Chapter -2-

Multiple Access Technology for

Wireless Communication

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 Introduction - Multiple Access
•It is a signal transmission which used allow many mobile users to share
simultaneously a finite amount of radio spectrum.
•It is required to achieve high capacity by simultaneously allocating the
available bandwidth or channels to a multiple users.
•Its main consideration is high quality communication without severe
degradation in the performance of the system.

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 Multiple Access Control (MAC) Techniques
MAC is the protocol that controls access to physical transmission medium on a LAN.
It tries to ensure that no two nodes are interfering with each others transmission and
deal with the situation when they do.

MAC Techniques
Random Access Protocol Controlled Access Protocol Channelization Protocol
o Aloha o Reservation o FDMA
o CSMA/CD o Pooling o TDMA
o CSMA/CA o Token Passing o CDMA
o SDMA

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 Duplexing Techniques
Duplexing is the process of allowing a subscriber to send and receive the
information simultaneously.
Example: In telephone system, we can talk and listen simultaneously.
Two types of duplexing techniques.
1). Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
It provides an separate frequency for an individual users.
It provides two distinct bands of frequency for every user.
Forward Band – provides traffic from the BS to the mobile.
Reverse Band – provides traffic from the mobile to the BS.
The frequency separation between the forward and reverse channel is constant
throughout the system.
Duplexer is required.

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 Duplexing Techniques, Cont. …
2). Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
In this, the number of users share single channel by taking turns in the time domain.
It has forward and reverse time slot.
If the time separation between forward and reverse time slot is small, then the transmission and
reception of data appears simultaneously to the user at both subscriber and on the base station
side.
Duplexer is not required.

Fig 2.2. (a). FDD (b). TDD

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 Classification of Multiple Access
Based on the available bandwidth allocated to the user, there are two types multiple
access. They are
1). Narrow Band System
The radio spectrum is divided into number of narrow band channels.
The channels are operated using FDD, the system is called FDMA/FDD.
2). Wide Band System
The transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger than the coherence
bandwidth of the channel.
Coherence bandwidth is the range frequencies over which the channel passes all the
spectral components with approximately equal gain.
A large number of transmitters are allowed to transmit on the same channel.

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 Channelization Protocol
Channelization - is a multiple-access method in which the available bandwidth of a
link is shared in time, frequency, code, or through space, between different stations.
Based on the bandwidth sharing, there are four multiple access techniques
(channelization protocol) wireless communication system. They are
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

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 1. FDMA
▪It assigns individual channel to an individual user and each user is allocated a unique
frequency band or channel.
▪These channel are given to the user who request for the service.
▪The channel assigned for the user contains a pair of frequencies (one frequency for
forward and one for reverse channel).
▪It is implemented in narrow band system.
▪It can carry one phone circuit at a time.

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 1. FDMA, Cont. …
It is summed-up as follows.

Features of FDMA:
o It requires a high-performing filters
in the radio hardware.
o Each user transmits and receives a
different frequency.
o Its channel carries only one phone
circuit at a time.
o It is a less complex than the others.
o It isn’t vulnerable to timing
problems.
o It isn’t sensitive to near-far problem.
o If the channel isn’t in use, it sits idle.
Fig 2.3. FDMA system with different frequency bands.

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 Number of Channels in FDMA
The number channels that can be simultaneously supported in a FDMA system is given
by:

Where,
N – the number of channels
𝐵𝑡 - the total spectrum allocation
𝐵𝑔𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑑 – the guard band allocated at the edge of the allocated spectrum band.
𝐵𝐶 – the channel bandwidth.
To find the spectral efficiency of FDMA system is represented as:

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 Example, cont. …
Read the book.

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 2. TDMA
The system divides the radio spectrum into different time slots and only one user is
allowed to either transmit or receive in each time slot.
Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot.
TDMA system transmit data in a buffer and burst method, thus the transmission for
any user is non-continuous.
In TDMA, the combined time slots is called TDMA frame.
The slots assigned can be fixed or dynamic.
In the assigned slot is fixed from frame to frame, then the users have to synchronize
their respective assigned slots and this mode is called synchronous TDMA (STDMA).
and if the assigned slot is not fixed from frame to frame for the duration of its
connection, then it is called asynchronous TDMA (ATDMA).

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 2. TDMA, Cont. …
It is summed-up as follows.

Features of TDMA:
o It shares a single carrier frequency
with several users, where each user
uses the nonoverlapping time slots.
o Data transmission for the users are
non-continuous.
o It uses different time slots for
transmission and reception,
duplexer aren’t required.
o Handoff process is easier.
Fig 2.4. TDMA scheme showing a repeating time o Synchronization is required and the
slot. time for synchronization or guard
time should be minimum.

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 Number of Channels in TDMA
The number of channel slots that can be provided in a TDMA system is found by
multiplying the number of TDMA slots per channel by the number of channels
available and is given by:

where,
o m = the maximum number of TDMA users supported on each radio channel.

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 3. CDMA
All users use the same carrier frequency (bandwidth) and may transmit simultaneously.
Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword which is approximately orthogonal to
all other codewords.
The receiver performs a time correlation operation to detect only the specific desired
codeword.
All other codewords appear as noise due to decorrelation.
For detection of the message signal, the receiver needs to know the codeword used by
the transmitter.
Each operates independently with no knowledge of the other users.
The power of multiple users at a receiver determines the noise floor after decorrelation.
If the power of each user within a cell is not controlled such that they do not appear
equal at the base station receiver, the near-far problem occurs.

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 3. CDMA, Cont. …
It is shown in the fig. below.

Features of CDMA:
o Many users in the system share the same
frequency.
o It has a soft capacity limit.
o Channel data rates are very high.
o The near-far problem occurs at the receiver
if an undesired user has a high detected
power as compared to the desired user.
Fig 2.5. Basics of the CDMA

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 Near-Far Problem
It occurs when many mobile users share the same channel.

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 4. SDMA
It controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
It serves different users by using spot beam antennas.
These different areas covered by the antenna beam may be served by the same
frequency (in a TDMA and CDMA system) or different frequencies (in FDMA
system).

o Sectoring Antennas – primitive

applications.
o Adaptive Antennas – simultaneously steer
energy in the direction of many users at
once and appear best suite for TDMA and
CDMA BS architectures.
o All users within the system would able to
Fig 2.6. Spatially filtered base station antenna communicate at the same time using the
serving different users using a spot beams. same channel.

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 4. SDMA, Cont. …
The fundamental difference of sectoring and adaptive antenna.

(a) (b)
Fig. (a) Sectoring antenna (b). Adaptive antenna

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 Random Access Protocol
A station that has data to send uses a procedure defined by a protocol to make decision
on whether or not to send without pre-coordination.
Thus decision depends on the state of the medium (idle, busy).
There is no scheduled time for a station to transmit. Transmission is random among the
stations. That is why these station is called random access.
No rules specify which station should send next. Stations compete with one another to
access the medium. Thus why this method is called contention method.
Simply, the computers competing for the network access.
Example: When group members are discussing without turn by turn without
coordinator.
No station is superior to another station and none is assigned the control over others.

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 Random Access Protocol, Cont. …
If more than one station tries to send at a time, there is an access conflict – collision.
There are three types of contention based protocol.
o Aloha
o CSMA/CD
o CSMA/CA

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 1. Aloha
It allows nodes to transmit at any time.
Example of Pure Aloha
The length of packet is fixed.
Two types of aloha.
o Pure
o Slotted
1). Pure Aloha
Fig 2.7. Pure Aloha
Each station sends a frame whenever it has a frame to send (transmit at any time).
There is only one channel for them to share.
Whenever two nodes send at the same time this cause a collision.
If there is no other frame transmitting then first frame is delivered successfully.
If collision is there then nodes waits for random amount of time and then again
transmit.

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 1. Aloha, cont. …
2). Slotted Aloha
Time is divided into slots and every node can transmit only at the beginning of time
slot.
A station can transmit at the beginning of the slot only.
If a station misses the beginning of a slot, it has to wait until the beginning of the next
time slot.
The central clock or station informs all stations about to start of each slot.

Example of slotted Aloha

Fig 2.8. Slotted Aloha

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Carrier sense means a node in the network can detect what is going on in the
transmission medium.
Carrier means a shared medium.
Sense means a node can listen and detect.
Multiple access means every node in the network has an equal right to access to and
use the shared medium, but they must take turns.
CSMA means before a node transmit data, it checks or listen to the medium. When the
medium is not busy, the node sends its signals.
It developed to overcome the problem found in the Aloha.
It uses the principle called “Carrier Sense”.
The chance of collision reduces, and improve performance.

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 CSMA, Cont. …
It is a network protocol that listens to or senses network signals on the carrier/ medium
before transmitting any data.
Stations are connected to a shared channel.
There are two types of CSMA.
Non-Persistent Fig 2.9. CSMA
The carrier sense and if the channel is busy, it waits and unless send the packet.
Persistent
The carrier sense and if the channel is busy, it continuously sense and unless send the
packet with probability.
1-Persistent = if medium is idle, transmit unless continue to listen until channel is
sensed idle.
P-Persistent = transmit with probability.

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 2. Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
This method used mostly by Wired Ethernet of IEEE 802.3 standard.
Node listens for traffic on network.
If traffic not heard, node releases packet onto network.
If two nodes release packets at the same time, the packet hits each other and a collision
occurs.
A collision causes a power spike heard by all nodes.
A collision destroys the data contained in the two packets.

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 2. CSMA/CD, Cont. …
If collision occurs, all nodes start internal clock set to a random number of
milliseconds.
When time runs down, each node can attempt to send new transmission.

Fig 2.10. CSMA/CD

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 3. Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
It is mostly used for Wi-Fi.
It release warning packet before releasing data packet.
If other nodes hear warning packet, they won’t transmit.
Once data packet heard, other nodes are able transmit.
Two warning packets transmitted at the same time cause a collision.

Fig 2.11. CSMA/CA

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 3. CSMA/CA, Cont. …
To avoid a collision, the process of communication in wireless network called IEEE
802.11 RTS/CTS (Request To Send / Clear To Send) exchange.

Fig 2.12. CSMA/CD with RTS and CTS

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 Summary
Antenna - is a part of transmitting or receiving system that is designed to radiate or to
receive electromagnetic waves.
Protocol – is a set of rules governing the exchange of data between two or more nodes.
Compare the features FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.
What is pure and slotted Aloha?
Which contention method used to solve the problem of Aloha? How?
Where did we use multiple access techniques for wireless communication?
Multiple access strategies based on orthogonality among the competing transmission
are collision free. Orthogonality can be in the form of frequency division or code
division.

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