Tuning PID Controllers

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 1

 • Controllers are designed to eliminate the need
for continuous operator attention when
controlling a process.

• In the automatic mode, the goal is to keep the

controlled variable(or process variable) on set
point.

• The controller tuning parameters determine how

well the controller achieves this goal when in
automatic mode.
29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 2
 DISTURBANCES
• Disturbances arise from three
different sources:

• Set point.
• Load.
• Noise.

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 3

 • Noise is defined as a random disturbance whose frequency
distribution exceeds the bandwidth of the control loop.
As such, the controller has no impact on it.

• Set point and load changes affect the behavior of the

control loop quite differently, owing to the dynamics in
their path.

• A controller tuned to follow set point changes tends to

respond sluggishly to load variations, and conversely a
controller tuned to correct disturbances tends to
overshoot when its set point is changed.

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 4

 Controller tuning
• The choice of the value of the P, I and D
parameters is very much process dependent.
• In most of the cases, it is difficult to obtain
the exact mathematical model of the plant.
• So, we have to rely on the experimentation
for finding out the optimum settings of the
controller for a particular process.
• The process of experimentation for obtaining
the optimum values of the controller
parameters with respect to a particular
process is known as controller tuning
29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 5
 The error signal is fed to the controller
and the controller provides output u(t).

Our objective is to find out the optimum

settings of the P,I,D parameters, namely Kp , τd
and τi
29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 6
 Performance criteria

Figure shows the response of

various controller modes.
P-proportional mode
PI- Proportional-Integral Mode
PID-proportional Integral –
derivative mode
• Based on the required response,
one has to select the any one of
controller modes.

Process Instrumentation and Control (ICE-401) 7

 The controller design problem is associated with
three logical questions in series:

1) What type of feedback controller should be used

to control a given process- P,PI,PID?

2)How do we select the best values for the

adjustable parameters of a feedback controllers-kc
,ƮI ,ƮD ?

3)What performance criterion should we use for

the selection and tuning of the controller?
29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 8
 There are variety of performance criteria we should
use, such as:

 Keep the maximum deviation error as small as

possible.
 Achieve short settling times.
 Minimize the integral of the errors until the process
has settled to its desired set point and so on.

 The following two performance criteria are widely

used:
1) Simple performance criteria
2)Time – Integral performance criteria
29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 9
 Performance criteria depends:

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 10

 Which controller has best performance?

• Return to the desired level of operation as soon as

possible-A
• Keep the maximum deviation as small as possible
or
Return to the desired level of operation and stay
close to in the shortest time
Then -B

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 11

 Steady state criteria

• Error must be Zero at steady

state

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 Simple performance criteria
• The simple performance criteria is
based on some characteristic features
of the closed-loop response of a system

Closed loop response of a second or higher order system

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 Simple performance criteria

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 14

 Simple performance criteria

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 15

 Simple performance criteria
• Every one of this characteristics can be used by the
designer as the basic criterion for selecting the
controller and the values of its adjusted parameters.

• We could design the controller in order to have

minimum overshoot, or minimum settling time and so
on.

• One simple characteristic does not suffice to

describe the desired dynamic response and
controller designs based on multiple criteria lead to
conflicting response characteristics.

Process Instrumentation and Control (ICE-401) 16

 Simple performance criteria
• Hence from all the performance criteria’s, the decay
ratio has been the most popular by the engineers and
their experience has shown that ,

𝑪 𝟐 𝟏
decay ratio= = 𝒆 −𝟐𝝅𝜺/ 𝟏−𝜺 =
𝑩 𝟒

is a reasonable trade-off between a fast rise

time and a reasonable settling time.
• This criterion is usually known as the One-quarter
decay ratio criterion

Process Instrumentation and Control (ICE-401) 17

 Simple performance criteria

• Simple performance criteria with decay ratio of

1
have following disadvantages:
4
1
1)Responses with decay ratios are often judged to be
4
too oscillatory by plant operating personnel.

2) the criterion considers only two points of the closed

–loop response, namely first two peaks.

An alternative approach is to develop controller design

relations based on a performance index that considers
the entire closed-loop response is a time-integral
performance criteria.
Process Instrumentation and Control (ICE-401) 18
 Time –integral performance criteria

The three popular performance indices are:

 Integral of the square error(ISE),where

∞ 2
ISE=‫׬‬0 𝑒 (t)dt
e(t)=error of the response from the desired
set point
 Integral of the absolute value of the
error(IAE),where
∞
IAE=‫׬‬0 𝑒(𝑡) dt

Process Instrumentation and Control (ICE-401) 19

 Time –integral performance criteria

 Integral of the time –weighted absolute

error(ITAE),where
∞
ITAE=‫׬‬0 𝑡 𝑒(𝑡) dt

• Now, select the type of the controller and the values of

its adjusted parameters in such a way as to minimize the
ISE,IAE or ITAE of the system’s response.

• The selection of any one criteria depends on the

characteristics of the system we want to control.

Process Instrumentation and Control (ICE-401) 20

 Time –integral performance criteria

The following are some general guidelines:

• If we want to strongly suppress large errors, ISE is better
than IAE because the errors are squared and thus contribute
more to the value of the integral.

• For the suppression of small errors, IAE is better than ISE

because when we square small numbers(smaller than one) they
become even smaller.

• To suppress errors that persist for long times, the ITAE

criterion will tune the controllers better because the presence
of large t amplifies the effect of even small errors in the value
of the integral.

Process Instrumentation and Control (ICE-401) 21

 Time –integral performance criteria

• Figure shows the shape of the

expected closed-loop responses.
• When we tune the controller
parameters using ISE,IAE or
ITAE performance criteria, we
should remember the following
two points:
1)Different criteria lead to
different controller designs.
2) For the same time integral
criterion, different input changes
lead to different designs.
Figure

Process Instrumentation and Control (ICE-401) 22

 Selecting the type of feedback control

• The following steps should be kept in mind while

selecting a feedback controller:

 Define an appropriate performance criterion(e.g. ISE,

IAE, or ITAE).

 Compute the value of the performance criterion using

a P,or PI,or PID controller with the best settings for
the adjusted parameters Kc ,ƮI ,ƮD.

 Select that controller which gives the best value for

the performance criterion.

Process Instrumentation and Control (ICE-401) 23

 Selecting the type of feedback control

There are certain drawbacks of this procedure:

 It is very tedious.

 It relies on the models(transfer functions)for the

process ,sensor, and final control element which may
not be known exactly.

 It incorporates certain ambiguities as to which is the

most appropriate criterion and what input changes to
consider.

Process Instrumentation and Control (ICE-401) 24

 Effect of P,I and D control
• P-control
– Accelerates the response of a controlled process.
– Produces an offset
• I control
– Eliminates any offset
– The elimination of the offset usually comes at the expense of
higher maximum deviation
– Produces sluggish, long oscillating response
– If we increase the gain Kc to produce faster response, the system
becomes more oscillatory and may be led to instability
• D-control
– Anticipates future errors and introduces appropriate action
– Introduces a stabilizing effect on the closed loop response of a
process.

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 25

General prediction for selection

Process Instrumentation and Control (ICE-401) 26

 Controller tuning
• Controller tuning can be done by three general approaches:

• Use simple criteria such as the one-quarter decay ratio,ts,tr etc

-- This approach provides multiple solutions.

• Use time performance criteria such as ISE,IAE or ITAE.

--This approach is cumbersome and time consuming.

• Use semi empirical rules which have been proven in practice.

-- Open-loop transient response method (Cohen coon)
-Ziegler-Nicholos method

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 27

 Tuning of controllers
1942
• J.G. Ziegler and N.B. Nichols

by experimentation

1953
• Modified by
G.H. Cohen and G.A. Coon

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 28

 Three methods of tuning

• Reaction Curve Technique.(Open loop)

• Closed Loop Technique (Continuous

Cycling method).

• Closed Loop Technique (Damped

oscillation method)

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 29

 Reaction Curve Technique.
• This method of finding controller settings
was developed by Ziegler and Nichols and
later corrections were developed by Cohen
and Coon.

• This method is also called as Process

reaction curve method.

• This method can be used only for system

with self-regulation.
29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 30
 Figure 1.1

Figure :Opened control loop

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 31

• Consider the control system of figure which
has been opened by disconnecting the
controller from the final control element.

• Introduce a step change of magnitude A in the

variable c which actuates the final control
element.

• Record the value of the output with respect to

time.

• This curve have a sigmoidal shape.

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 32
 Mathematical analysis

• A typical open loop controller

response is shown in figure 1.2.
• A tangent line, showed as a dashed
line, is drawn at the inflection
point of the curve.
• The inflection point is defined as
that point on the curve where the
slope stops increasing and begins
to decrease.
• Where the tangent line crosses
the origin we get

• L=lag time in minutes or

dead time.. eq(1) Figure 1.2

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 33

• Also from the graph ,we get T, the process
reaction time, and
∆Cp
N= ……..eq(2)
T

where N=reaction rate in%/min

∆Cp =variable change in%
T= process reaction time in minute

The quantities defined by eq(1) and eq(2) are

used with the controlling variable change ∆P to
find controller settings.

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 34

 Formulas for various modes as developed by Ziegler and
Nichols and correction developed by Cohen and Coon

Proportional mode:
∆𝑃
Kp =
𝑁𝐿

• Corrections to the values ok Kp are

used to obtain the quarter amplitude
criterion of response. One given by
Cohen and Coon is shown bracket.
∆𝑃 1𝑁𝐿
Kp = [1 + ]
𝑁𝐿 3∆𝐶𝑝

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 35

 Proportional –Integral mode:
∆𝑃
Kp =0.9
𝑁𝐿
TI =3.33L

If the quarter –amplitude criterion is used,the gain is

∆𝑃 1
Kp = [0.9 + R]
𝑁𝐿 12
𝑁𝐿
where R= = log ratio(unit less)
∆𝐶𝑝

30+3𝑅
TI =[ ]L
9+20𝑅

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 36

 Three –mode:
∆𝑃
Kp =1.2
𝑁𝐿
TI =2L
TD =0.5L

If the quarter –amplitude criterion is used ,these equations are

corrected by
∆𝑃 1
Kp = [1.33 + R]
𝑁𝐿 4

32+6𝑅
TI =[ ]L
13+8𝑅

4
TD =[ ]L
11+2𝑅

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 37

 Numerical:1
• A transient disturbance test is run on a process loop.
The result of a 9% controlling variable change give a
process-reaction graph as shown in Figure 1.3.Find
the settings for three-mode action.

Figure 1.3

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 38

 Solution :
• By drawing the inflection point tangent on the
graph,we find a lag L=2.4 min and process reaction
time of 4.8 min.The reaction rate is

∆𝐶𝑝
N=
𝑇
∆𝐶𝑝
N= = 3.9%/ 4.8min
𝑇
∆𝐶𝑝
N= =0.8125%/min
𝑇

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 39

 ∆𝑃
Kp =1.2
𝑁𝐿
Kp = 5.54

TI =2L
TI = 4.8 min

TD =0.5L
TD =1.2min

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 40

• Three mode settings for a quarter-
amplitude response:
𝑁𝐿
R= = 0.50
∆𝐶𝑝
∆𝑃 1
Kp = [1.33 + R]
𝑁𝐿 4
Kp =6.72
32+6𝑅
TI =[ ]L
13+8𝑅
TI = 4.94min
4
TD =[ ]L
11+2𝑅
TD =0.80min

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 41

 Ziegler –Nichols closed loop method

• This technique is also called as Ultimate cycle

method.

• It is based on adjusting a closed loop until

steady oscillations occur.

• Controller settings are then based on the

conditions that generate the cycling.

• This method can be used for the systems

without self regulation.
Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 42
 Ziegler –Nichols closed loop method

• The method is accomplished through the following

steps:
1. Reduce any integral and derivative actions to their
minimum effect.(τd =0 and τi = ∞ )
2. Gradually begin to increase the proportional gain while
providing periodic small disturbances to the process.
3. Note the critical gain,Kc ,at which the dynamic variable
just begins to exhibit steady cycling-that is ,oscillations
about the setpoint.
4. Note the critical period,Tc ,of these oscillations
measured in minutes.

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 43

 Ziegler –Nichols closed loop method

• Now ,from the critical gain and period,the setting of

the controller are assigned as follows:
1. Proportional :
Kp = 0.5Kc
A modification of this relation is often used when the
quarter-amplitude criterion is applied.

In that case, the gain simply is adjusted until the

dynamic response pattern to a step change in setpoint
obeys the quarter-amplitude criterion.

This also results in some gain less than Kc

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 44

 Ziegler –Nichols closed loop method

2. Proportional –Integral:
Kp = 0.45Kc
TI =Tc /1.2
In case the quarter-amplitude criterion is
desired , we make
TI =Tc
and adjust the gain for that necessary to
obtain the quarter-amplitude response

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 45

 Ziegler –Nichols closed loop method

Three mode(PID):
Kp = 0.6Kc
TI =Tc /2.0
TD =Tc /8
For adjustment to give quarter-amplitude response, we
set
TI =Tc /1.5
TD =Tc /6
And adjust the proportional gain for satisfaction of the
quarter-amplitude response.

Precess Instrumentation and Control -(ICE-401) 46

 Closed Loop Technique (Damped
oscillation method)
• For plants are not allowed to undergo through sustained
oscillations

• Initially the closed loop system is operated initially with low gain
proportional control mode with
τd =0 and τi = ∞.

• The gain is increased slowly till a decay ratio (p2/p1) of 1/4th is

obtained in the step response.

• Under this condition, the period of damped oscillation, Td is also

noted. Let Kd be the proportional gain setting for obtaining
1/4th decay ratio.

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 48

 TI =Tc /1.5
TD =Tc /6

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 49

 General comments about controller
tuning
• The recommended settings are empirical in
nature, and obtained from extensive
experimentation.

• No theoretical basis behind these selections.

• A better combination can be there.

• But with no a-priori knowledge of the system, it

is always advisable to perform the
experimentation and select the controller
setting
29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 50
 • Nowadays digital computers are replacing the conventional
analog controllers.

• P-I-D control actions are generated through digital

computations.

• Digital outputs of the controllers are converted to analog signals

before they are fed to the actuators.

• In many cases, commercial software are available for Auto

tuning the process.

• Here the controller generates several commands those are fed

to the plant. After observing the output responses, the
controller parameters are selected, similar to the cases
discussed above
29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 51
 Frequency Response Methods
• Involves use of Bode plots for
the process and control loops.

• Based on an application of the Bode plot

stability criteria.

• Stability of the system is based on the

Gain and Phase Margin.

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 52

 Stability requirement:
• If the gain is slightly less than 1 when
the phase lag is , the system is stable.
But if the gain is slightly greater than 1
at , the system is unstable.

• It would be well to design a system with

a margin of safety from such limits to
allow for variation in components and
other unknown factors

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 53

 Revised stability criteria

1. If the phase lag is less than 140° at the

unity gain frequency, the system is stable.
This, then, is a 40° phase margin from the
limiting value of 180°.

2. If the gain is 5 dB below unity (or a

gain of about 0.56) when the phase lag
is,the system is stable. This is a 5-dB gain
margin.
29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 54
 Tuning
• Tuning involve adjustments of the controller
parameters until the stability is proved by the
appropriate phase and gain margins.
• Bode plot can be determined experimentally by
opening the loop and providing a variable-frequency
disturbance of the controlling variable.
• The significance of the unity gain crossover in
frequency is that the system can correct any
disturbances of frequency less than that of the unity
gain frequency.
• Any disturbance of higher frequency has little effect
on the control system.

29 October 2022 Process Instrumentation and control-ICE 3106 55