical and chemical remediation adaptable and environmentally friendly approach has become
methods, mechanical soil removal and burial. Most of which very critical .
are expensive and labor-intensive, impracticable on the large For a plant to qualify to be used for phytoremediation, it
scale that is needed and environmentally destructive2. The is expected to have the capacity to tolerate heavy metals,
quest to explore alternative means of addressing this grow fast with a high biomass yield per hectare. Such plants
problem led to the development of phytoremediation. The should have the ability to accumulate heavy metals in their
phytoremediation approach is considered cost-effective, shoot system11, develop a profuse root system and a positive
environmentally friendly, long-term applicability and utilizes bioaccumulation factor12, grow easily on soils contaminated
natural processes3,4. by metals, have high soil- shoot transfer factors, accommodate
Abioye et al.5 defined phytoremediation as the efficient high shoot metal concentrations and produce high biomass
use of green plants to remove, detoxify or immobilize quickly13. The success of phytoremediation technology in soils
contaminated with heavy metals depends on the frequency at
environmental contaminants in a growth matrix (soil, water or
which plants extract or transform the contaminants into less
sediments) through the natural biological, chemical and
toxic forms.
physical activities and processes of plants. Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation can be used in both organic and
techniques are anchored on the fact that a living plant can be
inorganic pollutants present in the solid, liquid and gaseous
compared to a solar-driven pump, which can extract and
substrates14,15. It can also be used to clean up metals,
concentrate particulate from the environment6.
pesticides, solvents, explosives, crude oil and contaminants
Phytoremediation is based on the natural abilities of
that may leak from landfills site. The following metals are easily
plants to absorb, accumulate and possibly degrade
bio-available for plant uptake: cadmium, nickel, zinc, arsenic,
constituents of soil and water environments. Vascular green
selenium and copper. Moderately bio-available metals are
plants have the marvelous ability of self-engineering or
cobalt, manganese, iron, lead, chromium and uranium are not
exerting limited control over the rhizosphere, local
bio-available. Lead can be made much more bio-available by
biogeochemistry, availability of water, nutrients and the local the addition of chelating agents to soils.
microclimate7. Heavy metals are components of the earth s crust and
Contamination of soils by heavy metals has the potential occur naturally in the ecosystem, with varying concentrations.
of posing a big risk to human beings and the ecosystem Their presence affects all components of the ecosystem and
through direct ingestion or contact with contaminated soil. ranges from physical and chemical contamination of soil, air,
This might find its way into the food chain through drinking water to deleterious impacts on flora and fauna. Soil microbial
contaminated groundwater, absorbed by plants which are populations are negatively affected by increased heavy metal
eaten by animals and eventual reduction in food quality8. This concentration which also harms soil fertility16.
could occur through the plants exhibiting some form of Heavy metals in the soil at high concentrations have a
toxicity, a reduction in the agricultural value and productivity direct and indirect effect on plant growth and development.
of the land, hence causing food security and land tenure One of the approaches to cleaning-up of heavy metal
problems. The World Health Organization (WHO) Target values contaminated soil is through bioremediation, which is carried
specified to indicate desirable maximum levels of elements in out in situ using microorganisms2. Microorganisms and plants
unpolluted soil as shown in Table 19. employ different mechanisms for bioremediation of heavy
Plants and microbes utilize their natural capacity to metal polluted soils. A combination of microorganisms and
degrade and detoxify hydrocarbons and heavy metals into less plants ensures a more efficient clean-up of heavy metal
toxic substances and contain them in their tissues in the case polluted soils17.

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 Int. J. Bot., 17 (1): 1-7, 2021

Organo-mineral fertilizer [Slurry from battery cage poultry Planting: Planting boxes of Length 50 cm, Width 20 cm and
farm plus ash from burnt palm fruit bunch and NPK (nitrogen, Depth 20 cm containing 20 kg of the polluted of the treated
phosphorus and potassium) fertilizer] were used as a soil sample were prepared to which maize seeds and cuttings
treatment for the polluted soil. of Panicum coloratum were planted into the various plots to
Though inorganic constituents can be used in a sowing depth of 12 mm.
phytoremediation activities, using organic constituents is
ecologically friendly, enhances ecosystem nutrient cycles Analytical methodologies
which are of great benefit to the environment. This is also Physicochemical properties: The physicochemical qualities
beneficial to agriculture as it facilitates nutrients availability of the soil samples were determined using the methods of
and uptake by plants. the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC)18. The
This study investigates the potential of Zea mays L. and parameters determined were: pH, organic carbon, nitrogen,
Panicum coloratum in the uptake of heavy metals from phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, hydrogen,
spent engine oil (hydrocarbons) polluted soils treated with aluminium, Effective Cation Exchange Capacity (ECEC) and
organo-mineral fertilizers. base saturation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Determination of heavy metals in soil: According to the
American Public Health Association (APHA) 3111B19.
Study location: The experimental plot for this study was
Procedure: 10 g of the dried solid sample was weighed and
located in the farm area of the University of Calabar, Botanic transferred into an acid-washed 250 mL extraction bottle.
Gardens, Calabar, Nigeria. This research project was conducted About 100 mL of extraction reagent (reagent-grade disodium
from March, 2014-September, 2015. ethylenediaminetetraacetate-Na2 EDTA 0.1 M) was poured
into the flask, sealed and was shaken for 30-45 min in an
Experimental laboratory: The Physicochemical analysis of soil automatic Stuart SSL1 Orbital Shaker (Cole-Parmer,
samples was carried out in the Soil Science Laboratory, Faculty Staffordshire, ST15 OSA, UK). The suspension was filtered
of Agriculture, University of Calabar, Nigeria while analysis of through a Whatman Grade 1 Qualitative Filter Paper (Cytiva,
heavy metals was undertaken at the BGI Resources Laboratory, Marlborough, MA USA). The extracted solutions and blank
Port Harcourt, Rivers State. were then run using Agilent 240 AA Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer (Agilent, Santa Clara, Ca, USA).
Soil sampling: Topsoil (0-20 cm depth) was collected from
each of the four plots arranged in a complete randomized Calculation:
design using a spade. The collected soil was weighed in 20 kg
parts and transferred into nylon bags after proper mixing. It Concentration of element×(mg LG1) = A-B
was labeled accordingly.
Where:
Soil pollution: The soil sample was polluted to a 10% A = Concentration of element×(mg LG1)
pollution level by adding 2 L of spent engine oil: B = Concentration of blank (mg LG1)

Quantity of spent engine oil 100 Statistical analysis: The collected data were subjected to a
Soil pollution (%) = 
Quantityof soil 1
two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using a 2-factor (2×4)
factorial in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Significant
2 L 100 means were separated using Duncan Multiple Range Test
10% soil pollution = 
20 kg 1 (DMRT).

Treatment application: To the Polluted soil, 200 g of RESULTS

Organo-mineral fertilizer was added to the soil as treatment,
2 weeks after pollution. The soil was allowed for eight more The data of Table 2 shows the nutrient properties of the
weeks before planting was done. treatment used in this study. Organo-mineral Fertilizer (OMF)

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 Int. J. Bot., 17 (1): 1-7, 2021

has significant concentrations of plant nutrients. Total soil was seen to have higher nutrients and accumulated more
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium concentrations are heavy metals compared to those planted in the pristine and
47.30, 19.0 and 37.50 mg kgG1. These appreciable controlled soil samples. The concentration of total Nitrogen,
concentrations could be related to its constituent, Slurry from Phosphorus, potassium and calcium in the maize plant were
a poultry farm and palm fruit bunch ash. 1.333%, 0.283, 0.597and 0.797 mg kgG1 while in the Panicum
The physicochemical properties of the soil throughout the coloratum they were 1.293%, 0.247, 0.567 and 1.133 mg kgG1,
study period are revealed in Table 3. It gives the changes respectively. The magnesium in the P. coloratum
observed in the soil properties from when the soil was (0.617 mg kgG1) was higher than that in Zea mays
polluted, treatment and after planting. The Total Nitrogen (0.397 mg kgG1). The tables also showed that Zea may have
and Phosphorus after pollution reduced from 0.18% and higher concentrations of Zinc (Zn), Nickel (Ni), Cadmium (Cd)
8.7 mg kgG1 to 0.08% and 6.75 mg kgG1, respectively. The and Lead (Pb) while Panicum coloratum accumulated more
addition of the Organo-mineral fertilizer caused an increase in concentrations of copper (Cu).
the soil Nitrogen and phosphorus concentration to 0.24% and The percentage accumulation in both study plants was
21.83 mg kgG1, respectively. Further increase in the Nitrogen calculated and Table 6 revealed that Zea mays accumulated
and phosphorus concentrations to 0.31% and 24.75 mg kgG1, the target heavy metals in the order of Zn (93.32%), Ni
respectively were observed in the soil after planting. There (73.75%), Cu (37.32%), Cd (20.27%) and Pb (8.72%) whereas,
was also an increase in the five selected heavy metals
concentrations in the soil after pollution and a significant Table 2: Chemical properties of organo-mineral fertilizer used as amendments
in this study
decrease after soil treatment and planting.
Parameters Organo-mineral fertilizer (mg kgG1)
The data of Table 4 and 5 shows the physicochemical
pH 7.9±0.02
properties of the grown maize plant and panicum coloratum, Nitrogen 47.30±0.03
respectively. Maize crop planted for 10 weeks in the pristine Phosphorus 19.0±0.0
potassium 37.50±0.20
soil, the polluted control soil and the treated soil were
Calcium 9.00±0.00
uprooted, dried, ground and analyzed for their Magnesium 57.50±0.15
physicochemical properties. The crops planted in the treated Mean±SD

Table 3: Soil Physicochemical properties

Parameters Pristine soil Polluted soil (week 2) Treated with OMF (week 10) After planting (week 20)
PH 4.3±0.01 4.2±0.15 4.3±0.06 4.4±0.06
Organic Carbon (%) 2.3±1.20 1.07±0.08 3.1±0.42 3.67±0.19
Total Nitrogen (%) 0.18±0.10 0.08±0.01 0.24±0.06 0.31±0.01
Phosphorus (mg kgG1) 8.70±1.89 6.75±1.11 21.83±2.08 24.75±0.87
Potassium (mg kgG1) 0.08±0.01 0.08±0.02 0.08±0.01 0.09±0.01
ECEC 7.62±1.85 5.85±1.41 6.36±1.48 9.74±2.00
Nickel (mg kgG1) 0.02±0.002 0.02±0.002 0.02±0.01 0.02±0.00
Zinc (mg kgG1) 0.06±0.001 1.20±0.02 0.43±0.11 0.34±0.09
Lead (mg kgG1) 0.06±0.002 0.19±0.001 0.06±0.02 0.04±0.01
Cadmium (mg kgG1) 0.05±0.002 0.07±0.002 0.01±0.01 0.004±0.00
Copper (mg kgG1) 0.17±0.002 0.42±0.001 0.26±0.12 0.17±0.06
OMF: Organo mineral fertilizer

Table 4: Physicochemical properties of Zea mays (maize)

Parameters/Soil (mg kgG1) Pristine soil Polluted (Not treated) Polluted (OMF treated)
Total Nitrogen (%) 0.733±0.058 0.593±0.058 1.333±0.058
Phosphorus 0.313±0.058 0.193±0.006 0.283±0.012
Potassium 0.587±0.012 0.497±0.006 0.597±0.006
Calcium 0.267±0.12 0.317±0.006 0.797±0.006
Magnesium 0.193±0.006 0.197±0.006 0.397±0.006
Zn 0.004±0.00 0.636±0.06 1.025±0.06
Cu 0.070±0.00 0.141±0.00 0.156±0.00
Ni 0.003±0.00 0.012±0.00 0.018±0.00
Cd 0.003±0.00 0.013±0.00 0.015±0.00
Pb 0.003±0.00 0.011±0.00 0.016±0.00
Mean±SD, OMF: Organo-mineral fertilizer

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Table 5: Physicochemical properties of Panicum coloratum

Parameters (mg kgG1) Pristine Soil Polluted (Not treated) Polluted (OMF treated)
Total nitrogen (%) 0.697±0.001 1.123±0.000 1.293±0.000
Phosphorus 0.243±0.001 0.193±0.002 0.247±0.004
Potassium 0.557±0.001 0.483±0.003 0.567±0.003
Calcium 0.727±0.002 0.723±0.001 1.133±0.003
Magnesium 0.437±0.001 0.363±0.001 0.617±0.002
Zn 0.001±0.00 0.015±0.00 0.390±0.00
Cu 0.123±0.00 0.144±0.00 0.291±0.00
Ni 0.003±0.00 0.007±0.00 0.014±0.00
Cd 0.002±0.00 0.005±0.00 0.014±0.00
Pb 0.003±0.00 0.005±0.00 0.015±0.00
Mean±SD, OMF: Organo-mineral fertilizer

Table 6: Percentage accumulation of heavy metals in Zea mays and Panicum coloratum
Plant species
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Zea mays L. Panicum coloratum
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Samples Ni Zn Pb Cd Cu Ni Zn Pb Cd Cu
Pristine 11.25 6.17 5.23 7.02 40.94 12.50 2.167 4.29 4.89 72.11
Polluted (Not treated) 12.50 57.95 5.88 17.16 33.73 29.17 1.37 2.51 6.35 34.45
Polluted (OMF treated) 73.75 93.32 8.72 20.27 37.32 58.33 35.52 7.86 19.32 69.62
OMF: Organo-mineral fertilizer

Panicum coloratum accumulated the heavy metals in the available soil nutrient (N, P and Mg) and rise in the level of
order Cu (69.62%), Ni (58.33%), Zn (35.52%), Cd (19.32%) and heavy metals concentration agrees with the report that crude
Pb (7.86%). oil in the soil makes the soil condition unsatisfactory for plant
growth, due to the reduction in the level of available plant
DISCUSSION nutrients in the soil or a rise in toxic levels of certain elements
such as iron and zinc 26.
Phytoremediation studies with spent engine oil on the The addition of organic matter amendments such as
growth and yield of Panicum coloratum and Zea mays compost, fertilizer and waste, is a common practice for
showed that hydrocarbon in the soil had significant effects on immobilization of heavy metals and soils amelioration of
soil properties like nitrogen content, pH, carbon as well as the contaminated soils27. Peat, compost and vermicomposting
presence of heavy metals. Agbogidi et al.20 reported that oil in application led to effective immobilization of Pb, Cu, Zn and
soil has deleterious effects on the biological, chemical and Cd photo accessible forms in soil. The effect of organic matter
physical properties of the soil depending on the dose, type of amendment on heavy metal bioavailability depends on the
the soil and other environmental factors2. Okonokhua et al.21 nature of the organic matter, their microbial degradability, salt
also reported that the physical property of oil imposes some content and effects on soil pH and redox potential as well as
stressful conditions which may interfere with water uptake on the particular soil type and metals concerned 28.
and gaseous exchange. However, Zheljazkov and Warman22 Osaigbovo et al.29 have also reported that heavy metal
reported that the application of compost and vermin-compost concentration increased with increasing concentration of
to oil-contaminated soils improved soil fertility, physical the contaminant (spent engine oil) and amendment with
properties and contribute to a successful approach to organic fertilizer significantly remedied the polluted soil and
phytoremediation. decreased the heavy metal concentration. In this study,
Soil pH is a major factor influencing the availability of treatment fertilizers reduced the heavy metal concentration in
elements in the soil for absorption by plants23. Also, McBraide24 the soil. Fertilizers and other soil amendments may also add
stated that many metal cations are more soluble and available small amounts of heavy metals to the soil, which build up over
in soil solution at lower pH (below 5.5) including Cd, Cu, Hg, Ni, time with repeated applications30. The actual toxicity of heavy
Pb and Zn. metals will be affected by soil texture, organic matter content
Baek et al.25 reported that there were additions in the level and pH. Adding organic matter to the soil can help tie heavy
of heavy metals (Validium and Lead) as the level of spent metals chemically, reducing their availability for potential
engine oil pollution increased. The reduction in the level of uptake. Similarly, limiting to a neutral pH and maintaining

5
 Int. J. Bot., 17 (1): 1-7, 2021

optimal soil phosphorus levels can reduce heavy metal 2. Onuoha, E.M., I.A. Ekpo, F.A. Anukwa and K.E. Nwagu, 2020.
availability to plants. There is little evidence to suggest that Microbial stimulating potential of Pineapple peel (Ananas
some heavy metals such as lead are accumulated within crops, comosus) and Coconut (Cocos nucifera) husk char in crude-oil
polluted soil. Int. J. Enviorn. Agric. Biotechnol., 5: 582-593.
the main health hazards being through indirect ingestion from
3. Boonyapookana, B., P. Parkplan, S. Techapinyawat,
the soil and inhalation31.
R.D. DeLaune and A. Jugsujinda, 2005. Phytoaccumulation of
In many plants, there is a direct relationship between the
lead by sunflower (Helianthus annuus), tobacco (Nicotiana
content of microelements in the soil solution and their uptake tabacum) and vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides). J. Environ. Sci.
by plants. Kabata-Pendias and Pendias32 reported that this Health A Tox. Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng., 40: 117-137.
relation is most evident with cadmium and less evident with 4. Wang, Y., 2004. Phytoremediation of mercury by terrestrial
zinc and lead. They reported that Pb, Zn, Cu and Cd uptake by plants. Ph.D. dissertation, Botaniska institutionen, Stockholm,
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Bioremoval of zinc in polluted soil using Acalypha inferno.
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Organo-mineral fertilizer (OMF) has a high potential to
6. Shmaefsky, B.R., 2020. Principles of Phytoremediation. In:
improve the properties of spent engine oil-polluted soil, Phytoremediation, Shmaefsky, B. (Ed.)., Springer International
enhance the uptake of heavy metals like Zinc, Iron and Publishing, Cham, ISBN: 978-3-030-00099-8, pp: 1-26.
Copper by plants such as Zea mays and Panicum coloratum. 7. McCutcheon, S.C. and J.L. Schnor, 2003. Phytoremediation:
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phytoremediation potential. Given the high percentage and Science and Technology. A Joun and Sons, Inc.,
reduction of heavy metals in the soil observed in this study, Wiley-Interscience, New Jersey, USA.
there is hope for the use of phytoremediation techniques. 8. Wuana, R.A. and F.E. Okieimen, 2011. Heavy metals in
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SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT
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This study discovers the potential of organo-mineral plants. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
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a gap in phytoremediation practice on the selection of
12. Gratao, P.L., M.N.V. Prasad, P.F. Cardoso, P.J. Lea and
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13. Bañuelos, G.S., H.A. Ajwa, L. Wu and S. Zambrzuski, 1998.
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the Departments of Botany and Soil Science, the University of soil from different depths of Kesterson Reservoir. J. Soil
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