Chapter 10

Protection of
Substation
 Chapter 10 [PROTECTION OF SUBSTATION]

10.1. Introduction
In a power system consists of generators, transformers, transmission and
distribution circuits some failure may occur somewhere in the system. When
a fault occurs at any part of electric power system, it must be cleared quickly
in order to avoid damage or to maintain the rest of the system of continuous
operation. So; we should use protection systems.
We usually think of an electric power system in terms of its more effective
parts like the big generating stations, transformers, high-voltage lines, etc.
While these are some of the basic elements, there are many other necessary
and fascinating components. Protective relaying is one of these components.
In protection schemes; there is main and backup protection (or instantaneous
and inverse definite time protection) which can be applied on upstream part
up to transmission system. But main protection for our project is only in the
distribu on part (11Kvà.38Kv).

10.2. Protection of electrical equipment

10.2.1. Generator protection

Most industrial and large commercial electrical installations include certain

important loads for which a power supply must be maintained in the event
that the utility electrical supply fails.
Either, because safety systems are involved (emergency lighting, automatic
fire protection equipment, smoke dispersal fans, alarms and signalization, and
so on) or Because it concerns priority circuits, such as certain equipment, the
stoppage of which would entail a loss of production, or the destruction of a
machine tool, …. One of the current means of maintaining a supply to the so-
called apriority loads, in the event that other sources fail, is to install a diesel
generator set connected, via a change-over switch, to an emergency-power
standby switchboard, from which the priority services are fed (see Fig )

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A generator is protected against several faults.

Table (10.1) gives an idea about the present practice of generator
protection.

Below Above Above Above

Protection Type 1 MW 1 MW 10 MW 100 MW
1. Differen al. * *
2. Restricted
* *
earth fault.
3. Stator turn to
*
turn fault.
4. Time over
* *
current.
5. Temperature
(Thermo- * * *
detector).
6. Nega ve phase
* * *
sequence.
7. Loss of load. * *
8. Loss of input-
* * *
anti-motoring.
9. Loss of field. * *
10. Loss of
* *
synchronism.
11. Over speed. Only for Only for Only for
* hydro- hydro- hydro-
generators generators generators
12. Over-voltage. Only for Only for
Only for hydro
* hydro- hydro-
-generators
generators generators
13. Rotor-earth
* *
Faults
14. Back-up over
* * * *
current.
15. Breaking
* *
temperature.
16. Breaking
* * *
insulation.
Table (10.1)

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Table (10.2) illustrates some abnormal condi ons and associated protec on
systems for generator.

No. Abnormal Condition Effect Protection

*Thermocouples or resistance
Thermal over loading
thermometer imbedded in stator
Continuous over Overheating of stator winding
slots and cooling system.
1. loading and insulation failure.
*Stator over-load protection
Failure of cooling system.
with over-current relays.
External fault fed by Unbalance loading stresses on Negative phase sequence
generator. winding and shaft excessive protection for large machines.
2. heating for prolonged short- Over load protection for small
circuit. generators.
Stator faults
Biased differential protection,
* Phase to phase Winding burn-out, welding of
sensitive earth-fault protection,
3. * Phase to earth core lamination, shut down.
and inter-turn fault protection.
* Inter-turn
A Single ground fault does not
harm, where the second fault
4. Rotor earth faults causes unbalanced magnetic Rotor earth-fault protection.
forces causing damage to shaft,
bearings.
Generator runs as induction
Loss of field
generator driving excitation "Loss of field" or "Field failure"
5. * Tripping of field circuit
currents from bus-bar. protection.
breaker.
Speed increase slightly.
Motoring action of
generator
When input to prime
Effect depends upon type of
mover stops, (or prime Reverse power protection by
prime mover and the power
6. mover fails) the generator directional power relays detects
drawn from the bus during
draws power from bus-bar the reversal of power.
motoring.
and runs as a synchronous
motor in the same
direction.
Over-voltages. Lightning arresters connected
7. Insulation failure
near generator terminals.
Over-fluxing of Generator,
8. Heating of core Relay connected in voltage
Transformer and Auxiliary
regulator circuit of generator.
Transformer.
Failure of blades of steam
9. turbines or overloading due to
Under-frequency
forced outage of one or more Frequency Relays
generators.
Table (10.2)

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10.2.2. Transformers protection

Ø Protection requirements

Protective equipment for transformer protection includes:

· Gas relays, which give an alarm on primary faults.
· Differential protection, which gives protection on symmetrical and
unsymmetrical faults within the transformer winding.
· Other protective relays.
· Lightning arresters which give protection to the insulation from high
voltage surges.
A through (or direct) fault is a fault which is beyond the protected zone of
the transformer, but fed through the transformer. The unit protection of the
transformer (usually differential current protection) should not operate for
through Faults. The over current relaying may be provided to operate with
a time lag to provide back-up protection.
Internal faults are these in the protected zone of the transformer. These
faults can be between phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground. Generally they
result from failure of insulation due to temperature rise or deterioration of
transformer oil.
Primary faults are initially minor faults causing gradual damage. These
faults grow into serious faults.
The faults occurring in power transformer are earth-fault, phase-to-phase
faults, inter-turns faults and overheating from overloading or from some
internal cause such as core- heating. The most common faults are earth-
faults.
The choice of protection for any given power-transformer depends upon a
number of factors, such as its size, importance, and whether it has on-load
or off- load tap changer.

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The following information is necessary while selecting the protection

scheme for a power transformer.
Ø Particulars of transformer:
1. kVA rating.
2. Voltage ratio.
3. Connections of winding.
4. Percentage reactance.
5. Neutral point earthing.
6. Value of system earthing resistance.
7. Whether indoors or outdoors, dry or oil filled.
8. With or without conservator.
Ø Length and cross-section of connecting leads between CT's and relay
panel.
Ø Fault level at power transformer terminal.
Ø Network diagram showing position of transformer.
The faults in transformer can be caused by failure of insulation materials
due to dust, moisture, voids weakening of winding due to external short-
circuit.

-Tables (10.3) illustrate most of abnormal conditions and associate

protection schemes for transformer.
Only H.V fuses for earth fault protection and
phases fault protection. Over load protection
Small distribution generally not provided.
transformers For more important transformer of about 500kVA
Over current relays.
Instantaneous earth fault relay
Transformer in important restricted earth fault protection
loca on, ra ngs 500kVA and Over current protection
above Buchholz relay
Differential protection, Restricted earth fault
Transformer of about 5MVA relay,
and above over current protection, Over fluxing protection,
Buchholz relay, Sudden pressure relay.
Table (10.3)

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10.2.3. Bus bar protection

Bus bars are important elements of electric power system and require the
immediate attention of protection engineers for safeguards against the
possible faults occurring on them. Bus bar must be built to be electrically
flexible and reliable enough to give continuous service. It must have
adequate capacity to carry all loads and robust construction to withstand
abnormal electromechanical forces. Bus-bar may be copper or aluminum
bars and operates at constant voltage. The incoming and outgoing lines
are connected to the bus-bar.
Bus-bar protection needs careful attention due to the following
reasons:
Ø Fault level at bus bars is very high.
Ø The stability of the system is affected by fault in the bus zone.
Ø The fault on bus-bar causes disconnection of power to a large
portion of the system.
Ø Any fault on bus bar should be interrupted in shortest possible time,
in order to avoid damage to the installation due to heating of
conductors.
The features of bus-bar protection must have the following:
Ø High speed interruption.
Ø Stability for external faults.
Ø Discrimination between fault in its protected section and fault
elsewhere.
Ø 'Main' and 'Backup' protection to assure the disconnection only when
desirable.
Ø In the event of fault on any section of the bus-bar, all the circuit
equipments connected to that section must be tripped out to give
complete isolation.

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Table (10.4) summary of the methods used for protection of bus zones.
Method Particulars Remarks
Used in distribution
High set instantaneous
Bus protection by system (6-33)kV with
over current relays and earth
over current relays, transformers feeder
fault relays ,or definite time
of connected circuit supply to bus bars
relays
Time of order (100-400)ms
Used in the major
station
High impedance
High impedance circulating connected in series
current differential protection with relay coil to
Bus protection by
High impedance differential improve stability
differential
protection based on voltage Voltage drop across
protection
drop impedance is measured
Biased differential protection for discrimination
Biased coil gives
restrain for external
faults
Rapid reliable ,no problem of Referred in modern
Static protection
CT saturation installation
The zone of primary
Over current protection or protection of feeders is
Back up protection
distance protection extended to cover bus
zone
Table (10.4)
10.2.4. Motor protection
The protection of motors varies considerably and is less standardized in
general than the protection of the other apparatus or parts of the power
system. This results from the very wide variety of sizes, types, and
applications of motors. There are many variables involved in choosing motor
protection: Motor importance, motor rating (from one to several thousands
of horsepower), type of motor controller, etc. Therefore it is recommended
that protection for each specific motor installation be chosen to meet the
requirements of the specific motor and its use.
10.2.4.1. Motor hazards
The most effecting hazards which are normally considered:
1- Faults: Such as phase to phase and/or to ground.
2- Thermal damage from: - Over load (continuous or intermittent).
3- Locked rotor (failure to start or jamming).
4- Unbalanced operation.
5- Under voltage and over voltage.
6- Reversed phases.

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7- High-speed re-closing (re-energizing while still running).

8- Unusual ambient and/or environment (cold, hot, damp).
9- Incomplete starting sequence.
-These are for induction motors, which represent the large majority of all
motors in service.
Alternate forms of
Abnormal condition protections from which choice Remarks
is made
-Thermal overload release. -Overload protection
-Thermal overload relay. given for almost all
Overload -Inverse over current relays motors
-Miniature circuit-breaker -Should not trip during
with built in trip coils starting currents
-Differential protection
becomes economical
-HRC fuses
for motors above
Phase faults and earth -High-set instantaneous over-
about 1200 hp. Below
faults current relays
this high set
-Differential protection
instantaneous
protection is preferred
-Under voltage release
incorporated with
-Under voltage release every starter
Under voltage
-Under voltage relays -Under voltage relay
used in certain
applications
-Negative phase sequence -Only in special
Unbalanced voltage
relays applications
-Generally at supply
Reverse phase sequence point
-Phase reversal protection
-Prevents reversal of
running
-Recently developed
-Usual thermal overload
static single phasing
relays
Single phasing devices becoming
-Special single phase
popular.
prevented.
-Unbalance protection
-Thermal relays -Instantaneous trip
Stalling
-Instantaneous O.C relays
-Instantaneous over current -Only for wound rotor
Rotor faults
relays motors
-100 ohm, 0.1 µF
Switching surges -RC surge modifiers connected between
phase and ground
Table (10.5)

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10.2.5. Protection of cables

Lines provide the links -the connections- between the various parts of the
power system and the associated equipments. The protection of lines
presents a problem quite different from the protection of station apparatus
such as generators, transformers and bus bars. While differential protection
is ideal method for lines, it is much more expensive to use.
The two ends of a line may be several kilometers apart and to compare the
two currents, a costly pilot-wire circuit is required. This expense may be
justified but in general less costly methods are used.

Ø The common methods of line protection are:

Ø Time-graded over current protection.
Ø Distance protection.
Ø Differential protection.

10.2.5.1. Time-graded over current protection:

In this scheme – which concerns with over current protection - time
discrimination is included. In other words the time setting of relays is so
graded that in the event of fault, the smallest possible part of the
system is isolated.

10.2.5.2. Distance protection:

Both time graded over current and differential system are not suitable
for the protection of very long high voltage transmission line due to
pilot wire system becomes too expensive owing to the greater length of
the pilot wires required. This has led to the development of distance
protection in which the action of relay depends upon the distance (or
impedance) between the point where the relay is installed and the point
of fault this.

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10.2.6. Types of protection applied on cables

Ø Over current relay
This relay send signal to trip the C.B in case of the current flow is higher
than the pickup current. The relays used are with inverse time current
characteristics.

Ø Earth fault relay

It is more sensitive than over current protection for earth fault currents.
For earth faults several combinations of schemes available depending upon
length of the cable.

Ø Directional relay ( In case of medium voltage parallel

cables )
To obtain discrimination, the circuit breakers on both sides should trip to
disconnect only the faulty cable.

Ø High rupturing capacity (HRC) Fuses.

We suggest a protection scheme using O.C.R and E.F.R at the sending and
the receiving ends of the medium voltage cables (6.6 kV and 11 kV
cables).
The settings of O.C.R and E.F.R at the sending end are adjusted such that
the O.C.R and or E.F.R at the receiving end will operate first, if the fault is
closest to it. If the C.B of the R.E relays fails to operate (open), the C.B. at
the S.E will open but after predetermined time setting. So, it represents the
back-up protection to the fault nearest to the protective device at the R.E.

The characteristics of O.C.Rs and E.F.Rs are adjusted (current setting and
time setting) according to the location of the protective devices in order to
maintain the required coordination. We will suggest the same protection
schemes for the cables in the system under study.

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