TOPIC T3: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AUTUMN 2022

Objectives

(1) Be able to determine the dimensions of physical quantities in terms of fundamental

dimensions.
(2) Understand the Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity and its use in checking equations
and reducing physical problems.
(3) Be able to carry out a formal dimensional analysis using Buckingham’s Pi Theorem.
(4) Understand the requirements of physical modelling and its limitations.

1. What is dimensional analysis?

2. Dimensions
2.1 Dimensions and units
2.2 Primary dimensions
2.3 Dimensions of derived quantities
2.4 Working out dimensions
2.5 Alternative choices for primary dimensions

3. Formal procedure for dimensional analysis

3.1 Dimensional homogeneity
3.2 Buckingham’s Pi theorem
3.3 Applications

4. Physical modelling
4.1 Method
4.2 Incomplete similarity (“scale effects”)
4.3 Froude-number scaling

5. Non-dimensional groups in fluid mechanics

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1. WHAT IS DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS?

Dimensional analysis is a means of simplifying a physical problem by appealing to

dimensional homogeneity to reduce the number of relevant variables.

It is particularly useful for:

• checking equations;
• presenting and interpreting experimental data;
• attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical solution;
• establishing the relative importance of particular physical phenomena;
• physical modelling.

Example.
The drag force, 𝐹, on a sphere is a function of approach-flow speed, 𝑈, sphere diameter, 𝐷,
fluid density, 𝜌, and viscosity, 𝜇. However, instead of having to draw hundreds of graphs
portraying its variation with all combinations of these parameters, dimensional analysis will
tell us that the problem can be reduced to a dimensionless relationship between just two
independent variables:
𝑐𝐷 = 𝑓(Re) U
D
F

where 𝑐𝐷 is the drag coefficient: , 

2
𝐹 π𝐷
𝑐𝐷 ≡ (𝐴 = )
1 2 4
2 𝜌𝑈 𝐴
and Re is the Reynolds number:
𝜌𝑈𝐷
Re ≡
𝜇

In this instance dimensional analysis has reduced the number of relevant variables from 5 to
2 and the experimental data to a single graph of 𝑐𝐷 against Re.

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2. DIMENSIONS

2.1 Dimensions and Units

A dimension is the type of physical quantity.

A unit is a means of assigning a numerical value to that quantity.
SI units are preferred in scientific work.

2.2 Primary Dimensions

In fluid mechanics the primary or fundamental dimensions, together with their SI units, are:
mass M (kilogram, kg)
length L (metre, m)
time T (second, s)
temperature Θ (kelvin, K)

In other areas of physics additional dimensions may be necessary. The complete set specified
by the SI system consists of the above plus
electric current I (ampere, A)
luminous intensity C (candela, cd)
amount of substance n (mole, mol)

2.3 Dimensions of Derived Quantities

The dimensions of common derived mechanical quantities are given in the following table.

Quantity Common Symbol(s) Dimensions

Area 𝐴 L2
Geometry Volume 𝑉 L3
Second moment of area 𝐼 L4
Velocity 𝑈 LT –1
Acceleration 𝑎 LT –2
Angle 𝜃 1 (i.e. dimensionless)
Kinematics
Angular velocity 𝜔 T –1
Quantity of flow 𝑄 L3 T –1
Mass flow rate 𝑚̇ MT –1
Force 𝐹 MLT –2
Moment, torque 𝑇 ML2 T –2
Dynamics Energy, work, heat 𝐸, 𝑊 ML2 T –2
Power 𝑃 ML2 T –3
Pressure, stress 𝑝, 𝜏 ML–1 T –2
Density 𝜌 ML–3
Viscosity 𝜇 ML–1 T –1
Fluid properties Kinematic viscosity 𝜈 L2 T –1
Surface tension 𝜎 MT –2
Thermal conductivity 𝑘 MLT –3 Θ–1

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 Specific heat 𝑐𝑝 , 𝑐𝑣 L2 T –2 Θ–1
Bulk modulus 𝐾 ML–1 T –2

2.4 Working Out Dimensions

In the following, [ ] means “dimensions of”.

Example.
Use the definition
d𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
d𝑦
to determine the dimensions of viscosity.

Solution.
From the definition,
𝜏 force/area
𝜇= =
d𝑢/d𝑦 velocity/length
Hence,
MLT −2 /L2
[𝜇] = = ML−1 T −1
LT −1 /L

Alternatively, dimensions may be deduced indirectly from any known formula involving that
quantity.

Example.
Since Re ≡ 𝜌𝑈𝐿/𝜇 is known to be dimensionless, the dimensions of 𝜇 must be the same as
those of 𝜌𝑈𝐿; i.e.
[𝜇] = [𝜌][𝑈][𝐿] = (ML−3 )(LT −1 )(L) = ML−1 T −1

2.5 Alternative Choices For Primary Dimensions

The choice of primary dimensions is not unique. It is not uncommon – and it may sometimes
be more convenient – to choose force F as a primary dimension rather than mass, and have a
{FLT} rather than {MLT} system.

Example.
Find the dimensions of viscosity 𝜇 in the {FLT} rather than {MLT} systems.

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 Solution.
From the definition,
𝜏 force/area
𝜇= =
d𝑢/d𝑦 velocity/length
Hence,
F/L2
[𝜇] = = FL−2 T
LT −1 /L

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3. FORMAL PROCEDURE FOR DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

3.1 Dimensional Homogeneity

The Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity

All additive terms in a physical equation must have the same dimensions.

Examples:
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 all terms have the dimensions of length (𝐿)
2
𝑝 𝑉2
+ +𝑧 =𝐻 all terms have the dimensions of length (𝐿)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Dimensional homogeneity is a useful tool for checking formulae. For this reason it is useful
when analysing a physical problem to retain algebraic symbols for as long as possible, only
substituting numbers right at the end. However, dimensional analysis cannot determine
numerical factors; e.g. it cannot distinguish between ½𝑎𝑡 2 and 𝑎𝑡 2 in the first formula above.

Dimensional homogeneity is the basis of the formal dimensional analysis that follows.

3.2 Buckingham’s Pi Theorem

Experienced practitioners can do dimensional analysis by inspection. However, the formal tool
which they are unconsciously using is Buckingham’s Pi Theorem1:

Buckingham’s Pi Theorem

(1) If a problem involves

𝑛 relevant variables
𝑚 independent dimensions
then it can be reduced to a relationship between
𝑛– 𝑚 non-dimensional parameters Π1 , … , Π𝑛−𝑚 .

(2) To construct these non-dimensional Π groups:

(i) Choose 𝑚 dimensionally-distinct scaling variables (aka repeating variables).
(ii) For each of the 𝑛– 𝑚 remaining variables construct a non-dimensional Π of the form
Π = (variable)(scale1 )𝑎 (scale2 )𝑏 (scale3 )𝑐 ⋯
where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, ... are chosen so as to make each Π non-dimensional.

Note. In order to ensure dimensional independence in {MLT} systems it is common – but not
obligatory – to choose the scaling variables as: a purely geometric quantity (e.g. a length), a
kinematic (time-, but not mass-containing) quantity (e.g. velocity or acceleration) and a
dynamic (mass-, or force-containing) quantity (e.g. density).
1
Buckingham, E., 1914. The use of Π comes from its use as the mathematical symbol for a product.

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3.3 Applications

Example.
Obtain an expression in non-dimensional form for the pressure gradient in a horizontal pipe
of circular cross-section. Show how this relates to the expression for frictional head loss.

Solution.
Step 1. Identify the relevant variables.
d𝑝/d𝑥, 𝜌, 𝑉, 𝐷, 𝑘𝑠 , 𝜇

Step 2. Write down dimensions.

d𝑝 [force/area] MLT −2 × L−2
= = ML−2 T −2
d𝑥 length L
𝜌 ML−3
𝑉 LT −1
𝐷 L
𝑘𝑠 L
𝜇 ML−1 T −1

Step 3. Establish the number of independent dimensions and non-dimensional groups.

Number of relevant variables: 𝑛=6
Number of independent dimensions: 𝑚 = 3 (M, L and T)
Number of non-dimensional groups (Πs): 𝑛 − 𝑚 = 3

Step 4. Choose 𝑚 (= 3) dimensionally-independent scaling variables.

e.g. geometric (𝐷), kinematic/time-dependent (𝑉), dynamic/mass-dependent (𝜌).

Step 5. Create the Πs by non-dimensionalising the remaining variables: d𝑝/d𝑥, 𝑘𝑠 and 𝜇.

d𝑝 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Π1 = 𝐷 𝑉 𝜌
d𝑥
Considering the dimensions of both sides:
M 0 L0 T 0 = (ML−2 T −2 )(L)𝑎 (LT −1 )𝑏 (ML−3 )𝑐
= M1+𝑐 L−2+𝑎+𝑏−3𝑐 T −2−𝑏
Equate powers of primary dimensions. Since M only appears in [𝜌] and T only
appears in [𝑉] it is easiest to deal with these first:
M: 0= 1+𝑐  𝑐 = −1
T: 0 = −2 − 𝑏  𝑏 = −2
L: 0 = −2 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐  𝑎 = 2 − 𝑏 + 3𝑐 = 1
Hence,
d𝑝
d𝑝 1 −2 −1 𝐷
Π1 = 𝐷 𝑉 𝜌 = d𝑥 (OK – ratio of two pressures)
d𝑥 𝜌𝑉 2

𝑘𝑠 can be non-dimensionalised by inspection, since it already has the same

dimensions (L) as one of the scaling variables:

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 𝑘𝑠
Π2 =
𝐷

Finally,
Π3 = 𝜇𝐷𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
Considering the dimensions of both sides:
M 0 L0 T 0
= (ML−1 T −1 )(L)𝑎 (LT −1 )𝑏 (ML−3 )𝑐
= M1+𝑐 L−1+𝑎+𝑏−3𝑐 T −1−𝑏
Again, as M only appears in [𝜌] and T only appears in [𝑉] then deal with these first:
M: 0= 1+𝑐  𝑐 = −1
T: 0 = −1 − 𝑏  𝑏 = −1
L: 0 = −1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐  𝑎 = 1 − 𝑏 + 3𝑐 = −1
Hence,
𝜇
Π3 = 𝜇𝐷−1 𝑉 −1 𝜌−1 = (OK – reciprocal of Reynolds number)
𝜌𝑉𝐷

Step 6. Set out the non-dimensional relationship.

Π1 = 𝑓(Π2 , Π3 )
or
d𝑝
𝐷
d𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑘𝑠 , 𝜇 ) (*)
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝐷

Step 7. Rearrange (if required) for convenience.

We may replace any Π by a power of that Π, or by a product with the other Πs,
provided that we retain the same number of independent dimensionless groups. Here,
we recognise Π3 as the reciprocal of the Reynolds number, so it is more natural to
use Π3′ = (Π3 )−1 = Re as the third non-dimensional group. We can also write the
pressure gradient in terms of head loss: d𝑝/d𝑥 = 𝜌𝑔(ℎ𝑓 /𝐿). With these two
modifications the non-dimensional relationship (*) then becomes
𝑔ℎ𝑓 𝐷 𝑘𝑠
= 𝑓( , Re)
𝐿𝑉 2 𝐷
or
𝐿 𝑉2 𝑘𝑠
ℎ𝑓 = × × 𝑓( , Re)
𝐷 𝑔 𝐷
Since numerical factors (here, 1/2) can be absorbed into the non-specified function,
this can easily be identified with the Darcy-Weisbach equation
𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝜆
𝐷 2𝑔
where 𝜆 is a function of relative roughness 𝑘𝑠 /𝐷 and Reynolds number Re, a function
given (Topic 2) by the Colebrook-White equation.

Hydraulics 2 T3-8 David Apsley

 Example.
The drag force on a body in a fluid flow is a function of the body size (expressed via a
characteristic length, 𝐿) and the fluid velocity, 𝑉, density, 𝜌, and viscosity, 𝜇. Perform a
dimensional analysis to reduce this to a single functional dependence
𝑐𝐷 = 𝑓(Re)
where 𝑐𝐷 is a drag coefficient and Re is the Reynolds number.

What additional non-dimensional groups might appear in practice?

Notes.
(1) Dimensional analysis simply says that there is a relationship; it doesn’t say what the
relationship is. For the specific relationship one must appeal to other theory, simulation,
or experimental data.

(2) If there is only one Π group … then it can’t be a function of anything else … so it must
be a constant.

(3) If Π1 , Π2 , Π3 , … are suitable non-dimensional groups then we are liberty to replace some
or all of them by any powers or products with the other Πs, provided that we retain the
same number of independent non-dimensional groups; e.g. Π1−1 , Π1 /Π32 etc..

(4) It is very common in fluid mechanics to find (often after the rearrangement mentioned
in (3)) certain combinations which can be recognised as familiar key parameters; e.g.
Reynolds number (Re = 𝜌𝑈𝐿/𝜇) or Froude number (Fr = 𝑈/√𝑔𝐿).

(5) Often the hardest part of the dimensional analysis is determining which are the relevant
variables. For example, surface tension is always present in free-surface flows, but can
be neglected if the Weber number We = 𝜌𝑈 2 𝐿/𝜎 is large. Similarly, all fluids are
compressible, but compressibility effects on the flow can be ignored if the Mach
number (Ma = 𝑈/𝑐) is small; i.e. velocity is much less than the speed of sound.

(6) Although certain primary dimensions (e.g. M, L, T) appear when the variables are listed,
they may do not do so independently, in this case, there will be fewer independent
dimensions.

As an example of (6), the following example illustrates a case where M and T always appear
in the combination MT –2, hence giving only one independent dimension.

Hydraulics 2 T3-9 David Apsley

 Example.
The tip deflection, 𝛿, of a cantilever beam is a function of tip load, 𝑊, beam length, 𝑙, second
moment of area, 𝐼, and Young’s modulus, 𝐸. Perform a dimensional analysis of this problem.

Step 1. Identify the relevant variables.

𝛿, 𝑊, 𝑙, 𝐼, 𝐸.

Step 2. Write down dimensions.

𝛿 L
𝑊 MLT −2
𝑙 L
𝐼 L4
𝐸 ML−1 T −2

Step 3. Establish the number of independent dimensions and non-dimensional groups.

Number of relevant variables: 𝑛=5
Number of independent dimensions: 𝑚 = 2 (L and MT −2 - note)
Number of non-dimensional groups (Πs): 𝑛 − 𝑚 = 3

Step 4. Choose 𝑚 (= 2) dimensionally-independent scaling variables.

e.g. geometric (𝑙), kinematic/time-dependent (𝐸)

Step 5. Create the Πs by non-dimensionalising the remaining variables: 𝛿, 𝐼 and 𝑊. These

give (after some algebra, omitted here):
𝛿
Π1 =
𝑙
𝐼
Π2 = 4
𝑙
𝑊
Π3 = 2
𝐸𝑙

Step 6. Set out the non-dimensional relationship.

Π1 = 𝑓(Π2 , Π3 )
or
𝛿 𝐼 𝑊
= 𝑓( 4 , 2 )
𝑙 𝑙 𝐸𝑙

Note 1. This is as far as dimensional analysis will get us. Detailed theory shows that, for
small elastic deflections,
1 𝑊𝑙 3
𝛿=
3 𝐸𝐼
or
𝛿 1 𝑊 𝐼 −1
= ( ) × ( 4)
𝑙 3 𝐸𝑙 2 𝑙

Hydraulics 2 T3-10 David Apsley

 Note 2. Although three primary dimensions (M, L, T) appear here, they only do so in two
independent groups: (L and MT −2), so that the number of independent dimensions 𝑚 = 2.
This would have been more obvious in the alternative {FLT} system, where the variables
have the following dimensions:
𝛿 L
𝑊 F
𝑙 L
𝐼 L4
𝐸 FL−2
Here, only F and L appear.

Hydraulics 2 T3-11 David Apsley

4. PHYSICAL MODELLING

4.1 Method

If a dimensional analysis indicates that a problem is described by a functional relationship

between non-dimensional parameters Π1 , Π2 , Π3 , … then complete similarity requires that these
parameters be the same at both full (“prototype”) scale and model scale. i.e.
(Π1 )𝑚 = (Π1 )𝑝
(Π2 )𝑚 = (Π2 )𝑝
etc.

Example.
A prototype gate valve which will control the flow in a pipe system conveying paraffin is to
be studied in a model. List the significant variables on which the pressure drop across the
valve would depend. Perform dimensional analysis to obtain the relevant non-dimensional
groups.

A 1/5-scale model is built to determine the pressure drop across the valve with water as the
working fluid.

(a) For a particular opening, when the velocity of paraffin in the prototype is 3.0 m s–1
what should be the velocity of water in the model for dynamic similarity?

(b) What is the ratio of the quantities of flow in prototype and model?

(c) Find the pressure drop in the prototype if it is 60 kPa in the model.

(The density and viscosity of paraffin are 800 kg m–3 and 0.002 kg m–1 s–1 respectively. Take
the kinematic viscosity of water as 1.010–6 m2 s–1).

Solution.
The pressure drop Δ𝑝 is expected to depend upon the gate opening ℎ, the overall depth 𝑑,
the velocity 𝑉, density 𝜌 and viscosity 𝜇.

List the relevant variables:

Δ𝑝, ℎ, 𝑑, 𝑉, 𝜌, 𝜇

Write down dimensions:

Δ𝑝 ML−1 T −2
ℎ L
𝑑 L
𝑉 LT −1
𝜌 ML−3
𝜇 ML−1 T −1

Hydraulics 2 T3-12 David Apsley

 Number of relevant variables: 𝑛=6
Number of independent dimensions: 𝑚 = 3 (M, L and T)
Number of non-dimensional groups (Πs): 𝑛 − 𝑚 = 3
Choose 𝑚 (= 3) scaling variables:
geometric (𝑑); kinematic/time-dependent (𝑉); dynamic/mass-dependent (𝜌).

Form dimensionless groups by non-dimensionalising the remaining variables: Δ𝑝, ℎ and 𝜇.

For Δ𝑝:
Π1 = Δ𝑝 𝑑 𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
Considering the dimensions of both sides:
M 0 L0 T 0
= (ML−1 T −2 )(L)𝑎 (LT −1 )𝑏 (ML−3 )𝑐
= M1+𝑐 L−1+𝑎+𝑏−3𝑐 T −2−𝑏
Equate powers of primary dimensions:
M: 0=1+𝑐  𝑐 = −1
T: 0 = −2 − 𝑏  𝑏 = −2
L: 0 = −1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐  𝑎 = 1 − 𝑏 + 3𝑐 =0
Hence,
Δ𝑝
Π1 = Δ𝑝 𝑉 −2 𝜌−1 =
𝜌𝑉 2

ℎ can be done by inspection, since it has the same dimension as the scale 𝑑:
ℎ
Π2 =
𝑑

For 𝜇:
Π3 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑎 𝑉 𝑏 𝜌𝑐
Considering the dimensions of both sides:
M 0 L0 T 0
= (ML−1 T −1 )(L)𝑎 (LT −1 )𝑏 (ML−3 )𝑐
= M1+𝑐 L−1+𝑎+𝑏−3𝑐 T −1−𝑏
Equate powers of primary dimensions:
M: 0=1+𝑐  𝑐 = −1
T: 0 = −1 − 𝑏  𝑏 = −1
L: 0 = −1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐  𝑎 = 1 − 𝑏 + 3𝑐 = −1
Hence,
𝜇
Π3 = 𝜇𝑑 −1 𝑉 −1 𝜌−1 =
𝜌𝑉𝑑
Recognition of the Reynolds number suggests that we replace Π3 by
𝜌𝑉𝑑
Π3 ′ = (Π3 )−1 =
𝜇

Hence, dimensional analysis yields

Hydraulics 2 T3-13 David Apsley

 Π1 = 𝑓(Π2 , Π3 ′)
i.e.
𝛥𝑝 ℎ 𝜌𝑉𝑑
2
= 𝑓( , )
𝜌𝑉 𝑑 𝜇

(a) Dynamic similarity requires that all non-dimensional groups be the same in model and
prototype; i.e.
𝛥𝑝 𝛥𝑝
Π1 = ( ) = ( )
𝜌𝑉 2 𝑝 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑚

ℎ ℎ
Π2 = ( ) = ( ) (automatic if similar shape; i.e. “geometric similarity”)
𝑑 𝑝 𝑑 𝑚

𝜌𝑉𝑑 𝜌𝑉𝑑
Π3 ′ = ( ) =( )
𝜇 𝑝 𝜇 𝑚

From the last, we have a velocity ratio

𝑉𝑝 (𝜇/𝜌)𝑝 𝑑𝑚 0.002/800 1
= = × = 0.5
𝑉𝑚 (𝜇/𝜌)𝑚 𝑑𝑝 1.0 × 10−6 5
Hence,
𝑉𝑝 3.0
𝑉𝑚 = = = 6.0 m s−1
0.5 0.5

(b) The ratio of the quantities of flow is

𝑄𝑝 (velocity × area)𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝑑𝑝 2
= = ( ) = 0.5 × 52 = 12.5
𝑄𝑚 (velocity × area)𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑑𝑚

(c) Finally, for the pressure drop,

𝛥𝑝 𝛥𝑝 (Δ𝑝)𝑝 𝜌𝑝 𝑉𝑝 2 800
Π1 = ( 2 ) = ( 2 ) ⇒ = ( ) = × 0. 52 = 0.2
𝜌𝑉 𝑝 𝜌𝑉 𝑚 (Δ𝑝)𝑚 𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 1000
Hence,
Δ𝑝𝑝 = 0.2 × Δ𝑝𝑚 = 0.2 × 60 = 12.0 kPa

Hydraulics 2 T3-14 David Apsley

4.2 Incomplete Similarity (“Scale Effects”)

For a multi-parameter problem it is often not possible to achieve full similarity. In particular,
it is rare to be able to achieve full Reynolds-number scaling when other dimensionless
parameters are also involved. For hydraulic modelling of flows with a free surface the most
important requirement is Froude-number scaling (Section 4.3)

It is common to distinguish three levels of similarity.

Geometric similarity – the ratio of all corresponding lengths in model and prototype are the
same (i.e. they have the same shape).

Kinematic similarity – the ratio of all corresponding lengths and times (and hence the ratios of
all corresponding velocities) in model and prototype are the same.

Dynamic similarity – the ratio of all forces in model and prototype are the same;
e.g. Re = (inertial force) / (viscous force) is the same in both. (“Inertial force”
means “mass × acceleration” – i.e., the sum of all forces.)

Geometric similarity is almost always assumed. However, in some applications – notably river
modelling – it is necessary to distort vertical scales to prevent undue influence of, for example,
surface tension or bed roughness.

Achieving full similarity is particularly a problem with the Reynolds number Re = 𝑈𝐿/𝜈.
• Using the same working fluid would require a velocity ratio inversely proportional to
the length-scale ratio and hence impractically large velocities in the scale model.
• A velocity scale fixed by, for example, the Froude number (see Section 4.3) means that
the only way to maintain the same Reynolds number is to adjust the kinematic viscosity
(substantially).

In practice, Reynolds-number similarity is unimportant if flows in both model and prototype

are fully turbulent; then momentum transport by viscous stresses is much less than that by
turbulent eddies and so the precise value of molecular viscosity 𝜇 is unimportant. In some cases
this may mean deliberately triggering transition to turbulence in boundary layers (for example
by the use of tripping wires or roughness strips).

Surface effects

Full geometric similarity requires that not only the main dimensions of objects but also the
surface roughness and, for mobile beds, the sediment size be in proportion. This would put
impossible requirements on surface finish or grain size. In practice, it is sufficient that the
surface be aerodynamically rough: 𝑢𝜏 𝑘𝑠 /𝜈 ≥ 5, where 𝑢𝜏 = √𝜏𝑤 /𝜌 is the friction velocity and
𝑘𝑠 a typical height of surface irregularities. This imposes a minimum velocity in model tests.

Other Fluid Phenomena

When scaled down in size, fluid phenomena which were negligible at full scale may become
important in laboratory models. A common example is surface tension.

Hydraulics 2 T3-15 David Apsley

4.3 Froude-Number Scaling

The most important parameter to preserve in hydraulic modelling of free-surface flows driven
by gravity is the Froude number, Fr = 𝑈/√𝑔𝐿. Preserving this parameter between model (𝑚)
and prototype (𝑝) dictates the scaling of other variables in terms of the length scale ratio.

Velocity
(Fr)𝑚 = (Fr)𝑝

𝑈 𝑈 𝑈𝑚 𝐿𝑚
1/2
( ) =( )  =( )
√𝑔𝐿 𝑚 √𝑔𝐿 𝑝 𝑈𝑝 𝐿𝑝
i.e. the velocity ratio is the square root of the length-scale ratio.

Quantity of flow
5/2
𝑄𝑚 𝐿𝑚
𝑄~velocity × area  =( )
𝑄𝑝 𝐿𝑝

Force
3
𝐹𝑚 𝐿𝑚
𝐹~pressure × area  =( )
𝐹𝑝 𝐿𝑝
This arises since the pressure ratio is equal to the length-scale ratio – this can be seen from
either hydrostatics (pressure ∝ height) or from the dynamic pressure (proportional to
(velocity)2 which, from the Froude number, is proportional to length).

Time
1/2
𝑡𝑚 𝐿𝑚
𝑡~length/velocity  =( )
𝑡𝑝 𝐿𝑝

Hence the quantity of flow scales as the length-scale ratio to the 5/2 power, whilst the
time-scale ratio is the square root of the length-scale ratio. For example, at 1:100 geometric
scale, a full-scale tidal period of 12.4 hours becomes 1.24 hours.

Example.
The force exerted on a bridge pier in a river is to be tested in a 1:10 scale model using water
as the working fluid. In the prototype the depth of water is 2.0 m, the velocity of flow is
1.5 m s–1 and the width of the river is 20 m.
(a) List the variables affecting the force on the pier and perform dimensional analysis.
Can you satisfy all the conditions for complete similarity? What is the most important
parameter to choose for dynamic similarity?
(b) What are the depth, velocity and quantity of flow in the model?
(c) If the hydrodynamic force on the model bridge pier is 5 N, what would it be on the
prototype?

Hydraulics 2 T3-16 David Apsley

5. NON-DIMENSIONAL GROUPS IN FLUID MECHANICS

Dynamic similarity requires that the ratio of all forces be the same. The ratio of different forces
produces many of the key non-dimensional parameters in fluid mechanics.

(Note that “inertial force” means “mass  acceleration” – i.e. the total force. Each non-
dimensional group then involves the ratio of a particular force to the total force. This reflects
the fraction of the total that this particular force is responsible for, so you can see whether its
effect is likely to be small or large.)

𝜌𝑈𝐿 inertial force
Reynolds number Re = = (viscous flows)
𝜇 viscous force
𝑈 inertial force 1/2
Froude number Fr = =( ) (free-surface flows)
√𝑔𝐿 gravitational force

𝜌𝑈 2 𝐿 inertial force
Weber number We = = (near-surface flows)
𝜎 surface tension
𝑈 inertial force
Rossby number Ro = = (rotating flows)
𝛺𝐿 Coriolis force
1/2
𝑈 inertial force
Mach number Ma = =( ) (compressible flows)
𝑐 compressibility force

These groups occur regularly when dimensional analysis is applied to fluid-dynamical

problems. They can be derived by considering forces on a small volume of fluid. They can also
be derived by non-dimensionalising the differential equations of fluid flow (see White, 2021),
or the online notes for the 4th-year Computational Hydraulics unit.

Hydraulics 2 T3-17 David Apsley