IZMIR UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS

PHYS 100: Experiment 6

SIMPLE PENDULUM
Rentech Simple Pendulum

1. Purpose

The purpose of this experiment is to;

1. To study the motion of a simple pendulum,

2. To learn the relationships between the period, frequency
and length of a simple pendulum,
3. To determine the acceleration due to gravity using the
motion of a simple pendulum.
4. To investigate conservation of mechanical energy in a
simple pendulum,
5. To use the conservation of energy to predict the velocity
of the pendulum mass at the lowest point of the swing.

(a)
2. Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a small object (the

pendulum bob) suspended from the end of a
lightweight cord. We assume that the cord does not
stretch and that its mass can be ignored relative to that
of the bob. The bob is free to swing back and forth
through the pendulum’s pivot point. The motion of a
simple pendulum moving back and forth with negligible
friction resembles simple harmonic motion. The
pendulum oscillates along the arc of a circle with equal
amplitude on either side of its equilibrium point, and as
it passes through the equilibrium point where it would
hang vertically, it has its maximum velocity.

We represent the forces on the mass in terms of

tangential and radial components. The path of the point
mass is not a straight line but the arc of a circle with a
radius of 𝓵 which is equal to the length of the cord. The
(b)
displacement of the pendulum along the arc is given
Figure-1: Simple pendulum consists of a small bob of
by:
mass 𝒎 suspended by a cord of length 𝓵 with negligible

x =  (1)
mass (a). The restoring force is the tangential component
of the net force (b).

Here,

𝓵: Length of the cord and, The restoring force is the net force on the bob, which
is equal to the component of the weight, 𝒎𝐠, tangent
𝜽: The angle in radians that the cord makes with the
vertical. to the arc (Figure-1b):

The equilibrium position of the simple pendulum F = −mg sin  (2)

corresponds to the situation in which the mass is
stationary and hanging vertically down (Figure-1a). where, g is the acceleration of gravity.

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The minus sign here means that the force is always in the The angular frequency, 𝝎 of a simple pendulum with
direction opposite to the angular displacement, 𝜽 (that is, small amplitude is given by:
the force is opposite to the displacement).
k
If the restoring force is proportional to x or to 𝜽, the = (7)
m
motion will be simple harmonic. The tangential
component of the gravitational force directed along By using Equation-(6), we get:
the bob's path is a restoring force that tends to bring
the pendulum back to its central (equilibrium) position. mg / 
Here, the restoring force is proportional not to 𝜽 but to
= (8)
m
sin, so the motion is not simple harmonic. However, if
the angle 𝜽 is small, then 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 is very nearly equal to So, we can conclude that the angular frequency of
“𝜽” in radians. small amplitude oscillations of a simple pendulum is
given by:

By noting in the Figure-(1b) that the arc length x (= 𝓵𝜽) is

g
nearly the same length indicated by the straight dashed line = (Angular frequency) (9)
(= 𝓵𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽) if 𝜽 is small. For angles less than 150, the 
difference between 𝜽 and 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 is less than 1%.
Note that the mass of the pendulum bob does not appear
in this expression.
So, the angular amplitude of the motion (the maximum
angle of swing) must be small. For small amplitudes,
where the angle 𝜽 is small and expressed in radians, The pendulum frequency is dependent only on the

“𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽” can be approximated by 𝜽 (in radians) so that length of the pendulum and the acceleration due to

Equation-(2) can be written as: gravity. However, it is independent of the mass of the
pendulum and the amplitude of the pendulum swings
F = −mg (3) (provided that 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 ≈ 𝜽).

Then, the period (𝑻) will be:

x
F = −mg (4)


mg f = (Frequency) (10)
F =− x (5) 2


As seen in the equation above, for small displacements, 1 g

f = (11)
the motion is essentially simple harmonic, since this 2 
equation fits Hooke’s law, F=−kx.

If the motion is simple harmonic, as we have seen, the 1 2

T= = (12)
restoring force must be directly proportional to x or f 
(since 𝒙 = 𝓵𝜽) to 𝜽. The restoring force is then
proportional to the coordinate for small displacements

and the force constant, k is given by: T = 2 (Period) (13)
g
mg
k= (6) When the angular displacement is 𝜽<150, the period of a

pendulum can be determined with the Equation-(13).

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➔ The period of a pendulum is independent of the mass of

The mass of the pendulum bob does not appear in these
equations for the frequency and period. The frequency and the bob. Also, for small displacement angles (𝜽 < 150),

period of a simple pendulum do not depend on the mass of the period is independent of 𝜽. Therefore, as long as the
the pendulum bob. We also see from Equation-(13) that the small angle approximation is valid, the period of a
period of a pendulum does not depend on the amplitude as simple pendulum is independent of the amplitude,  and
long as the amplitude (𝜽) is small (θ < 150).
mass, m. Measurements of the period (𝑻) and length (𝓵)
of oscillation allow us to calculate an experimental
acceleration due to gravity. Note that the length of the
For small amplitudes (small oscillations), the period of
pendulum is measured from the center of the pendulum
a simple pendulum depends only on its length and the
bob to the point of support (pivot point).
value of the acceleration due to gravity. So, the
period of a simple pendulum for a given value of the
As we have seen, the period (𝑻) of a simple pendulum
acceleration due to gravity, g can be experimentally is independent of the mass (m) of the bob. Also, for
determined by its length. small displacement angles (𝜽150), the period is
independent of the angle (𝜽) that the cord makes with
For example you can find the period (𝑻) and frequency
the vertical. Thus, when the period, 𝑻 and length, 𝓵 of
(f ) of a simple pendulum 1.0m long at a location where
a pendulum can be accurately determined, it is
the acceleration due to gravity, g =9.80m/s2. Since this
possible to experimentally obtain the acceleration of
is a simple pendulum, we can use Equation-(13) to
gravity.
determine the period of the pendulum from its length:

L 1.0m
T = 2 = 2 = 2.007s In any given experiment, we can measure the period (𝑻)
g 9.8m / s 2
of a simple pendulum as a function of the length (𝓵) and
investigate the effect of changing the pendulum length on
The period (𝑻) of a simple pendulum is the amount of the period. Then, the acceleration of gravity (g) can be

time required for the pendulum to complete a full determined for the different lengths of the pendulum by

oscillation and is measured in seconds. To find the means of the oscillating period.

frequency from the period:

By measuring the length (𝓵) and period (𝑻) of the
1 1 pendulum, we can determine the acceleration (g) due
f = = = 0.498Hz
T 2.007s
to gravity by the Equation-(13) as:

Note that a long pendulum has a longer period than a


shorter one. T 2 = 4 2 (14)
g
The test parameters of a simple pendulum include the
length (𝓵) of the cord, the mass of the bob (𝒎), the 
g = 4 2 (EXPERIMENTAL) (15)
angular displacement (𝜽) through which the pendulum T2
swings, and the period (𝑻) of the pendulum, which is
the time for the pendulum to swing through one
As seen from the Equation-(15), the acceleration due to
complete oscillation.
gravity can be determined experimentally for different
lengths of the pendulum by means of the oscillating
Test Parameters of a Simple Pendulum
period (𝑻).
Length Mass Displacement Period

(m) m(kg)  (deg) T (s)

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Conservation of Mechanical Energy The gravitational potential energy (𝑼) of the system at
3.
any point of a vertical height (y) above some

The mechanical energy (𝑬) of a system is the sum of reference point (the origin of the coordinate system)

its potential energy (𝑼) and the kinetic energy (𝑲) of can be defined as:

the objects within it. We can define a quantity 𝑬 called

the total mechanical energy of the system as the sum
U = mgy (Potential Energy) (19)

of the kinetic energy plus the potential energy of that

system at any moment: Then, the mechanical energy of the system at any
moment is given by:
E = K +U (Mechanical Energy) (16)
1
E = mv 2 + mgy (Mechanical Energy) (20)
2
We can examine what happens to this mechanical
energy when only conservative forces causes energy
If the kinetic energy (𝑲) increases, then the potential
transfers within the system (that is, when frictional
energy (𝑼) must decrease by an equivalent amount to
forces do not act on the objects in the system). Also
compensate. Thus the total mechanical energy 𝑲 + 𝑼
we assume that the system is isolated from its
remains constant. This is called the principle of
environment (that is, no external force from an object
conservation of mechanical energy for conservative
outside the system causes energy changes in the
forces.
system).

Gravitational potential energy depends only on the

Kinetic energy is the energy associated with the state
vertical height (vertical position) of the object relative
of motion of an object. The kinetic energy of an object
to the reference position 𝒚 = 𝟎, not on the horizontal
of mass (𝒎) moving with speed (𝒗) is defined as:
position. We can define the change in gravitational

1 2 potential energy when an abject moves from a height

K= mv (Kinetic Energy) (17)
2 y1 to a height y2 as:

U = U 2 − U 1 (21)
Kinetic energy of an object is zero only when the
particle is at rest. The net work done on an object is ( Change in
U = mg ( y 2 − y1 ) (22)
equal to the change in the object’s kinetic energy. The Potential Energy)
change in kinetic energy of the object is:

1 1 (Change in We can use conservation of mechanical energy to

K = mv 22 − mv12 (18)
2 2 Kinetic Energy) calculate the potential energy and the kinetic energy of
a mechanical system to compare the two forms of the
mechanical energy. The pendulum will be the
where:
mechanical system in this experiment. When the
v1 : Initial speed of the object. pendulum mass (𝒎) is displaced from equilibrium by

v2 : Final speed of the object. an angle (𝜽) and released from the highest point of its
motion, then the amount of gravitational potential
It is noticed that the kinetic energy of a particle is a scalar energy (𝑼) begins to decrease as the speed (𝒗) of the
quantity. It depends on only the particle’s mass and pendulum mass increases and the gravitational
speed, not its direction of motion. potential energy is converted into kinetic energy (𝑲).

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If we choose the reference point, 𝒚 = 𝟎 at the lowest

point (equilibrium position) of the bob’s swing for the
purposes of calculating potential energy, then the
gravitational potential energy (𝑼) at the highest point of
the motion is:

U = mgy (Potential Energy) (23)

where 𝒚 is the vertical height above the chosen

reference level at which the mass is released.

According to the Figure-(2b), when the pendulum is

pulled back to an angle (𝜽) to the vertical, it will be at
(a) an initial height (𝒚𝟎 ), just as it is released:

y = y0 =  −  cos (24)

y = (1 − cos ) (Vertical Height) (25)

We can express the vertical height of the bob in terms of the

initial angle (𝜽) and the length (𝓵) of the pendulum. When
the initial angle (maximum angle) of the pendulum is at 𝜽,
its kinetic energy is zero. Therefore, its total mechanical
energy is its potential energy at this highest point (𝒚 = 𝒉) of
the motion.
(b)

Figure-2: When the pendulum is displaced from equilibrium

by an angle (𝜽), it is raised in height vertically by an amount Initially, the mass (𝒎) has zero velocity at the height
equal to 𝒉 above the lowest point of the motion (a). The 𝒚 = 𝒉, so there is no kinetic energy in the system. If
maximum vertical displacement (𝒚) of the bob, where we take the gravitational potential energy to be zero at
there is no kinetic energy, is measured positive upward (b). the lowest point (𝒚 = 𝟎) of the pendulum bob, one can
write the potential energy (𝑼) of the system as:
Consider the situation of a simple pendulum as
suggested in the Figure-(2a). The pendulum is
displaced to one side in height vertically by an amount U = mg(1 − cos ) (Potential Energy) (26)

equal to “𝒉” above the equilibrium position which is

the lowest point of pendulum motion.
The potential energy of the pendulum system (𝑼)
The lowest point (𝒚 = 𝟎) of the motion is referred as the changes only from the change in height (𝒚 = 𝒉) of the
equilibrium point where the total mechanical energy is in mass (𝒎) and its change in height is given by the
the form of kinetic energy (𝑲).
Equation-(25). Note that potential energy is only
defined relative to a location (reference level), which can
The highest point of the motion (𝒚 = 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒉) is called
be chosen as the origin of a given coordinate system
the end point of the swing where the total mechanical
without affecting the motion of the mass.
energy is in the form of gravitational potential energy (𝑼).

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The cord is assumed to be massless, so we need to The sum of the gravitational potential energy (𝑼) and
consider only the bob’s kinetic energy (𝑲) and the the kinetic energy (𝑲) at each point of the motion is
gravitational potential energy (𝑼). At the moment of constant. Thus, we can describe the motion of the bob
release, the mass (bob) is at rest, so its initial kinetic in terms of kinetic energy and potential energy
energy is 𝑲 = 𝟎. As the bob moves down, it loses during the operation of the pendulum. By using the
potential energy and gains kinetic energy. At the lowest conservation of the mechanical energy, we can
point its kinetic energy is a maximum and the potential write the mechanical energy of the system (𝑬) at any
energy is a minimum, giving 𝑼 = 𝟎. The bob continues point along the swing as:
its swinging until it reaches an equal height (𝒉) and
angle (𝜽). On the opposite side, at which point the
1 (Conservation
potential energy is a maximum and 𝑲 = 𝟎. It continues E = mv 2 + mgy = mgy 0 (28)
2 of Energy)
the swinging motion but it can never go higher than ±𝜽
(that is, conservation of mechanical energy).

At the lowest point of the pendulum motion (𝒚 = 𝟎), the Based on conservation of mechanical energy, you
pendulum’s total mechanical energy is in the form of can show that the velocity (𝒗) of the bob at any point
kinetic energy. All the mass of a simple pendulum is along the swing is:
concentrated in the mass (𝒎) of the bob. So, we can
determine the velocity of the mass (bob) at this lowest
point of the swing by using conservation of v 2 = 2 g ( y 0 − y) (29)

mechanical energy.
v = 2 g ( y 0 − y) (30)
The motion of pendulum begins at rest (without
initial velocity) from the top of the swing. The
pendulum is then allowed to swing freely until it Using this equation for the velocity of the bob, the
reaches its equilibrium position at the bottom of the theoretical (predicted) velocity can be calculated at any
swing. When the pendulum is at the lowest point of point along the swing. If we solve this equation for the
its swing, its potential energy will be zero, since the
velocity (𝒗) at the bottom of the motion (𝒚 = 𝟎), we find:
reference point for the system is set to be at the
bottom of the pendulum’s swing (𝒚 = 𝟎). So, its total
mechanical energy is its kinetic energy: v = 2gy0 (31)

1 2
K= mv (Kinetic Energy) (27)
2 v = 2 g (1 − cos  ) (PREDICTED) (32)

where, 𝒗 is the velocity at the lowest point (at the bottom)

of the pendulum motion.
Equation-(32) based on conservation of mechanical
energy gives the velocity of the bob when it swings through
When the mass (𝒎) is displaced from its equilibrium
equilibrium (lowest point of its motion) where 𝐲 = 𝟎.
position and released, the pendulum will move back
and forth on either side of the equilibrium position. If In the experiment, you can prove the conservation of
there is no friction in the pendulum system, then total mechanical energy by measuring the velocity of the
mechanical energy is conserved. This means that at mass (bob) at the bottom of the swing (at the lowest
every point in the motion of the pendulum, the total point of the motion) and comparing this experimental
mechanical energy will be conserved as the pendulum velocity with the predicted (expected) velocity which is
swings back and forth (that is, the total energy stays
derived from the conservation of mechanical energy.
constant in the case of no friction).

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4. Experimental Set-up

Figure-3: Experimental set-up for measuring the oscillation period of the simple pendulum. The simple pendulum consists of a
pendulum bob of mass (𝒎) attached to a very light cord. The length (𝓵) of the cord is measured from the pivot point to the
center of mass of the bob (𝒎).

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5. Experimental Procedures 𝜽 = 𝟓𝟎

4.1. Press the “Button-3 (Mode-3)” on the Control

Experiment-1: Simple Pendulum (𝜽=50)
Box to be ready for data collection.
Part-1: Acceleration due to gravity

4.2. Now, release the mass suspended from the

1. Construct the simple pendulum apparatus as weightless cord, allowing it to swing back and
shown in the Figure-(3). forth.

1.1. A sliding mass (𝒎) along the cord is used to

easily change the effective length of the
pendulum.

1.2. Initially, the mass (pendulum bob) is suspended

by the nearly weightless cord from a fixed point
about which it can swing freely and essentially
without friction. Figure-4: The period of a simple pendulum is the
time from the first to third block of the photogate.
1.3. The photogate is connected to the port of the
timer unit (simple pendulum control box).

Experimental Note
2. Attach the mass (bob) to the cord of the
It should be noted that the pendulum bob is released
pendulum so that the mass (m) hangs vertically
without initial velocity (without a push) at 𝒕 = 𝟎, where
downward approximately 50𝑐𝑚 (𝟎. 𝟓𝒎) from the the cord makes an angle to the vertical;
pivot point to the center of mass. ▪ 𝜽 = 𝟓𝟎

2.1. Adjust the distance from the pivot point to the

4.3. When the bob attached to mass swings down and
center of mass of the pendulum bob as:
the cord blocks the light beam in the photogate,
then the Control Box will start to collect the data.
𝓵=50cm

4.4. Read and record:

2.2. This length (𝓵) of the pendulum from the point of
▪ Period (𝑻) associated with the time it takes
support to the center of the hanging mass is the
for the pendulum to make one oscillation.
effective length of the pendulum.

Note that the period of the pendulum is the time

2.3. Record this length of the simple pendulum as 𝓵 =
from the first to third block of the photogate
𝟎. 𝟓𝒎 in the data table.
(Figure-4).

3. Measure the diameter of the lightweight cord 4.5. Record also:

and record it as “∅” in the data table. In this ▪ Speed (𝒗) of the mass at the lowest point of

experiment, it has a value of: the swing (at the equilibrium position).

Simple Pendulum Control Box (Mode-3)

∅=6mm
Period Speed
T(s) v(m/s)
4. Pull the mass (pendulum bob) back such that the
cord makes an angle of 𝜽=50 with its vertical
orientation (equilibrium position).

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5. Once we know the period (𝑻) of oscillation and 6.3. Determine the percent error (%𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓) for the
angular frequency of the simple pendulum and
the length (𝓵) of this pendulum, we can calculate
then record it in the data table.
the acceleration due to gravity (g) by:

6.4. Find also the frequency (𝒇) of the motion;

ℓ
𝐠 = 4𝜋 2 (Experimental) 𝝎
𝑇2 𝒇=
𝟐𝝅

5.1. Record the calculated (experimental) value of the

7. Hold the mass back such that the cord makes the
acceleration as “g” in the laboratory report.
same angle of 𝜽 = 𝟓𝟎 with vertical position.

5.2. Compare your experimental value of the

7.1. Now, press the “Button-1 (Mode-1)” on the
acceleration due to gravity with the accepted
Control Box to be ready for data collection.
value of g=9.80m/s2 to obtain percent error.

7.2. Release the mass, allowing it to swing back and

We use percent error (%𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓) when comparing an
forth.
experimental value to a known or accepted value.
Percent error can be calculated by the relation:
7.3. Read the time for the cord diameter (∅) to pass
through the photogate at the equilibrium position.
|𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑|
%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑
7.4. Record the time as t1:
′
(𝐠 − 𝐠)
%∆𝐠 = | × 100|
𝐠′ Simple Pendulum Control Box (Mode-1)
Time
where;
t1(s)
g (m / s 2 ) : The acceleration of gravity (experimental),

g  (m / s 2 ) : Time t1 is the time that Control Box records as the gate

The acceleration of gravity (accepted).
being blocked.

6. Now, you will determine the frequency of the

8. Now you will calculate the maximum speed of the
pendulum from its period (𝑻) that you found
mass (bob) suspended by the cord as the mass
experimentally:
passes through the lowest point of the swing
(through the equilibrium position).
6.1. Calculate the EXPERIMENTAL value of the
ANGULAR FREQUENCY (𝝎) by using the The pendulum mass passing through the
period (𝑻); equilibrium position will have maximum velocity.

8.1. You know the diameter (∅) of the cord. The

𝟐𝝅
𝝎= Control Box measurement started when the
𝑻
leading edge of the cord broke the light beam in
the photogate, and stopped when the trailing edge
6.2. Calculate also the accepted value of the
of the cord moved out of the beam.
ANGULAR FREQUENCY (   ) from its length (𝓵)
8.2. Therefore, the time interval, t1 is the time that it
and the acceleration (g=9.80m/s2);
took for the mass (bob) to move a distance of the
diameter “∅”.
𝐠′
𝝎′ = √
𝓵

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8.3. Then, the speed (v1) of the mass at the lowest Experiment-1: Simple Pendulum (𝜽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 )
point of the swing (𝒚 = 𝟎) will be: Part-2: Acceleration due to gravity

 1. Now, you will determine experimentally the

v1 = (Calculated) acceleration of gravity for different displacement
t1
angle (𝜽).

This is the speed of the bob as it passes through

1.1. Adjust the length of the pendulum as:
the lowest point of the swing (through the
equilibrium position). You will use this
𝓵=50cm
equation to determine the EXPERIMENTAL
value of the speed of the bob at the lowest point by sliding the mass (bob) along the cord.
(at the equilibrium position) of swing.
1.2. Then, displace the pendulum about the new
8.4. Compare this speed (v1) with the speed (𝒗) angle:

measured in the previous step using Control Box

(Mode-3). 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎

from its equilibrium position.

9. Repeat all the experimental procedures made in
the previous steps for the various pendulum
1.3. Press the “Button-3 (Mode-3)” on the Control
lengths while keeping the mass and angle
Box and let the pendulum swing back and forth for
constant: data collection.

▪ 𝓵=60cm. 1.4. Record the measured period (𝑻) of the pendulum

𝜽 = 𝟓𝟎 when it is released at an angle of the 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 .
▪ 𝓵=65cm.

Simple Pendulum Control Box (Mode-3)

10. A simple pendulum consists of a mass (also Period Speed

known as the pendulum bob). The pendulum bob T(s) v(m/s)

is released without initial velocity (without a
push) at 𝒕 = 𝟎, where the cord makes an angle 𝜽
2. Calculate the acceleration of gravity (g) for the
to the vertical. When pendulum bob gets to the
new angle (𝜽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎) by using the measured period
bottom of its swing, its potential energy converts
(𝑻) of the pendulum;
to kinetic energy.

10.1. Describe an expression for the motion of the ℓ

𝐠 = 4𝜋 2 (Experimental)
bob in terms of kinetic energy and potential 𝑇2
energy according to the conservation of
mechanical energy.

2.1. Record the EXPERIMENTAL value of the

10.2. Find the speed (𝒗) of the bob as a function of
acceleration due to gravity (g) in the appropriate
position 𝜽 as it swings back and forth.
column of your data table.

10.3. Determine its speed (𝒗) at the bottom (the lowest

2.2. Compare your experimental value with the
point) of the swing.
ACCEPTED value of g=9.80m/s2 to obtain
percent error.

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3. Calculate the ANGULAR FREQUENCY of the 7.5. Using the time (t1) for the mass (bob) to move a

pendulum from its period (𝑻) as you did in the distance of “∅”, calculate the experimental

previous section; value of the speed of the bob at the lowest point
of the swing;

𝟐𝝅
𝝎=
𝑻 
v1 = (Calculated)
t1
4. Using the effective length (𝓵) and the
acceleration (g=9.80m/s2), calculate the accepted
7.6. Record this maximum speed of the mass as v1 in
value of the ANGULAR FREQUENCY (   );
the data table.

𝐠′ 7.7. Compare this calculated speed (v1) with the

𝝎′ = √
𝓵
speed (𝒗) measured in the previous step using
“Control Box (Mode-3)”.

5. Find the percent error (%𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓) for the angular

8. Repeat all the steps for the various pendulum
frequency of the motion.
lengths while keeping the mass and angle
constant:
6. Find the corresponding FREQUENCY (𝑓) of the
motion when the bob is released at the angle of
▪ 𝓵=60cm.
𝜽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ;
=100
▪ 𝓵=65cm.
𝝎
𝒇=
𝟐𝝅

Experiment-2: Simple Pendulum

Conservation of Mechanical Energy
7. Now, you will determine the speed (v1) of the mass
of the bob at the lowest point of the swing when
The objective of this experiment is to predict the maximum
the bob is released without a push at 𝒕 = 𝟎 where velocity of the pendulum mass (bob) at the lowest point of
the cord makes an angle 𝜽=100 to the vertical; the swing by using the law of conservation of mechanical
energy. You will first measure the time (𝑡) for the cord
7.1. Hold the mass back such that the cord makes the
diameter (∅) to pass through the photogate at the lowest
same angle as:
point and then, you will determine the experimental value
of the maximum velocity of the bob by using the measured
▪ 𝜽=100
time (𝑡) and the cord diameter (∅). This is the velocity of
with vertical position.
the bob as it passes through the lowest point of the swing
(through the equilibrium position). After that, you will
7.2. Press the “Button-1 (Mode-1)” on the Control
compare the experimental value of velocity with the
Box and then release the mass without a push.
predicted velocity using the conservation of
mechanical energy.
7.3. Read the time for the cord diameter (∅) to pass
through the photogate at the equilibrium position.
1. You will use the same experimental setup as

7.4. Record the measured time as t1: shown in the Figure-(3).

1.1. Adjust the distance from the pivot point to the

Simple Pendulum Control Box (Mode-1)
center of the mass (pendulum bob) as:
Time

t1(s)

12
Rentech Simple Pendulum

𝓵=50cm

1.2. This distance will give the length of the pendulum

and you will need it to calculate the speed of the
mass passing through the equilibrium position.

2. Adjust the photogate such that it is in a position

with its beam pointing directly through the cord at
the equilibrium position;

2.1. You must position the photogate so that the cord

blocks the photogate at the equilibrium position. (a)

2.2. Now pull the pendulum mass (𝒎) back to an

initial angle of:

𝜽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎

This is the maximum angle that the pendulum

(cord) makes with the vertical during the
pendulum motion. Do not release the
pendulum mass yet.

3. Press the “Button-1 (Mode-1)” on the Control

Box and then release the mass without a push,
allowing it to swing freely.

(b)

Figure-5: The time associated with “blocked” event as

the gate being blocked. When the cord passes the
equilibrium point, the photogate timer measures the time
interval over which the cord diameter interrupts the light.

3.1. When the mass (𝒎) swings down and the cord
blocks the light beam in the photogate, the
Control Box will start to measure the time (Figure-
5a).

3.2. Control Box will continue timing as long as the

beam is “blocked” by the cord diameter, and
then will stop when the cord swings out of the
beam.

13
Rentech Simple Pendulum

3.3. Read the time interval (𝒕) for the cord diameter to 5.1. Calculate the EXPECTED (predicted) value of the
pass through the photogate at the equilibrium velocity (v) as the pendulum mass is passing
position (Figure-5b). Record the time as t1; through the equilibrium position (𝒚 = 𝟎) by:

Simple Pendulum Control Box (Mode-1) v  = 2 g l (1 − cos  )

Time

t1(s) where, g=9.80m/s2.

This will give the predicted velocity using the

The photogate timer unit (Control Box) will display
the time associated with Blocked event for only one
conservation of mechanical energy.
swing at the bottom of the pendulum’s motion.
5.2. Record the expected velocity of the mass by the
conservation of mechanical energy at the lowest
4. Calculate the maximum velocity of the pendulum point as:
mass as it passes through equilibrium position ▪ v (m/s)
(see Figure-5).
5.3. Find the percent error, ∆𝒗 (±%) between the
4.1. The pendulum mass passing through the expected and the experimental value of the
equilibrium position will have maximum velocity. velocity.

4.2. You know the diameter (∅) of the cord. The timer 6. Now repeat the procedure for each pendulum
started when the leading edge of the cord broke length of:
the light beam, and stopped when the trailing
edge of the cord moved out of the beam.
▪ 𝓵=60cm
▪ 𝓵=65cm.
4.3. Therefore, the time (t1) is the time that it took for

the pendulum bob suspended by the cord to

move a distance of “∅”.

4.4. Then, the velocity of the mass at the lowest

point of the swing (𝒚 = 𝟎) will be:


v1 =
t1

This is the velocity of the bob as it passes

through the lowest point of the swing (through
the equilibrium position) and will give the
EXPERIMENTAL (calculated) value of the
velocity (v1) of the bob at the lowest point.

5. Now, from the conservation of mechanical

energy, you will determine the expected velocity
of the bob at its lowest point.

14
Rentech Simple Pendulum

Experiment 6: Simple Pendulum

6.
Laboratory Report

Name: Cengiz Yıldırım

Department: Aerospace Engineering

Student No: 20210615039

Date: 28.12.2021

Experiment-1: Simple Pendulum

Acceleration due to gravity

Test Parameters used in the Experiment.

 (deg) Angle that the cord makes with the vertical (test parameter).

m (kg) Mass of the pendulum bob (test parameter).

 (m) Length of the simple pendulum (test parameter).

 (m) Diameter of the cord (test parameter).

h (m) = (1 − cos ) Vertical height of the bob above the lowest point (equilibrium position) of the motion (test
parameter).

T (s) The measured period of the simple pendulum (by the Timer Unit Interface).

v (m / s ) The measured speed of the mass (bob) passing through the lowest point of the swing
(EXPERIMENTAL).
t1 ( s ) The measured time for the cord diameter to pass through the photogate at the equilibrium position.

v1 (m / s) =  / t1 Speed of the mass (bob) passing through the equilibrium position (CALCULATED).

v = 2 g (1 − cos ) Speed of the mass given by the CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY at the lowest point
(EXPECTED).

g (m / s 2 ) = 4 2 / T 2 Acceleration of gravity (CALCULATED).

g  (m / s 2 ) Acceleration of gravity (EXPECTED).

 (s − 1 ) = 2 / T Angular frequency of the simple pendulum (CALCULATED).

 = g  /  Angular frequency of the simple pendulum (EXPECTED).

f (s −1 ) =  / 2 Frequency of the simple pendulum (CALCULATED).

15
Rentech Simple Pendulum

Table-1: Determination of the acceleration due to gravity using the motion of simple pendulum (𝜃 = 50 ).

Test Parameter MEASURED Calculated ACCEPTED CALCULATED Calculated

Acceleration Acceleration
Angle Mass Length Period Velocity Difference % Error
due to gravity due to gravity

 (deg) m (kg)  (m) T (s) v (m / s ) g (m / s 2 ) g  (m / s 2 ) g (m / s 2 ) g (%)

0.50 1.4190 0.2885 9.8031 0.0031 0.031

5 0.238 0.60 1.5366 0.1824 10.0320 9.8 0.232 2.3673

0.65 1.5962 0.2158 10.0716 0.2716 2.771

Table-2: Determination of the acceleration due to gravity using the motion of simple pendulum (𝜃 = 100 ).

Test Parameter MEASURED Calculated ACCEPTED CALCULATED Calculated

Acceleration Acceleration
Angle Mass Length Period Velocity Difference % Error
due to gravity due to gravity

 (deg) m (kg)  (m) T (s) v (m / s ) g (m / s 2 ) g  (m / s 2 ) g (m / s 2 ) g (%)

0.50 1.4161 0.4545 9.8433 0.0433 0.4418

10 0.238 0.60 1.5489 0.4580 9.8733 9.8 0.0733 0.748

0.65 1.6021 0.4478 9.9975 0.1975 2.015

Table-3: The velocity of the pendulum mass (bob) at the lowest point of the swing ( 𝜃 = 50 , ∅=6mm*).

Test Parameter MEASURED Measured CALCULATED Calculated Calculated

Angle Mass Length Period VELOCITY Time VELOCITY Difference % Error


 (deg) m (kg)  (m) T (s) v (m / s ) t1 ( s ) v1 (m / s ) = v (m / s) v (%)
t1

0.50 1.4190 0.2885 0.0223 0.2690 0.0195 7.2490

5 0.238 0.60 1.5366 0.1824 0.0287 0.2090 0.0266 12.7272

0.65 1.5962 0.2158 0.0298 0.2013 0.0145 7.2031

* Diameter of the cord.

16
Rentech Simple Pendulum

Table-4: Determination of the velocity of the pendulum mass at the lowest point of the swing (𝜃 = 100 ).

Test Parameter MEASURED Measured CALCULATED Calculated Calculated

Angle Mass Length Period VELOCITY Time VELOCITY Difference % Error


 (deg) m (kg)  (m) T (s) v (m / s ) t1 ( s ) v1 (m / s ) = v (m / s) v (%)
t1

0.50 1.4161 0.4545 0.0115 0.5217 0.0672 12.881

10 0.238 0.60 1.5489 0.4580 0.0130 0.4615 0.0035 0.7583

0.65 1.6021 0.4478 0.0117 0.5128 0.065 12.675

Table-5: Determination of the frequency of the simple pendulum (𝜃 = 50).

Test Parameter MEASURED CALCULATED Calculated ACCEPTED Calculated

Angular
Angle Mass Length Period Frequency Frequency % Error
Frequency

2  g
 (deg) m (kg)  (m) T (s)  (s − 1 ) = f ( s −1 ) =  =  (%)
T 2 

0.50 1.4190 4.4278 0.7047 4.4271 0.0158

5 0.238 0.60 1.5366 4.0890 0.6507 4.0414 1.1778

0.65 1.5962 3.9363 0.6264 3.8829 1.3752

Table-6: Determination of the frequency of the simple pendulum (𝜃 = 100).

Test Parameter MEASURED CALCULATED Calculated ACCEPTED Calculated

Angular
Angle Mass Length Period Frequency Frequency % Error
Frequency

2  g
 (deg) m (kg)  (m) T (s)  (s − 1 ) = f ( s −1 ) =  =  (%)
T 2 

0.50 1.4161 4.4369 0.7061 4.4271 0.0225

10 0.238 0.60 1.5489 4.0565 0.6456 4.0414 0.3736

0.65 1.6021 3.9218 0.6241 3.8829 1.0018

17
Rentech Simple Pendulum

Experiment-2:Simple Pendulum
Conservation of Mechanical Energy

Table-7: The velocity of the pendulum mass (bob) at the lowest point of the swing.

Test Parameter Calculated Accepted Calculated

Angle Mass Diameter Length Height Velocity Velocity % Error


h = (1 − cos ) v1 (m / s ) = v = 2 g (1 − cos )
t1
 (deg) m (kg)  (m)  (m) v (%)
(m) (m / s) (m / s)

𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 0.0019 0.2690 0.1931 39.3

0.006
𝟓 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 0.0022 0.2090 0.2115 1.182
(6mm)
𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 0.0025 0.2013 0.2201 8.5416

Table-8: The velocity of the pendulum mass (bob) at the lowest point of the swing.

Test Parameter Calculated Accepted Calculated

Angle Mass Diameter Length Height Velocity Velocity % Error


v1 (m / s ) = v = 2 g (1 − cos )
h = (1 − cos ) t1
 (deg) m (kg)  (m)  (m) v (%)
(m) (m / s) (m / s)

0.50 0.0075 0.5217 0.3858 35.2255

0.006
10 0.238 0.60 0.0091 0.4615 0.4227 9.179
(6mm)
0.65 0.01 0.5128 0.44 16.54

7. QUESTIONS

18
Rentech Simple Pendulum

1. What is the relationship between the period

of the pendulum and the angle of deflection?
In a perfect environment, the angle doesn’t matter. The
period would be the same. In the real world, there is
friction. Therefore, greater the angle, the longer the
period.
2. How does the length of the simple pendulum
affect its period?


T = 2
g
The longer the length of the string, the longer the
pendulum's period.

3. Explain how the kinetic and potential energy

(total mechanical energy) are conserved in
the motion of a pendulum during the motion
of the mass. As the pendulum swings back and
forth, there is a constant exchange between
kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy

4. What are the sources of experimental error

in the experiment?
Friction between bob and air.
Measurement errors

19
Rentech Simple Pendulum

CALCULATIONS:
Calculating the g:
For the angle of 5:
g ( m / s 2 ) = 4(pi)^(2 )*(0.5):( 1.4190)^(2) = 9.8031

g ( m / s 2 ) = 4(pi)^(2 )*(0.6):(1.5366)^(2) = 10.0320

g ( m / s 2 ) = 4(pi)^(2 )*(0.65):(1.5962)^(2) = 10.0716

For the angle of 10:

g ( m / s 2 ) = 4(pi)^(2 )*(0.5):(1.4161)^(2) = 9.8433

g ( m / s 2 ) = 4(pi)^(2 )*(0.5):( 1.5489)^(2) =9.8733

g ( m / s 2 ) = 4(pi)^(2 )*(0.5):( 1.6021)^(2) =9.9975

Calculating the error rate:

Error % = Measured – Accepted / Accepted * 100

For the angle of 5:

g (%) = 0.0031/9.8*100= 0.031

g (%) = 0.232/9.8*100=2.3673

g (%) = 0.2716/9.8*100=2.771

For the angle of 10:

g (%) = 0.0433/9.8*100 = 0.4418

g (%) = 0.0733/9.8*100=0.748

g (%) = 0.1975/9.8*100=2.015

20
Rentech Simple Pendulum

Calculating the velocity:


v1 (m / s ) =
t1

For the angle of 5:

V =0.006/1.4190 = 0.2690

V =0.006/1.5366=0.2090

V =0.006/1.5962= 0.2013

For the angle of 10:

V =0.006/1.4161= 0.5217

V =0.006/1.5489 = 0.4615

V =0.006/1.6021= 0.5128

Calculating the error rate:

Error % = Measured – Accepted / Accepted * 100

For the angle of 5:

v (%) = (0.0195)/ 0.2690*100 =7.2490

v (%) = (0.0266)/ 0.2090*100 = 12.7272

v (%) = (0.0145)/ 0.2013*100 =7.2031

For the angle of 10:

v (%) = (0.0672)/ 0.5217*100 =12.881

v (%) = (0.0035)/ 0.4615*100 =0.7583

v (%) = (0.065)/ 0.5128*100 =12.675

21
Rentech Simple Pendulum

Calculating the angular

frequency:
2
 (s − 1 ) =
T

For the angle of 5:

W= 2pi/(1.4190) = 4.4278

W= 2pi/(1.5366) = 4.0890

W= 2pi/(1.5962) = 3.9363

For the angle of 10:

W= 2pi/(1.4161) = 4.4369

W= 2pi/(1.5489) = 4.0565

W= 2pi/(1.6021) = 3.9218

Calculating the error rate:

Error % = Measured – Accepted / Accepted * 100

For the angle of 5:

 (%) = (4.4278- 4.4271)/ 4.4271*100=0.0158

 (%) = (4.0890-4.0414)/ 4.0414*100=1.1778

 (%) = (3.9363-3.8829)/ 3.8829*100=1.3752

For the angle of 10:

 (%) = (4.4369-4.4271)/ 4.4271*100=0.2213

 (%) = (4.0565-4.0414)/ 4.0414*100=0.3736

 (%) = (3.9218-3.8829)/ 3.8829*100=1.0018

22
Rentech Simple Pendulum

Calculating the frequency:

F = 1/T

For the angle of 5:

1/(1.4190)= 0.7047

1/(1.5366)= 0.6507

1/(1.5962)= 0.6264

For the angle of 10:

1/(1.4161)= 0.7061

1/(1.5489)= 0.6456

1/(1.6021)= 0.6241

Calculating the velocity:

v = 2 g (1 − cos )

For the angle of 5:

Sqrt (2*9.8*0.5*(1-cos5)) = 0.1931

Sqrt (2*9.8*0.6*(1-cos5)) = 0.2115

Sqrt (2*9.8*0.65*(1-cos5)) = 0.2201

For the angle of 10:

Sqrt (2*9.8*0.5*(1-cos10)) = 0.3858

Sqrt (2*9.8*0.6*(1-cos10)) = 0.4227

Sqrt (2*9.8*0.65*(1-cos10)) = 0.44

23
Rentech Simple Pendulum

Calculating the error rate:

Error % = Measured – Accepted / Accepted * 100

For the angle of 5:

v (%) =(0.2690-0.1931)/(0.1931)*100 = 39.3

v (%) =(0.2090-0.2115)/(0.2115)*100= -1.182

v (%) =(0.2013-0.2201)/(0.2201)*100= -8.5416

For the angle of 10:

v (%) = (0.5217-0.3858)/(0.3858)*100 = 35.2255

v (%) = (0.4615-0.4227)/(0.4227)*100= 9.179

v (%) = (0.5128-0.44)/(0.44)*100= 16.54

24
IZMIR UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS

PHYS 100: Experiment 2

FREE FALL AND ATWOOD’S MACHINE

Rentech Free Fall and Atwood’s Machine

Free Fall Experiment

1. Purpose

The objectives of this experiment are;

1. To study the motion of freely falling objects,

2. To determine the acceleration (g) due to gravity by using

the motion of a freely falling object.

2. Freely Falling Objects

Free fall is a case of motion with constant acceleration

and the most common example of motion with constant
acceleration is an object falling under the influence of
the gravity. We call this acceleration the acceleration
due to gravity on the surface of the Earth and we
denote its magnitude with the symbol “g”. Its
magnitude is approximately:

Figure-1: The falling time and distance of fall for an object

g = 9.80 m / s 2 (at surface of Earth) (1)
falling freely under the influence of gravity. The ball falls from
rest so its initial velocity is zero.

Acceleration due to gravity is a vector as is any acceleration

and its direction is downward, toward the center of Earth. If
In the vertical direction, the constant acceleration (𝑎) is
we express velocity in meters per second (m/s), then we can
the acceleration due to gravity 𝑎 = g. Hence, the
write the unit for acceleration as m/s2.
distance 𝑦 that the object falls in a time 𝑡 is given by:
If an object moves in a straight line with constant
acceleration, the position (𝑥 ) are related to the 1 2
y = y 0 + v0 t + gt (3)
acceleration (𝑎), the elapsed time (𝑡), the initial position
2
(𝑥0 ) and the initial velocity (𝑣0 ) by;
where,
y: The distance that the object falls in a time 𝑡,
1
x = x 0 + v 0 t + at 2 (2) y0 : Initial vertical position of the object,
2
v0 : Initial velocity.

When dealing with freely falling objects, we can make

When any object is dropped from rest (𝑣0 = 0) and
use of the Equation-(2) where for 𝑎 we use the value
from an initial position at the initial time (𝑡1 = 0), then,
of g given above. Also, since the motion is vertical we
the acceleration (g) due to gravity can be
can substitute 𝑦 in place of 𝑥 and 𝑦0 in place of 𝑥0 . We
experimentally determined by measuring the time of
take 𝑦0 =0 (𝑦 as positive downward) unless otherwise
fall (𝑡2 = 𝑡) of the object from a constant height “𝑥 =
specified.
𝑦” as seen in the Figure-(1).

2
Rentech Free Fall and Atwood’s Machine

The motion of freely falling objects is one dimensional

motion with constant acceleration (g) if the air
resistance can be ignored. An object falling freely
(neglecting air resistance) will have a constant
acceleration of g due to gravity; therefore, as the object
falls, its velocity increases at a constant rate. Just as
velocity describes the rate of change of position with
time, acceleration describes the rate of change of
velocity with time. The velocity of an object falling
through the air does not increase indefinitely. If the
object falls far enough, it will reach a maximum velocity
Figure-2: A ball freely falling from rest. The distance 𝑦 of called thermal velocity due to the air resistance.
fall is chosen to be positive in the downward direction.
If we refer back to the Equation-(4), we can see that
Figure-(2) shows a ball freely falling from rest. If the the coefficient of 𝑡 2 is (1⁄2)g, in other words, when 𝑦 is

object is dropped from rest (𝑣0 = 0 at 𝑡1 = 0) and plotted against 𝑡 2 , one would expect a straight line with

from the origin (𝑦0 = 0) so that the positive 𝑦 a slope of “(1⁄2)g”. It means that, we can obtain the

direction is chosen to be downward (that is, the acceleration (g) experimentally by varying the distance

distance 𝑥 increases as the object falls) and of fall (height, 𝒚), recording the corresponding falling

𝒂 =g> 0, then the Equation-(3) becomes: times (𝒕) and then plotting 𝒚 against 𝒕𝟐 graph. This
graph can be expressed as a linear function:

1 2 y = Ax (6)
y= gt (Experimental) (4)
2
where,

y: The distance that the object falls in a time 𝑡,

This is the position, 𝑦 of a free-falling object dropped A: (1⁄2)g,
from rest after an elapsed time, 𝑡 when it undergoes x: Square of the fall time (𝑡 2 ).
constant acceleration. Remember that the constant
acceleration of a freely falling object is called the
It is obvious that if one plots the Fall Distance (𝑚) on
acceleration (g) due to gravity.
the 𝑦-axis, as a function of Square of the Fall Time (𝑠 2 )

If the acceleration is constant, then the distance (𝑦) on the 𝑥-axis, one obtains a straight line graph. The

the object falls will be proportional to the square of the slope (A) of this 𝑦 − 𝑡 2 graph represents:
elapsed time (𝑡). This means that if one measures the
distance of fall (𝑥 = 𝑦) and time of fall (𝑡) of the free 1
A= g (Slope) (7)
fall for any object, then the acceleration due to gravity 2
can be easily calculated by the Equation-(4). If we
solve Equation-(4) for the acceleration (g) due to
As provided in the Equation-(7), we can find the acceleration
gravity, then we obtain:
due to gravity experimentally by multiplying the slope by “2”.
Note that the accepted value of the acceleration due to
2y gravity (g= 9.80m/s2 ) varies slightly with location, but these
g= 2 (Experimental) (5)
t variations are so small that we ignore them for the purposes of
this experiment.

3
Rentech Free Fall and Atwood’s Machine

It is noticed that the acceleration (𝑎) in the Figure-(3c)

is constant (that is, it does not depend on time), which
requires that the velocity, 𝑣(𝑡) in Figure-(3b) have a
constant slope.

If the acceleration of the object is constant (a

horizontal straight line because 𝑎=constant) then we
see a linear plot of velocity (𝑣) versus time (𝑡). The
slope of the plot is the value of the acceleration while
the intercept represents the velocity of the object at
(a) time 𝑡=0.

(b)

(c)

Figure-3: The position 𝑥(𝑡) of an object moving with

constant acceleration (a), its velocity (b) and its constant
acceleration (c) which is equal to the slope of the 𝑣(𝑡)
graph.

For an object moving with constant acceleration, the

graphs of the position, velocity (the rate at which its
displacement changes with time) and acceleration (the
rate at which the velocity changes) are given in the
Figure-(3). A position-time (𝑥 − 𝑡) graph is always a
parabola as shown in the Figure-(3a).

4
Rentech Free Fall and Atwood’s Machine

3. Experimental Set-up

Figure-4: The schematic representation of the experimental set-up with connection cables.

4. Experimental Procedures

1. Compare the experimental acceleration due to

1.2. Calculate and record the percent error in the
gravity (g’) with the accepted (theoretical) value
data Table-(2). The percent error can be
of (g= 9.80m/s2 ). calculated as:

g − g
1.1. Determine the difference between experimental % Error = x100
and theoretical accelerations due to gravity as: g

g = g − g 

5
Rentech Free Fall and Atwood’s Machine

Experiment 2-1: Free Fall Experiment

5.
Laboratory Report

Name: Cengiz Yıldırım

Department: Aerospace Engineering

Student No: 20210615039

Date: 2.01.2022

Table-1: Experimental data values of the falling time and the acceleration due to gravity.

t1 t2 t3 t g
𝑥(𝑚)
(Measured) (Average) (Experimental)

0.2 0.175 0.188 0.179 0.1806 12.2638

0.3 0.221 0.220 0.235 0.2253 11.8203

0.4 0.267 0.258 0.264 0.263 11.5659

0.5 0.300 0.298 0.297 0.2983 11.2381

Table-2: Comparison of the experimental and theoretical acceleration.

𝑥(𝑚) t  (s) g  (m / s 2 ) g (m / s 2 ) %𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟()

0.2 0.1806 12.2638 2.4638 20.09

0.3 0.2253 11.8203 2.0203 17.0918

0.4 0.263 11.5659 1.7659 15.2681

0.5 0.2983 11.2381 1.4381 12.7966

Experimental G:

g  (m / s 2 ) = (2(0.2))/((0.1806)^(2)) =12.2638

g  (m / s 2 ) = (2(0.3))/((0.2253)^(2)) =11.8203

g  (m / s 2 ) = (2(0.3))/((0.2253)^(2)) =11.5659

g  (m / s 2 ) = (2(0.5))/((0.2983)^(2)) =11.2381

6
Rentech Free Fall and Atwood’s Machine

Calculating the error rate:

g − g
% Error = x100
g

(2.4638)/((12.2638))*100 = 20.09

(2.0203)/((11.8203))*100 =17.0918

(1.7659)/((11.5659))*100 =15.2681

(1.4381)/((11.2381))*100 =12.7966

g and h graph
12,4

12,2

12

11,8

11,6

11,4

11,2

11
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6

h/t^2
0,6

0,5

0,4

0,3

0,2

0,1

0
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08 0,09 0,1

7
Rentech Free Fall and Atwood’s Machine

Slope of h/t^2:

For 0.2-0.3 → 5.5

For 0.3-0.4 → 5.26

For 0.4-0.5 → 5
0,6
h /t
0,5

0,4

0,3

0,2

0,1

0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35

6. QUESTIONS

1. How does the experimental acceleration

change with the distance? When distance

gets longer, acceleration gets more

accurate.
2. What are possible sources of error in this
experiment? Mathematical errors,
Experimental equipment errors,
Measurement errors

8
Rentech Free Fall and Atwood’s Machine

9
Rentech Free Fall and Atwood’s Machine

1. Purpose

The main purpose of this laboratory activity is to investigate

the relationship between force, mass and acceleration using
an Atwood’s machine.

2. Atwood’s Machine

An Atwood’s machine is a simple device used to

measure the acceleration (𝒂) of a mass system due to

10
Rentech Free Fall and Atwood’s Machine

gravity, and to study the dependence of the accelerating. The net force on the each mass is equal
acceleration on the net force and on the total mass in to the mass of the body times its acceleration:
the system. An Atwood’s machine consists of two block
→ →
connected by a light string over a frictionless pulley to
F = ma (1)
measure the acceleration of a mass system due to
gravity. If the one of the two blocks has greater mass For 𝑚2 > 𝑚1 , the net force applied to each mass will
than the other (𝑚2 > 𝑚1 ), then the system moves as become:
shown in the Figure-(1).
FNet = T − m1 g = m1a (2)
In an Atwood's machine, the difference in weight
between two masses connected by a string over a
FNet = m2 g − T = m2 a (3)
pulley determines the net force (𝑭𝑵𝒆𝒕 ) acting on the
system of both masses. This net force accelerates both
where 𝑻 is the tension in the string, 𝒂 is the magnitude
of the hanging masses; the heavier mass (𝒎𝟐 ) is
of the linear acceleration of either mass in the
accelerated downward, and the lighter mass (𝒎𝟏 ) is
Atwood’s machine and “g” is the acceleration due to
accelerated upward. In the free body diagram of the
gravity.
Atwood’s machine; 𝑻 is the tension in the string, 𝒎𝟏 is
the lighter mass, 𝒎𝟐 is the heavier mass, and “g” is
the acceleration due to gravity. Assuming that there is
no friction on the system, the net force on 𝒎𝟏 is the
difference between the tension (𝑻) and 𝒎𝟏 g; (𝑻 >
𝑚1 g). Similarly, the net force on 𝒎𝟐 is the difference
between the tension and 𝒎𝟐 g such that 𝑻 < 𝑚2 g.

Combining Equations-(2) and (3) leads to:

T = m1a + m1 g (4)

T = m2 g − m2 a (5)

m1a + m1 g = m2 g − m2 a (6)

m1a + m2 a = m2 g − m1 g (7)

Then we find the acceleration as:

 m − m1 
a = g  2 
 m1 + m2 
(8)
Figure-1: Atwood’s machine and the free-body diagram of
the forces on the each mass.

Equation-(8) gives the expected acceleration (𝒂) for

We can apply Newton’s second law to the bodies of the system of both masses. As seen from the
𝒎𝟏 and 𝒎𝟐 on which the net force is not zero. So, the expression, the expected acceleration derived from
bodies are not in equilibrium and hence are

11
Rentech Free Fall and Atwood’s Machine

Newton’s second law is equal to “g” times the measurement uncertainty. This will give the precision of
difference in mass divided by the total mass. your experiment.

The relationship between the distance of the fall (𝒙) ▪ The percent error can be calculated using the

and the linear acceleration (𝒂) of the system is given equation:

by:
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
1 2
x = x0 + v0 t + at (9)
2 𝑎 − 𝑎′
%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100
𝑎

If the mass, 𝑚2 is released from rest (𝑣0 = 0) at a

distance ℎ = 𝑥 above the floor with the initial time 𝑡1 =
0, then 𝑚2 strikes the floor at a final time 𝑡2 = 𝑡 after
its release.

If the initial position of the mass 𝑚2 is 𝑥0 = 0 and the

initial velocity, 𝑣0 = 0, the downward motion along a
straight line by the Equation-(9) will become:

1 2
x= at (10)
2

Solving this expression for the acceleration (𝒂) in terms

of the measured quantities of the displacement (𝒙) and
the time interval (𝒕) will give:

2x
a= (11)
t2

In the laboratory experiment, the Atwood’s machine

system is released from rest. So, Equation-(11) will
give the experimental acceleration of an Atwood's
machine for the applied force (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )g using a total
mass (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ). Also by using the applied force and
total mass (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ), the expected acceleration (𝒂)
of the system will be determined.

3. Experimental Procedures

Compare the experimental and theoretical

accelerations to determine percent error as the

12
Rentech Free Fall and Atwood’s Machine

Experiment 2-2: Atwood’s Machine

4.
Laboratory Report

Name: Cengiz Yıldırım

Department: Aerospace Engineering

Student No: 20210615039

Date: 2.01.22

𝑥(𝑚): 0.5
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚1 (𝑘𝑔): 0.03
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚2 (𝑘𝑔): 0.05

Table-1: Experimental data values of the Atwood’s machine.

t1 ( s ) t 2 ( s) t 3 ( s) t (s) a  (m / s 2 )
x (m) m2 − m1 (kg)
(Measured) (Average) (Experimental)

0.5 0.05-0.03 0.645 0.648 0.652 0.648 2.38

Table-2: Comparison of the expected and calculated experimental acceleration.

x (m) m1 (kg ) m2 (kg) t  (s) a  (m / s 2 ) a (m / s 2 ) a (m / s 2 ) % Error

0.5 0.03 0.05 0,648 2.38 2.45 0.07 2.857

a  (m / s 2 ) : Experimental acceleration of the Atwood’s

Description of the test parameters:
machine system.

x (m) : The distance of the motion for the mass

a (m / s 2 ) : Expected (theoretical) acceleration of the
system (the distance between two
photogates). both masses at Atwood system.

m1 (kg ) : The mass of lighter object.

a (m / s 2 ) : Difference between expected and
m2 (kg ) : The mass of the heavier object. experimental acceleration.
t  (sec.) : The experimental average fall time between
% Error : Calculated percent error of the experimental
two photogates.
acceleration.

13
Rentech Free Fall and Atwood’s Machine

5. QUESTIONS

1. What are the forces acting on the smaller mass, 𝑚1 ? Tension and gravity

2. What are the forces acting on the heavier mass, 𝑚2 ? Tension and gravity

3. Explain briefly how the acceleration of the masses of an Atwood’s machine can be determined?
What is the net applied force? According to Newton’s second law, the acceleration of an object

equals the net force acting on it divided by its mass. Net force is the difference in weight between
two hanging masses

4. What are possible sources of error in this experiment? Mathematical errors, Experimental

equipment errors, Measurement errors

Calculations:

a  (m / s 2 ) = 2(0.5)/(0.648)^2 = 2.38

 m − m1 
a = g  2  = 9.8x( 0.02/0.08) = 2.45
 m1 + m2 

Error rate → 0.07/2.45*100 = 2.857

14
IZMIR UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS

PHYS 100: Experiment 5

HOOKE’S LAW
Rentech Hooke’s Law

1. Purpose The simple harmonic motion of a mass attached to a

spring is shown in Figure-(1). While the mass 𝒎
The purpose of this experiment is to; attached to the spring is stretched at an amount
downward from its vertical equilibrium position (𝒙 =
1. To verify Hooke’s Law and find the spring constant
𝟎, 𝚺𝑭 = 𝟎) and then released, it starts to make a
using Hooke’s Law,
simple harmonic motion between A and B.
2. Connect the springs in series and parallel,
3. Study the simple harmonic motion of a mass attached
When the mass 𝒎 is released at a distance 𝒙 from its
to the end of a spring.
vertical equilibrium point, the restoring force of the
spring accelerates back to the equilibrium point and
1.1. Simple Harmonic Motion
thus the mass starts to make a simple harmonic
motion.

An oscillating object with mass 𝒎 undergoes simple

harmonic motion if the restoring force is proportional
to the displacement as “𝑭 = −𝒌𝒙”. The maximum
displacement from equilibrium is called amplitude. The
period (𝑻) is the time required for one complete cycle
(back and forth). Another term in the harmonic motion
is frequency (𝒇) and it is the number of cycles per
Figure-1: The mass 𝒎 which is stretched at a distance 𝒙
second. The relation between the period (𝑻) and the
from its equilibrium position and then released makes a
frequency (𝒇) is given by:
simple harmonic motion between A and B.

1
T= (1)
If the string is stretched beyond its equilibrium point by f
pulling it down and then releasing it, the spring exerts a
The period (𝑻) of oscillation for a mass (𝒎) on the end
force on the mass (𝒎) that pushes it toward the
of a uniform spring is given by;
equilibrium position (point) and the mass will then
continue to move upward. Above the equilibrium point,
the motion of mass will slow because the net force m
acting on the mass is now downward. As the mass
T = 2 (EXPERIMENTAL) (2)
k
reaches the equilibrium position, the net force on it
decreases to zero, but its velocity at this point is a
maximum. It then repeats the motion, moving upward It is noted that the frequency and period do not depend
and downward symmetrically between 𝒙 = 𝑨 and 𝒙 = on the amplitude. If the Equation-(2) is rewritten for a
𝑩. So, the mass will oscillate around the equilibrium mass (𝒎) attached to the end of a simple spring with
position. the spring constant (𝒌), we get;

When the object oscillates upward and downward m

T 2 = 4 2 (3)
over the same path, each oscillation taking the same k
amount of time, then the motion is periodic. The
simplest form of periodic motion can be represented k 2
m= T (4)
by an object oscillating on the end of a uniform spring. 4 2
The motion which repeats itself at a certain time around
a fixed point under the effect of restoring force is
called simple harmonic motion.

2
Rentech Hooke’s Law

Equation-(4) is similar to the standard equation of a 1.2. Springs Connected in Series

straight line;

y = ax (5)

Here;
y: The mass (𝒎) attached to the spring,
a: Slope (𝒌/𝟒𝝅𝟐 ),

x: Square of Period (𝑻𝟐 ).

As can be seen from the Equation-(5), 𝒎 − 𝑻𝟐 graph is

linear and the SLOPE (𝒂) of the graph is related to the
spring constant by:

k
a= (EXPERIMENTAL) (6)
4 2 (a)

In the mass-spring system, if we pull the mass (𝒎)

downward from its equilibrium point and then release
it, the mass (𝒎) starts to make harmonic motion
along the vertical direction. If the period (𝑻) of the
harmonic motion for different masses is measured, the
spring constant (𝒌) can be found experimentally from
the 𝒎 − 𝑻𝟐 graph.

The spring constant can be determined by measuring the

period of oscillation for different hanging masses on the
end of a spring. In the experiment, you will measure the
period of oscillation for various hanging masses (𝒎) on (b)
the end of a spring, then plot 𝒎 versus 𝑻𝟐 graph and use Figure-2: Series connection of the two springs with spring
Equation-(6) to determine the spring constant (𝒌) constants 𝒌𝟏 and 𝒌𝟐 (a). When the mass (𝒎) is attached to
experimentally. This is the second way to determine the the spring system in series, the tension forces of the two
experimental spring constant (𝒌). springs are equal to each other. The object (𝒎) moves
downward at a distance of 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 from the
unstretched position (b).

By connecting the springs in series or parallel,

mechanical spring systems with different spring
constants 𝒌 can be constructed. As shown in the
Figure-(2a), suppose that you have two different
springs each with spring constant 𝒌𝟏 and 𝒌𝟐 from which
an object of mass 𝒎 is suspended.

3
Rentech Hooke’s Law

If the two springs with spring constants 𝒌𝟏 and 𝒌𝟐 are 1.3. Springs Connected in Parallel
connected end to end, this connection is called series
connection. In this case, the force (𝑭) acting on each
spring connected in series is the same (Figure-2b).

The total extension or compression of the spring

system depends on the extension (or compression) of
the springs individually.

If the force (𝑭) is acting on the spring system

connected in series, the same force act on the each
spring. If the forces acting on each spring are given as
𝑭𝟏 and 𝑭𝟐 , the relation can be written as;

(Series
F = F1 = F2 (7) (a)
Connection)

If the amount of stretch of the system is 𝒙 and the

amount of stretch of each spring is 𝒙𝟏 and 𝒙𝟐 , we can
write;

(Series
x = x1 + x2 Connection)
(8)

Therefore, the spring constant (𝒌) of the spring system

(b)
in series is given as;
Figure-3: Parallel connection of the two springs with spring
F F F
= + (9) constants 𝒌𝟏 and 𝒌𝟐 (a). In the spring system connected in
k k1 k 2 parallel, two springs extend at an equal amount of 𝒙 and the
mass m moves downward at the same amount of 𝒙 (b).
1 1 1
= + (10)
k k1 k 2
If the two springs with spring constant 𝒌𝟏 and 𝒌𝟐 are
k1 k 2 connected side by side, this connection is called
k= (EXPERIMENTAL) (11)
k1 + k 2 parallel connection (Figure-3a). When 𝑭 (that is,𝑾 =
𝒎𝐠) is applied to the system and the system stretches
at a distance 𝒙 from the unstretched position, the
As a result, if the two springs with spring constants 𝒌𝟏 amount of stretch (displacement) at each spring will
and 𝒌𝟐 are connected in series, the equivalent spring be 𝒙.
constant (𝒌) of the system is varied according to the
Equation-(11).

4
Rentech Hooke’s Law

If the force acting on the spring system connected in 2. Experimental Procedures

parallel is “𝑭” and the force acting on each spring is
given as 𝑭𝟏 and 𝑭𝟐 , then the sum of the forces on the
springs is equal to the weight of the object: EXPERIMENT-1: Hooke’s Law
Determination of Spring Constant

(Parallel
F = F1 + F2 Connection)
(12)

As can be seen from Figure-(3b), in the spring system

connected in parallel, two springs stretch at a same
amount of 𝒙:

(Parallel
x = x1 = x2 Connection)
(13)

Because of this reason, the sum of force acting on

each spring will be equal to the force acting on the
system, and the amount of stretch or compression of
the springs will be equal to each other. By using (a)

Equation-(12) and Equation-(13), the total spring

constant (𝒌) of the system is given by;

kx = k1 x + k 2 x (14)

k = k1 + k 2 (EXPERIMENTAL) (15)

Therefore, two springs with spring constants 𝒌𝟏 and 𝒌𝟐

are connected in parallel, the spring constant of the
system is varied as 𝑘 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 . As seen in Equation-
(15), the equivalent spring constant of the system is
bigger than the spring constants of each spring. (b)

Figure-4: Experimental set-up to determine the spring

constant (a) and measurement of displacement (𝒙) from the
vertical equilibrium position.

1. The spring that will be used in the experiment is

hanged to a fixed point (diameter of spring wire,
∅ = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒎).

5
Rentech Hooke’s Law

Experimental Note 4. In a similar way, hanging masses with 𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈

When the mass (𝒎) is attached to the free end of the and 𝒎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒈, the new amount of stretch (𝒙) on
spring, the spring will stretch until it reaches the point the spring by each mass is measured.
where the two forces on the spring and mass system
(the force exerted by the spring and force of gravity) will
be equal but pointing in opposite directions (that is, 𝚺𝑭 = Experimental Note

𝟎 = 𝒎𝐠 − 𝒌𝒙). This point where the two forces balance A spring will return to its rest (original) length when

each other out is known as the vertical equilibrium the force (weight) is removed. If too much force is

position (equilibrium point). applied, the spring will become permanently

deformed such that the original length is altered.

2. Before hanging mass (𝒎) to the spring, a

reference point (𝒙 = 𝟎) is chosen to the free end
5. By the each mass (𝒎) attached to the spring, the
of the spring when the spring is in normal
force (𝑭) applied to the spring is determined.
(unstretched) position. (Figure-4a).

5.1. If a mass 𝒎 is attached to the free end of a

3. When mass 𝒎 is attached to the spring, the spring, it exerts a force 𝑾 = 𝒎𝐠 on the spring and
amount of stretch (displacement) of the spring the length of the spring is changed by 𝒙.
according to the reference point is measured. For
this process; 5.2. Determine the applied force 𝑭 = 𝑾 which the
mass exerts on the spring by calculating the

3.1. Mass 𝒎 = 𝟓𝟎𝒈 (0.050𝑘𝑔) is attached to the weight of the mass (𝒎). Remember that the

spring. weight 𝑾 is given by 𝑾 = 𝒎g and “g” is the

acceleration due to gravity, 𝟗. 𝟖𝟎𝒎/𝒔𝟐 .
𝒎 = 𝟓𝟎𝒈 (0.050𝑘𝑔)

3.2. When the mass 𝒎 is attached to the spring, the Experimental Note
mass-spring system is waited to come to its The applied force (𝑭) by the weight (𝑾) of the each
equilibrium position. mass 𝒎 is found by using the equation:

F = mg
Here, g is the gravitational acceleration (g= 𝟗. 𝟖𝟎𝒎/𝒔𝟐).
Experimental Note
The weight ( 𝑾 = 𝒎𝐠) of the object hanged on the
spring is the force that stretches the spring. Before
measuring the stretch of the spring, mass-spring 5.3. Record these forces in the data table.

system is waited to come to its vertical equilibrium

position. 6. Now, the force (𝑭) applied by the each mass (𝒎)
to the spring as a function of the displacement (𝒙)
3.3. In the equilibrium position, the amount of will be plotted:
stretch (𝒙) of the spring from the vertical
equilibrium position is determined by the height 6.1. Plot the applied force (𝑭) to the spring as a

finder. function of its displacement (𝒙) .

3.4. Note that the displacement (𝒙) of the reference

6.2. On the graph, the amount of stretch 𝒙 is
point on the spring is also the amount of stretch
represented on the horizontal axis (x-axis) and
of the spring (Figure-4b).
the force 𝑭 supplied by the mass is represented
3.5. The amount of stretch (𝒙) in the spring is recorded on the vertical axis (y-axis).
in Table-(1).

6
Rentech Hooke’s Law

6.3. The best line is drawn that most fits the data 𝒎 = 𝟓𝟎𝒈 (0.050𝑘𝑔)
points and the equation of this line is shown on
the graph. 3.1. When mass 𝒎 is attached to the free end of the
spring, the mass-spring system is waited to come
6.4. It is important that the graph should be linear and
its equilibrium position.
the best line should pass through the origin of the
𝑭 − 𝒙 graph.
3.2. When the spring system comes to its equilibrium

6.5. Use your graph to verify Hooke’s Law. The position, the amount of stretch (𝒙) of the system
according to the reference point (𝒙 = 𝟎) is
“EXPERIMENTAL” spring constant (𝒌′ ) will
measured.
be the SLOPE of the best line (straight line).

6.6. Record the value of the spring constant (𝒌′ ), 3.3. Measured amount of stretch (𝒙) is recorded in
Table-(2).
based on Hooke’s Law, as determined from the
slope of the best-fit straight line in Table-(1).

EXPERIMENT-2: Springs Connected in Series

4. In a similar way, hanging masses with 𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈
Determination of Spring Constant
and 𝒎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒈, the new amount of stretch (𝒙) on
the spring system by each mass is measured and
recorded in Table-(2).

5. By calculating the weight of the each mass

attached to the system connected in series, the
force (𝑭 = 𝒎𝐠) applied to the spring system is
determined;

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝒎(𝒌𝒈) 𝑾(𝑵) 𝑭 = 𝒎𝐠
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟎 ..... .....
𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ..... .....
𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟎 ..... .....

6. The force (𝑭) applied to the spring system as a

Figure-5: Experimental setup of the determination of the
function of the change of the length (𝒙) of the
spring constant for the spring system connected in series.
spring is plotted.

1. Two springs with different spring constants are 6.1. On the graph, the amount of stretch 𝒙 is

connected in series (diameter of spring wire ∅ = represented on the horizontal axis (𝐱-axis) and

𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒎 and ∅ = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝒎𝒎). the applied force 𝑭 is represented on the vertical

axis (𝐲-axis).
2. Before hanging mass 𝒎 to the spring, a
reference point is chosen at the free end of the 6.2. The best line that most fits the data points is

two-spring system (Figure-5). drawn and the equation of this line is shown on
the graph.

3. Mass 𝒎 = 𝟓𝟎𝒈 is attached to the free end of the

6.3. It is important that the best line should pass
spring system.
through the origin of the 𝑭 − 𝒙 graph.

7
Rentech Hooke’s Law

6.4. The slope of the graph will give the 3.3. When the spring system comes to its equilibrium
EXPERIMENTAL spring constant (𝒌′ ) value of position, the amount of stretch (𝒙) of the
the spring system connected in series. system according to the reference point is
measured.
6.5. EXPERIMENTAL spring constant (in other
words, equivalent spring constant of the system) 3.4. Measured amount of stretch (displacement) is

is recorded in Table-(2). recorded in Table-(3).

EXPERIMENT-3: Springs Connected in Parallel 4. Similarly, hanging masses with 𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈 and 𝒎 =
Determination of Spring Constant
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒈, the new amount of stretch (𝒙) on the spring
system by the each mass is measured and
recorded in Table-(3).

5. By calculating the weight of the each mass

attached to the system connected in parallel, the
applied force (𝑭 = 𝒎𝐠) to the spring system is
determined;

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝒎(𝒌𝒈) 𝑾(𝑵) 𝑭 = 𝒎𝐠
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟎 ..... .....
𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ..... .....
𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟎 ..... .....

Figure-6: Experimental setup of the determination of the

6. The force (𝑭) applied to the spring system as a
spring constant for the spring system connected in
function of the change of the length (𝒙) is plotted.
parallel.

6.1. On the graph, the amount of stretch (𝒙) is

1. Two springs with different spring constants are represented on the horizontal axis (𝐱-axis) and the

connected in parallel (diameter of spring wire ∅ = applied force 𝑭 is represented on the vertical axis

𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒎 and ∅ = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝒎𝒎). (𝐲-axis).

6.2. The best line that most fits the data points is
2. Before hanging mass (𝒎) to the spring system, a
drawn and the equation of this line is shown on
reference point is chosen at the free end of the
the graph.
two-spring system (Figure-6).
6.3. Note that the best line should pass through the
3. Mass 𝒎 = 𝟓𝟎𝒈 is attached to the free end of the origin of the 𝑭 − 𝒙 graph.
spring system.
6.4. The slope of the graph will give the

3.1. When the mass 𝒎 is attached to the spring, the EXPERIMENTAL spring constant (𝒌′ ) of the

mass-spring system is waited to come to its spring system connected in parallel.

vertical equilibrium position.
6.5. EXPERIMENTAL spring constant value
(equivalent spring constant of the system) is
3.2. In the spring system connected in parallel, these
recorded in Table-(3).
two springs will stretch at a same amount of 𝒙.

8
Rentech Hooke’s Law

Experiment 5: Hooke’s Law

3.
Laboratory Report

Name and Surname: Cengiz Yıldırım

Department: Aerospace Engineering

Student ID: 20210615039

Date: 2.01.22

EXPERIMENT-1: Hooke’s Law

Determination of Spring Constant

Table-1: Using different masses, determination of spring constant from the slope of the graph
Measured Used Calculated Measured Graph Experimental

Diameter of Mass Force applied to the spring The amount of Spring constant
Slope
spring wire stretch

(mm) Slope = k
m(kg) F(N) x(m) k(N/m)
(N/m)
F ( N ) = mg

0.05 0.49 0.025

𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒎 0.1 0.98 0.055 17.29 18.4

0.2 1.96 0.11

EXPERIMENT-2: Springs Connected in Series

Determination of Spring Constant

Table-2: For the spring system connected in series, the determination of the spring constant from the slope of the graph.
Used Calculated Measured Graph Experimental

Mass Force applied to the spring The amount of stretch of Spring constant
Slope
the system

Slope = k
m(kg) F(N) x(m) k(N/m)
(N/m)
F ( N ) = mg

0.05 0.49 0.085

0.1 0.98 0.165 6.125 5.91

0.2 1.96 0.325

9
Rentech Hooke’s Law

EXPERIMENT-3: Springs Connected in Parallel

Determination of Spring Constant

Table-3: For the spring system connected in parallel, the determination of the spring constant from the slope of the graph.
Used Calculated Measured Graph Experimental

Mass Force applied to the spring The amount of stretch of Spring constant
Slope
the system

Slope = k
m(kg) F(N) x(m) k(N/m)
(N/m)
F ( N ) = mg

0.05 0.49 0.025

0.1 0.98 0.04 26.7 22.86

0.2 1.96 0.08

4. QUESTIONS

1. Is the amount of stretch of the springs

proportional to the hanging mass? Explain
m.g = k.x as we can see from the
briefly.
formula, if the mass increases, x will also
increase therefore, it is proportional.

2. Derive a theoretical expression to find k-

equivalent for springs in parallel and springs in
series.
For series → X=x1+x2,
F/k = F/k1 + F/k2, 1/k= 1/k1+1/k2,
k= k1*k2/k1+k2
For parallel → F=F1+F2,
kx= k1(x1)+k2(x2)=(k1+k2)x, k=k1+k2

3. What are possible sources of error in this

experiment? Measurement error, String
deformation, Equipment error, Measuring
when the string is still oscillating

10
Rentech Hooke’s Law

2,5
F/x(1)
2

1,5

0,5

0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12

Graph Calculation of k :
F = kx

F/x = k

K =1.47/0.085 = 17.29

Experimental Calculation of k:

Mg = kx

0.49 = k.(0.025) →K = 19.6

0.98 = k.(0.055) →K = 17.81

1.96 = k(0.11)→ K =17.81

(19.6+17.81+17.81)/(3) = 18.4

11
Rentech Hooke’s Law

2,5
F/x(2)
2

1,5

0,5

0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35

Graph Calculation of k :
F = kx

F/x = k

K =1.47/0.24 = 6.125

Experimental Calculation of k:

Mg = kx

0.49 = k(0.085) → k = 5.76

0.98 = k(0.165) → k = 5.94

1.96 = k(0.325) → k = 6.03

(5.76+5.94+6.03)/3= 5.91

12
Rentech Hooke’s Law

F/x(3)
2,5

1,5

0,5

0
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08 0,09

Graph Calculation of k:
F = kx

F/x = k

K =1.47/0.055 = 26.7

Experimental Calculation of k:

Mg = kx

0.49 = k(0.025) → k = 19.6

0.98 = k(0.04) → k = 24.5

1.96 = k(0.08) → k = 24.5

(19.6+24.5+24.5)/3= 22.86

13
IZMIR UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS

PHYS 100: Experiment 4

PROJECTILE MOTION
 Rentech Projectile Motion

1. Projectile Motion First we examine the horizontal (x) component of the

motion. In the horizontal x-direction, the acceleration
is zero. With ax=0, the horizontal component of velocity
vx remains constant, equal to its initial value, vx0 such
that vx=vx0. Thus, the x-component of the velocity of the
object (vx) will be constant and have the same
magnitude at each point on the path.

However, the acceleration only acts along the vertical

y-direction. The vertical component of the velocity is
initially zero (vy=0) and increases continually in the
downward vertical direction until the ball hits the ground.
This means that only the vertical component of the
velocity (vy) will change with respect to time.

One of the two components of the velocity vector is

parallel to the horizontal x-axis and the other is parallel
Figure-1: Trajectory of a ball projected horizontally off a platform
to the vertical, or y-axis:
at time t=0, with the initial velocity v0. The dashed line represents
the path of the object. →
v = v x iˆ + v y ˆj (2)
A projectile is any object fired from the projectile
launcher that is given an initial velocity and then follows

The components of the acceleration vector a are:
a path determined entirely by the effects of gravitational
acceleration. The path followed by a projectile is called ax = 0 (3)
its trajectory. We analyze our projected object only
when it is moving freely through the air with the
ay = a (Constant) (4)
acceleration due to gravity. The acceleration of the
object is that due to gravity which acts downwards with
Note that the x-component of acceleration is zero and y-
the magnitude:
component is constant.

g = 9 .8 m / s 2 (Acceleration due to gravity) (1) Thus, we can analyze projectile (two-dimensional)

motion as a combination of horizontal motion with
constant velocity and the vertical motion with constant
Projectile motion is the two-dimensional motion of an
acceleration. Since there is no acceleration in the
object under the influence of Earth’s gravitational
horizontal x-direction, the horizontal component of the
acceleration. The position of such an object at any time
particle’s velocity remains constant from its initial value
t is given by a set of coordinates x and y which vary with
throughout the motion.
respect to time and represent the horizontal and vertical
coordinates, respectively (see Figure-1). In vector form, the acceleration can be expressed as the
form:
According to the Figure-1, at the instant the ball leaves
the platform, it has only an x-component of the velocity →
a = a x iˆ + a y ˆj (5)
(v0=vx0). Once the ball leaves the platform at t=0, it
experiences a vertically downward acceleration g, the
→
acceleration due to gravity. a = a y ˆj (6)

2
 Rentech Projectile Motion

The position vector of the object at any time is given by:

In the projectile motion, the horizontal motion and the

→
vertical motion are independent of each other, neither
r = xiˆ + yˆj (7) motion affects the other. This feature allows you to separate
a problem involving two-dimensional motion into two easier

The position of the object after a time t when it one-dimensional problems; one for the horizontal motion
(with zero acceleration) and one for the vertical motion (with
undergoes constant acceleration can be described with
constant downward acceleration).
the kinematic equations in two dimensions:

1
x = x0 + v x0 t + axt 2 (8)
2 Suppose that at time t=0, the ball is at the point (x0, y0)
and at this time its velocity components have the initial
1 vx0 and vy0. Since the velocity of horizontal motion in the
y = y0 + v y0t + ayt 2 (9)
2 projectile motion is constant, we can write:

We can then write the kinematic equations for constant ax = 0 (10)

acceleration in two-Dimensions as:

x-Component (Horizontal) y-Component (Vertical) vx = v x0 (Experimental) (11)

v x = v x0 + a x t v y = v y0 + a y t
1 1
x = x 0 +v x 0 t + axt 2 y = y0 + v y0t + ayt 2 The projectile has no horizontal acceleration during flight
2 2
(ax=0). Thus, its horizontal motion will be:
Here,

x = x0 + v x t (12)
vx : Horizontal component of velocity,
We can choose the time interval to begin (t=0) just as
v x0 : Initial velocity in the horizontal (x)-direction,
the ball leaves the projectile launcher at the position:
ax : Acceleration in the horizontal (x)-direction,

t: Time for the motion,

x0 = y 0 = 0 (13)

x: Horizontal displacement (distance) after a time t,

This is the origin in the coordinate system associated
x0 : Initial position in the horizontal (x) direction, with the initial position of the ball at t=0. The time interval

vy : Vertical component of the velocity,

ends just before the ball hits the ground.

v y0 : Initial velocity in the vertical (y) direction, Using the relationship given by the Equation-(13), we
can find the equation of motion along the x-axis as:
ay : Acceleration in the vertical (y) direction,

y: Vertical displacement (distance) after a time t,

x = vxt (Experimental) (14)
y0 : Initial position in the vertical (y) direction,

These equations describe the position and velocity of a The horizontal displacement (x) for the projectile motion
particle with constant acceleration at any time, t. In the case of a small ball can be determined by using Equation-
of projectile motion, the acceleration is downward and has a (14).
constant magnitude g.

3
 Rentech Projectile Motion

For the motion along the y-axis, the velocity (vy) and 1.1. Horizontal Projectile Motion
vertical displacement (y) at the later time (t) will
become:

v y = at (15)

1 2
y= at (Experimental) (16)
2

The vertical displacement of the ball is given by the

Equation-(16). It is important to remember that when a
ball is launched horizontally, the initial velocity has no
vertical component (vyo=0). Therefore, the time for a ball
projected horizontally depends only on the vertical
distance the ball travels.

Finally, if we analyze the projectile motion, we can make

Figure-2: Horizontal and vertical distances for a ball projected
the following important conclusions: horizontally off a platform.

▪ The horizontal component (x-axis) of a projectile’s

In this case, the ball is fired horizontally with an initial
velocity is constant. (So, the horizontal component of
velocity (v0) from a launcher and falls a vertical
acceleration, in other words, is zero).
distance (y) before hitting the floor (ground) at a
▪ The projectile motion will have a constant downward distance (x) from the point where it left the launcher.
(y-axis) acceleration due to gravity.
We take the x-axis as being horizontal, y-axis as being
upward and place the origin at the initial (t=0) position
In this part of experiment, the initial velocity is our where the ball first becomes a projectile as it leaves the
unknown and we can determine the initial velocity of a launcher at t=0. The acceleration of the projectile has no
projectile (ball) as it is fired by a projectile launcher, horizontal component and the vertical component of the
horizontally. The way is to measure the horizontal
acceleration equals to the acceleration due to gravity (g):
displacement and vertical distance of the motion and
then use the kinematic equations for the projectile
ax = 0 (Horizontal motion) (17)
motion to calculate the initial velocity of the ball.

since the velocity is constant in the horizontal x-

direction. If we assume y-direction is positive upward,
we can also set:

ay = −g (Vertical motion) (18)

In the vertical direction, the acceleration is the

acceleration due to gravity.

If the x-axis is horizontal and positive in the direction of

launcher and the y-axis is vertical with the positive direction
4
 Rentech Projectile Motion

upward, then the kinematic equations for the two-dimensional Now, we can simplify kinematic equations for the case
projectile motion are given as:
of the projectile motion. Setting x0=0 for the ball
launched horizontally off a table with an initial speed, the
Horizontal Motion Vertical Motion*
horizontal distance (x) travelled by the ball will be:
( ax = 0 , vx =
( ay = − g = Constant)
Constant)
x =v x0 t Horizontal motion
(24)
vx = v x0 v y = v y 0 − gt (Experimental)

1 2
x = x0 +v x0 t y = y 0 + v yo t − gt where t is the time the ball stays in the air.
2
(y: Positive upward; ax=0, ay= −g= −9.80m/s2) In the horizontal direction, the acceleration is zero
*
If the y-direction is taken positive downward, the minus (-) (ax=0) and so the horizontal component of the velocity

signs in front of g becomes plus (+) signs. remains constant (vx=constant), equal to its initial value
during the motion.

According to the Figure-(2), we can choose the origin of

x-y coordinate system at the initial position of the ball Similarly, setting vy0=0 since the ball is projected
(projectile) where it is launched horizontally, taking +y horizontally; the equation of vertical motion reduces to
upward. It is usually simplest to take the initial position the form of:
at t=0 as the origin;
1
x0 = y 0 = 0 (19) y = − gt 2 Vertical Motion
(25)
2

This is the initial position of a ball (projectile) at the instant it

leaves the launcher. Note that we call the position at time t=0
The time the ball stays in the air is determined by the y-
the initial position, denoted by x0 and y0.
motion (the vertical displacement). Solving for the time
(t) in the Equation-(25) yields:
For the motion of a horizontally projected ball (=00), the
initial velocity is horizontal and the initial vertical
velocity is zero, such that: 2y
t= Time of Flight
(26)
−g (Experimental)
v x 0 = v0 (20)

v y0 = 0 (21) The time of flight of the ball launched off a table from a
height (h) can be found by using Equation-(26). Then,
However, in the case of an object projected at an by measuring x and y, the initial velocity of the ball can
upward angle () above the horizontal (positive x-axis), be found by using:
we would have the initial velocity components:

x
v x 0 = v 0 cos  (22) v x 0 = v0 = Initial Velocity
(27)
t (Experimental)

v y 0 = v 0 sin  (23)

Thus, by measuring the horizontal distance (x) and the

The above equations represent the components of the initial
vertical distance of the fall (y), one can predict the initial
velocity by its magnitude (v0) and its angle.
horizontal velocity (vx0) of the ball by the Equation-(27).

5
 Rentech Projectile Motion

1.2. Projectile Motion at an Angle

Figure-3: Initial velocity and position of the ball for a

horizontal launch.

Figure-4: A ball launched at an angle  with an initial velocity.

Figure-(3) shows the path of a projectile that starts at
the origin at time t=0. In order to analyze the motion, we
can investigate the motion of the ball along the Consider a projectile launched from an initial position
horizontal and vertical axes independently. For this (x0=0, y0=0) at an initial angle θ with respect to the
purpose, we draw the x and y-axes as taking the initial horizontal with an initial velocity v0 (Figure-4). We can
position (at t=0) as the origin (x0=0, y0=0). The positive predict the horizontal distance (x) of a ball launched
direction of the y-axis is taken upward. with the initial velocity at the angle (θ=θ0). In the
projectile motion with no air resistance (ax=0, ay=−g), we
At the instant the ball leaves the launcher (t=0), it has
should first determine the time of flight (t) using the
only an x-component of velocity (vx0). Once the ball
equation for the vertical y-motion:
leaves the launcher at t=0, it experiences a vertically
downward acceleration due to gravity. So, vy is initially 1 2
y = y 0 + v yo t − gt (28)
zero (vy0=0) but increases continually in the downward 2
direction until the ball hits the ground. The vertical
displacement (y) of the ball is measured from the ground
v y 0 = v 0 sin  0 (29)

to the bottom of the ball at the launch point. 1 2

y = y 0 + (v0 sin  0 )t − gt (30)
2
In the horizontal x-direction, however, the acceleration

is zero. The x-component of the velocity vx of the ball is where, y0 is the initial position and y is the vertical distance
(displacement) of the ball when it hits the floor.
constant, equal to its initial value vx0. So, we consider
the known and unknown quantities as: We choose our time interval to begin (t=0) just as the
ball leaves the launcher at the position:
Horizontal Projectile Motion (=00)

Horizontal Vertical Flight Initial x0 = 0 Initial Position

(31)
(Horizontal)
Distance Distance Time Velocity

x(m) y(m) t(s) v0(m/s)

Known Known Unknown Unknown

y0 = 0 Initial Position
(32)
(Vertical)

6
 Rentech Projectile Motion

Projectile Motion at an Angle (θ)

Angle (θ) Initial Velocity (v0)

Known Known

Initial Vertical Flight Horizontal

Position Distance Time Distance

y0(m) y(m) t(s) x(m)

Known Known Calculated Predicted

Figure-5: Projectile motion of a ball projected at an angle ()

If we know the initial velocity (vx0) and the vertical above the horizontal.

distance (y) above the ground, we can obtain the flight

of time (t) from the y-motion at which the ball hits the
As an example, consider a ball launched at an angle
ground as:
=370 with an initial velocity v=20m/s from a height of
h=1.0m above the ground (Figure-5). We can predict
1
y = 0 + (v0 sin  0 )t − gt 2 (33) the horizontal distance the ball traveled before hitting the
2
ground.

1 2 Projectile Motion at an Angle (θ)

y = (v0 sin  0 )t − gt Time of Flight
(34)
2 (Experimental) Angle (θ) Initial Velocity (v0)

370 20m/s

If the ball is shot off a table with a launch angle with respect to Initial Vertical Flight Horizontal

the horizontal (), the time of flight (t) is found using the Position Distance Time Distance
Equation-(34) for the vertical motion. y0(m) y(m) t(s) x(m)

We rearrange this equation into standard form of: 0 -1.0m Unknown Predicted

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 (35)

We take the y-direction as positive upward and

So, by solving this equation, we can find the solution
corresponding to the flight time (t) at which the ball investigate the x and y-motions separately. First, we

touches the ground. Once the time of flight (t) is known, should choose the time interval to start when the ball is

the horizontal distance (x) an object travels horizontally launched (t=0, x0=0, y0=0) and end just before the ball

can be predicted as: hits the ground (y= −1.0m).

x = v x0 t (36) Now, we can find the flight time from the y-motion at
which the ball hits the ground (floor). When we resolve
the initial velocity into its components, we get:
x = (v0 cos 0 )t Horizontal Distance
(37)
(Experimental)
▪ v x 0 = v 0 cos 37 0

v x 0 = (20m / s)(0.799)
Equation-(37) gives the horizontal distance travelled by
the launched projectile (ball) in terms of the launch angle ✓ v x 0 = 16.0m / s
θ and the initial velocity v0 after a time t.

7
 Rentech Projectile Motion

▪ v y 0 = v 0 sin 37 0 This is the total distance traveled in the x-direction.

v y 0 = (20 m / s )(0.602 )

✓ v y 0 = 12 .0m / s 1.3. Horizontal Range

The x-motion occurs at constant velocity as the y-

component of the velocity varies. With the vertical
distance y=−1.0m and initial velocity component
vy0=12.0m/s, we use the equation:

1 2
❖ y = y0 + v y 0t − gt
2
and find,

− 1.0m = 0 + (12.0m / s)t − (4.90m / s 2 )t 2

Figure-6: The range of a projectile.

If we rearrange this expression into the standard form,
we get;
The horizontal range (R) is defined as the horizontal
distance the projectile travels before returning to its
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
original height.

(4.9m / s 2 )t 2 − (12.0m / s)t − (1.0m) = 0

Suppose that a projectile (ball) is fired from the origin
with the angle of  and the initial velocity, v0 as seen in
This equation has two roots:
the Figure-(6). After the projectile travels a horizontal

− b  b − 4ac
2 distance (R), it returns to the same level as y=0, the final
x=
2a point at the end of flight. We choose our time interval to
start just after the projectile is fired (as t=0, y0=0) and to
12.0  (−12.0) 2 − 4(4.90)(−1.0) end just before the ball touches the ground (y=0 again,
t=
2(4.90)
since the y-position of the projectile at the end of the
flight is just y=0).
✓ t = 2.53s or − 0.081s
To find a general expression for the range R, we first set
Note that the second solution here corresponds to a time prior
to our chosen time interval when the ball is launched (t=0), so
y=0 and y0=0 in the equation of vertical motion:
it does not apply. The positive root tells us that the ball takes
1
2.53s to reach the ground. Once we know the initial velocity y = y0 + v y 0t + ayt 2 (38)
(vx0) and time of flight (t) of the ball, we can predict where 2
the ball will land on the floor when it is fired from the projectile
Then, for the vertical motion, we obtain:
launcher.

With the flight time t=2.53s at which the ball touches the 1 2
0 = 0 + v y0t − gt (39)
ground, we can predict the horizontal distance as: 2

▪ x = v x0 t Next, we solve for the time t, which gives two solutions:

✓ x = (16.0m / s)(2.53s) = 40.5m t =0 (40)

8
 Rentech Projectile Motion

expression for the range R can be used only when launch

2v yo
t= (Time of Flight) (41) and landing heights are equal.
g
The first solution corresponds to the initial instant of the 2. Experimental Procedures
projection and the second solution is the total time of
flight when the projectile returns again y=0. If we use the
relation: 2.1. Experiment
Projectile Motion Launched at an Angle Using
a Photogate Timer
v y 0 = v0 sin  (42)

we can rewrite Equation-(41) as:

The purpose of this part of experiment is to predict and
verify the horizontal distance traveled by a ball launched
2v0 sin  off a table at an angle above the horizontal by using the
t= (Time of Flight) (43)
g time of flight and the initial velocity. To predict the new
horizontal distance (x) travelled by the ball launched with an
angle, a timer will be used.
For the case as shown in the Figure-(6) in which the ball
hits on a place that is at the same level as the level of
the ball of the launcher, the time of flight (t) can be found
by the Equation (43). Then, the range (R) will be:

R = v x0 t (44)

2v0 sin 
R = v x0 ( ) (45)
g

2v0 sin 
R = (v0 cos )( ) (46)
g

2v02 sin  cos

R=( ) (47)
g

By the trigonometric identity:

R = 2 sin  cos = sin 2 (48)

v02 sin 2
R=( ) (Range) (49)
g
Figure-7: Experimental set-up to predict the horizontal

Here, distance traveled by a ball shot off a table at an angle ().

v0 : Initial velocity of the ball as it leaves the launcher,

: Launch angle above the horizontal, 1. Construct the experimental set-up as shown in the
g: Acceleration due to gravity. Figure-(7).

It is clear that the maximum range for a given initial velocity

1.1. Adjust the angle of the launcher to =300.
(v0) is obtained when sin2 takes on its maximum value of
1.0 which occurs for 2=900; so,=450. In particular, the

9
 Rentech Projectile Motion

1.2. Put the steel ball into the projectile launcher and set
it to the short range setting (short range position).
5. Predict the new horizontal distance (x) travelled
2. Fire a test shot to obtain the location where the ball by the projectile launched with the angle of =300.
hits on the floor.
5.1. To predict horizontal distance (x), use;
2.1. Move the force plate (timer plate) to the new
landing position on the floor so that the ball hits the
✓ Horizontal component (vx0) of the initial
force plate.
velocity and,
✓ Time of flight (t) in the expression:
2.2. Press the Start button on the Timer.
x = v x0 t
2.3. Shoot the ball off the table.
x = (v 0 cos  )t
2.4. Choose the coordinate system such that the ball
leaves the launcher at the initial position "t=0, x0=0,
Test Parameters Values
y0=0".
Launch Angle () 300

Initial Horizontal Velocity (vx0) Known

3. Next, determine the components of the initial
Time of Flight (t) Measured
velocity (v0) obtained in the previous experiment
Horizontal Distance (x) Predicted
(corresponding to the horizontal projectile motion
using a Timer). For this:
5.2. Record the data in the Table-(2).

3.1. Resolve the initial velocity (v0) into its

5.3. Also measure the horizontal distance traveled by
components as the initial horizontal velocity (vx0)
the “time of flight” along the floor from the front of
and the initial vertical velocity (vy0) for the angle
the launcher barrel to the point where the ball hits
=300 as: the force plate.

v x 0 = v 0 cos  5.4. Record the measured horizontal distance as (x’)

in the data Table-(2).

v y 0 = v 0 sin 
5.5. Using the calculated (predicted) horizontal
distance as your ‘accepted value’, find the percent
3.2. Record the horizontal and vertical components of
difference between the predicted and measured
the initial velocity in the data Table-(1).
horizontal distance.

4. Read the total time (t2) between the launch time 5.6. Record the percent difference in the Table-(2).
and landing time when the ball hits the force plate.
6. Repeat the experiment for the medium and long
4.1. This is the new "time of flight" of the ball launched range settings of the launcher.
with the angle from the front of the launcher.

4.2. Record the "Time of Flight" as t in the data Table-

(2).

10
 Rentech Projectile Motion

Experiment 4: Projectile Motion

3.
Laboratory Report

Name: Cengiz Yıldırım

Department: Aerospace Engineering

Student No: 20210615039

Date: 2.01.22

Experiment Projectile Motion

Projectile Motion Launched at an Angle Using a Photogate Timer

Table -1: Initial horizontal and vertical velocities of the ball launched at an angle with respect to horizontal.

Adjusted Known Calculated Calculated

Initial Horizontal
Initial Velocity Initial Vertical Velocity
Velocity
Launcher Angle Angle
𝑑
𝜈0 = v x 0 = v 0 cos  v y 0 = v 0 sin 
𝑡2

Range Setting (deg) v0(m/s) (deg) vx0(m/s) vy0(m/s)

15 2.221 0.595

Short 0 2.3 30 1.99 1.15

45 1.626 1.626

𝑑
d =0.43m 𝜈0 = = 0.43/0.1873 = 2.295
𝑡2

t2 =0.1873

11
Table-2: percent difference between the predicted and measured horizontal distance from the launcher

Adjusted Adjusted Measured Measured By Ruler Known Predicted Calculated

Launcher Angle Time of Flight Horizontal Distance Initial Horizontal Velocity Horizontal Distance Percent Difference

vx0(m/s) x(m)
Range Setting (deg) t(s) x’(m) x (%)
v x 0 = v 0 cos  x = v x0 t

15 0.276 0.54 2.221 0.613 11.90

Short 30 0.359 0.64 1.99 0.715 10.49

45 0.419 0.55 1.626 0.681 19.23

4. QUESTIONS

1. A projectile is a ball fired from the projectile ball

is launched launcher. If the with an initial
velocity of v0 and a launch angle of , what are
the kinematic equations for the horizontal and
vertical distances traveled after a time t?
For vertical → v0 x sin(a) = vertical speed
Vertical speed * t = x
For horizontal → v0 x cos (a) = horizontal speed
y = h + (horizontal speed )*t – g*t^2 / 2

2. If the object is projected at an upward angle,

how does the vertical velocity change during the
trajectory of the projectile? Explain briefly. As
the object is rising, gravity pulls on the object
and decreases the vertical speed to 0. After it
reaches the maximum height, vertical speed
will start the increase in the opposite direction.

3. Does a change in the launch angle change the

time of flight? If so, how does the time of flight
depend on the angle of the launch?
Vertical speed = v0 x sin(a),
Vertical speed - gt =0, Gravity decreases the
vertical speed until the object reaches the
maximum height. And vertical speed could take
different values because of sin(a). This how the
time of the flight depends on the angle.

4. Does the time of flight of the ball change if the

initial velocity changes? (Consider the vertical
component of the initial velocity and the
equation for the vertical motion).
Vertical speed = v0 x sin(a)
Vertical speed - gt =0, Gravity decreases the
vertical speed until the object reaches the
maximum height. As we can see from the
formula if the initial velocity changes, t value
will also change.
 Rentech Projectile Motion

CALCULATIONS:
(deg) = 15 → vx0(m/s)=2.3(cos15) = 2.221

(deg) = 30 → vx0(m/s)= 2.3(cos30) =1.991

(deg) = 45 → vx0(m/s) =2.3(cos45) = 1.626

(deg) = 15 → vx0(m/s)=2.3(sin15) = 0.595

(deg) = 30 → vx0(m/s)= 2.3(sin30)= 1.15

(deg) = 45 → vx0(m/s) =2.3(sin45) = 1.626

Horizontal Distance:

(deg) = 15 → 2.221 x 0.276 = 0.613

(deg) = 30 → 1.991 x 0.359 = 0.715

(deg) = 45→ 1.626 x 0.419 = 0.681

Error rate:

(deg) = 15 →

((0.613-0.54))/(0.613)*100= 11.90

(deg) = 30 →

((0.715-0.64))/(0.715)*100 = 10.49

(deg) = 45→

((0.681-0.55))/(0.681)*100 = 19.23

14
IZMIR UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS

PHYS 100: Experiment 4

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
USING AIR TRACK
Rentech Hava Rayı

Hava Rayı Deney Seti MODE 2:

İki kızağın kullanıldığı elastik çarpışma (tek boyutta elastik
çarpışma) deneyleri için düzenlenmiş olan bu mod, t11, t12,
t21 ve t22 verilerini sağlar. Burada;

t11: Birinci sensörden geçen birinci kızağın geçiş

süresini,
t12: Birinci sensörden geçen ilk kızağın tekrar geçiş
süresini,
t21: İkincici sensörden geçen ikinci kızağın ilk geçiş
süresini,
t22: İkincici sensörden geçen ikinci kızağın tekrar
geçiş süresini verir (çarpışmadan sonra).
Şekil-1: Hava rayı deney seti.

Birbirlerine doğru ilerleyen iki kızağın (cismin) çarpışmadan

Bu deneyde kullanılacak Hava Rayı deney seti; bir adet sonra ilk hızlarının tersi yönde hareket ettikleri deneyler bu
delikli üçgen prizma ray, iki adet sensör, bir adet kızak, ölçüm modu ile gerçekleştirilir.

bir adet makara ve kütleden oluşmaktadır. Ayrıca raya

basınçlı hava sağlayan hava kaynağı ve sensörlerden MODE 3:
gelen veriyi okuyan ve hafızaya alabilen bir dijital İki kızağın kullanıldığı tek boyutta inelastik çarpışma
göstergeli ara-yüz bulunmaktadır (Şekil-1). Kızak ve deneyleri için düzenlenmiş olan bu mod; t11, t21, t22,
üzerindeki tek parça perde bir boyutta hareket t23,t12, t13, verilerini sağlar. Burada;
etmektedir. Sensörün bacakları arasından bu kızak
t11: Birinci sensörden geçen ilk kızağın geçiş
perdesi geçerek infrared ışını bloke eder. Bu sayede
süresini,
kızağın hangi anda sensöre girip (blokeli) hangi anda
çıktığı (blokesiz) ve sensörler arasını ne kadar sürede t21: İkinci sensörden geçen ikinci kızağın ilk geçiş
aldığı konusunda bilgi sağlarlar. Bu veriler, ara-yüz süresini,
ekranından okunabilir. Ölçümlerde kullanılan ara-yüz
dijital göstergelidir ve aşağıda verilen üç farklı çalışma t22: İki kızağın yapışmasından sonra, eğer hareket
moduna sahiptir; ikinci sensöre doğru olursa, ikinci sensörden,
tekrar geçen ikinci kızağın geçiş süresini,

t23: İki kızağın yapışmasından sonra, eğer hareket

MODE 1: ikinci sensöre doğru olursa, ikinci sensörden
Ray üzerinde tek kızağın sırasıyla 1. ve 2.sensörden geçen ilk kızağın geçiş süresini,
geçtiği hareketler (sabit hızlı veya ivmeli düzgün
t12: İki kızağın yapışmasından sonra, eğer hareket
doğrusal hareketler) için düzenlenmiş olan bu ölçüm
birinci sensöre doğru olursa, birinci sensörden
modunda t1, t2 ve t3 verileri bulunur; Burada;
geçen ilk kızağın geçiş süresini,
t1: Kızağın 1. sensörden geçme süresini,
t13: İki kızağın yapışmasından sonra, eğer hareket
t2: Kızağın iki sensör arasındaki mesafeyi alma
süresini, birinci sensöre doğru olursa, birinci sensörden

t3: Kızağın 2.sensörden geçme süresini verir. geçen ikinci kızağın geçiş süresini verir.

Yani birbirlerine doğru ilerleyen iki kızağın çarpışmadan sonra

her ikisininde aynı yönde ilerleyerek çarpışma sonrasında aynı
sensörden geçtikleri deneyler bu mod ile gerçekleştirilir.

2
Rentech Hava Rayı

HAVA RAYI DENEY SETİ

(MEKANİK ENERJİNİN KORUNUMU)

1. Amaç

Bu deneyde;

1. Potansiyel enerji kavramının anlaşılması,

2. Kinetik enerji kavramının anlaşılması,

3. Potansiyel enerji ve kinetik enerjiyi kullanarak mekanik

enerji dönüşümünün açıklanması
Şekil-2: Serbest düşme hareketi.

amaçlanmıştır.
Serbest düşme hareketi ilk hızsız (𝒗𝟎 = 𝟎), düzgün
hızlanan ve aşağı yönlü (düşey doğrultulu) olan sabit
2. Genel Bilgiler ivmeli bir harekettir. Cisme etki eden yerçekimi kuvveti
sabittir ve 𝑚𝑔 kadardır. Newton’un 2. yasasına göre;

Sürtünmenin bulunmadığı veya ihmal edilebilecek

kadar küçük olduğu bir sistemde kinetik ve potansiyel 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎 (1)
enerjilerin toplamına mekanik enerji denir. Sisteme
dışardan bir kuvvet etki etmediği sürece toplam
mekanik enerji değişmez. Yani sistemin ilk ve son olur. Sabit ivmeli harekete cisme etki eden iki kuvvet
durumlardaki enerjileri toplamı eşittir. Herhangi bir 𝒕- vardır. Bu kuvvetlerden biri yerçekimi kuvveti, diğeri
zamanda kinetik (𝑲𝑬) ve potansiyel (𝑷𝑬) enerjilerin ise sürtünme kuvvetidir (havanın direnç kuvveti). Yer
toplamı olan mekanik enerji, 𝑬 = 𝑲𝑬 + 𝑷𝑬 eşitliği ile değiştirmenin (yüksekliğin) küçük olduğu koşullarda,
gösterilir. Sürtünmesiz bir sistemde mekanik enerji cismin hareketi üzerindeki havanın direnç kuvvetinin
daima korunur ve bu nedenle cismin herhangi bir etkisi ihmal edilebilir. Bu durumda, serbest bırakılan
andaki kinetik ve potansiyel enerjilerin toplamı daima cisim yalnızca yerçekimi kuvvetinin etkisi altında sabit
sabittir, değişmez. Sistemin mekanik enerjisi bir kuvvetle ve sabit "𝑔" yerçekimi ivmesiyle serbest
korunuyor ise ilk ve son mekanik enerji birbirine eşit düşme hareketi yaptığı kabul edilir. Serbest düşme
olacaktır. hareketi sabit ivmeli bir hareket olduğu için anlık ivme
(𝑎) ile ortalama ivme aynı olacaktır. Buna göre ivmeyi
Örneğin, 𝒉 yükseklikten serbest düşüşe bırakılan 𝑚
𝒗/𝒕 olarak alabiliriz (𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕);
kütleli bir cismi inceleyelim (Şekil-2). Seçilen bir
referans noktasına göre cismin konum değişimine yer
değiştirme denir. Serbest düşme hareketi düşey 𝑣
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚 ( ) (2)
doğrultuda olduğu için konumu (yer değiştirmeyi), 𝒚 𝑡
koordinatı ile gösterebilir ve bu koordinat sisteminde
aşağı yönü pozitif 𝒚 ekseni olarak alabiliriz. İlk hızsız
(𝒗𝟎 = 𝟎) serbest düşmeye bırakılan cisim sabit 𝒈
yerçekimi ivmesi ile aşağı doğru düzgün hızlanan
hareket yapar.

3
Rentech Hava Rayı

Şimdi bu topun bırakıldığı yüksekliğin 𝒉 olduğunu kabul

edelim ve yukarıdaki ifadenin her iki tarafını bu 𝒉
değeri ile çarpalım;

𝑣
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚 ( ) ℎ
𝑡
(3)

yazabiliriz. Topun düştüğü yükseklik, bu mesafe için

ortalama hızın geçen süre ile çarpımına eşit olduğu için
𝑣
ℎ = ( )𝑡 yazabiliriz. Bunu eşitliğin sağ tarafında kullanıp
2
Şekil-3: Eğik düzlemde hareket.
gerekli sadeleştirmeleri yaparsak;

Sisteme dışardan bir kuvvet etki etmediği sürece

𝑣 𝑣
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚 ( ) ( 𝑡) toplam enerji değişmez. Bu nedenle, sürtünmeden
𝑡 2
(4) dolayı oluşabilecek enerji kayıpları ihmal edilirse,
1
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑣 2 enerjinin korunumuna göre sistemin toplam mekanik
2
enerjisi sabit kalır (diğer bir ifadeyle mekanik enerji
korunacaktır). Sürtünmesiz eğik düzlemde, hareketin
olur. Bu eşitlikte sol taraftaki 𝑚𝑔ℎ ifadesi ℎ ivmesi zamana bağlı olarak değişmez (cisim sabit
yüksekliğindeki 𝑚 kütleli cismin sahip olduğu potansiyel ivmeli hareket yapar). Cismin sabit ivmeli bu
enerjidir (𝑃𝐸). Sağ taraftaki 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 ifadesi ise bu hareketinde hız ise düzgün olarak değişir, yani zamana
cismin zemine çarpmadan hemen önceki toplam göre düzgün olarak artar.
kinetik enerjisidir (𝐾𝐸). Sonuç olarak hareketin
Bu bölümde, rayın üst kısmından serbest bırakılan
herhangi bir anındaki toplam mekanik enerjisi (𝐾𝐸 +
kızağın (cismin) hareketi incelenerek enerji korunumu
𝑃𝐸) sabittir.
doğrulanmaya çalışılacaktır. Bunun için kızağın
(cismin) kinetik enerjisindeki artış ve potansiyel
2.1. Enerjinin Korunumu – Eğik Düzlem enerjindeki azalma hesaplanacaktır. Enerji korunumu
yasasına göre, herhangi bir andaki kinetik enerji ve
potansiyel enerji toplamı sabit olacağından,
Enerji korunumu Newton yasalarına uyan herhangi bir
kurduğumuz sistemde 3 noktadaki toplam enerjiler
sisteme uygulanabildiği için çalışmanın bu kısmında
hesaplanarak bu sabitlik gözlenmeye çalışılacaktır
eğik düzlem haline getirilmiş hava rayı sistemi
(Şekil-3). Bu noktalar;
kullanılacaktır. Eğik düzlemde, düzlemin üst kısmında
bulunan bir cisim (kızak) başlangıç olarak sadece
1) Kızağı ilk hızsız, sadece serbest bırakarak hareketine
potansiyel enerjiye sahiptir. İlk hızsız serbest
başlattığımız nokta olan 𝒙𝟎 noktası,
bırakılan cisim, eğik düzlemde aşağıya doğru hareket
ederek hızlanır ve kinetik enerji kazanır. Eğer sisteme 2) Kızağın ilk sensörden geçtiği nokta olan 𝒙𝟏 noktası,

sürtünme kuvveti etki etmiyorsa veya sürtünme

3) Kızağın ikinci sensörden geçtiği nokta olan 𝒙𝟐
küçükse, başlangıçta cismin sahip olduğu potansiyel
noktasıdır. Bu nokta, referans seviye olarak seçilir
enerji tümüyle kinetik enerjiye dönüşür.
(𝒉𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝑷𝑬 = 𝟎)

4
Rentech Hava Rayı

Cisim eğik düzlemin tepesinde ilk hızsız hareket Enerji korunumu Newton yasalarına uyan herhangi bir
etmeye başlamaktadır. Dolayısıyla; sisteme uygulanabilir. Bu çalışmada, hava rayı ile
kurulan Atwood makinesinde enerji korunumu
• 𝒙𝟎 noktasında cismin PE’si vardır ve KE=0’dır.
doğrulanacaktır. Kızağın bir ucundan bağlanan ağırlık
• 𝒙𝟏 noktasında hem PE’si hem de KE’si vardır.
(𝑚-kütleli cisim), rayın sonundaki makaradan
• 𝒙𝟐 noktasında KE’si vardır ve PE=0’dır.
geçirilerek sarkıtılır. Kütlesi 𝑚 olan cismin başlangıçta
hareketsiz olması nedeniyle 𝒉 (veya, ℎ1 ) yüksekliğinde
NOT: x2 noktasında PE’si 0 olarak kabul edilir. kinetik enerjisi sıfır 𝐾𝐸 = 0, potansiyel enerjisi (𝑃𝐸) ise
𝒎𝐠𝒉𝟏 değerine eşittir (Şekil-4a). İlk hızsız serbest
bırakılan asılı cisim, aşağıya doğru hareket ederek
Enerjinin korunumuna göre, kızağın (cismin) eğik
hızlanır ve kinetik enerji kazanır. Eğer sisteme
düzlemde hareketinde kinetik enerjisi ile potansiyel
sürtünme kuvveti etki etmiyorsa veya sürtünme
enerjisi değişebilir fakat potansiyel ve kinetik enerjilerin
küçükse, başlangıçta cismin sahip olduğu potansiyel
toplamı olan mekanik enerji sabit kalır. Bundan dolayı,
enerji tümüyle kinetik enerjiye dönüşür. Dolayısıyla,
eğik düzlem boyunca 𝒅-mesafesi kadar bir yer
Atwood makinesinde 𝒉-mesafesi kadar bir yer
değiştirme olduğunda kinetik enerjinin artma miktarı
değiştirme olduğunda kinetik enerjinin artma miktarı
kadar potansiyel enerji azalacaktır; Yani sistemin
kadar potansiyel enerji azalacaktır (Şekil-4b).
herhangi iki durumdaki (cismin ilk ve son konumdaki)
enerjileri toplamı eşit olmalıdır. Mekanik enerjinin korunumuna göre sistemin kinetik
enerjisi bir miktar artar veya azalır ise potansiyel enerji
2.2. Enerjinin Korunumu - Atwood
de aynı miktarda azalır veya artar. Deneyin bu
bölümünde alınan ölçüm verileri yardımıyla;

1) Kızağın ve asılı kütlenin toplam kinetik

enerjisindeki değişimi,

2) Asılı kütlenin potansiyel enerjisindeki değişimi

hesaplanacaktır.

3. Deneyin Yapılışı

(a)
Bu bölümde kullanılan dijital göstergeli ara-yüz, MODE
1’de çalıştırılacaktır.

3.1. Enerjinin Korunumu – Eğik Düzlem

1. Rayı tam olarak yatay konumda olması çok

önemlidir. Bu yüzden;

• Rayı düz bir zemin üzerine yerleştirin.

(b)
Şekil-4: Hava rayı-Atwood (a) ve mekanik enerjinin • Basınçlı hava kaynağının hava rayı ile bağlantısını
korunumu (b). yapınız.

5
Rentech Hava Rayı

• Rayın tam olarak yatay bir konum almasını sağlamak

3.2. Enerjinin Korunumu – Atwood
için basınçlı hava kaynağını açtıktan sonra hava
rayının ayaklarıyla oynayarak kızağın hareketsiz
kalmasını sağlayın.
1. Rayın iki ayaklı ucuna, makarayı takın ve sabitleyin.

2. Deney düzeneğimizdeki sensörleri hava rayının 2. Kızağın bir ucuna ağırlığı bağladığınız ipi bağlayın.
üzerine sabitleyin.
3. İpi makaradan geçirerek ağırlığı kızağın sonundan
• Hareket yönüne göre ilk sensör ile hareketin sallandırın.
başlatıldığı yer arasında belirli bir mesafe (>20cm)
kalacak şekilde 1.sensörü (photogate-1) ve 2.sensörü 4. Kızağı ilk konumuna yerleştirin.
(photogate-2) yerleştirin.
5. Ara-yüzü açın ve MODE 1 konumuna alarak
• Ray üzerindeki metre şerit yardımıyla sensörler arası hareket için hazır hale getirin.
mesafe ayarlanabilir.
6. Kızağı ilk sensörün en az 20 cm önünden serbest
bırakarak Sabit İvmeli Hareketi gözlemleyin. Ara-
3. Sensörler ve ara-yüz arasındaki bağlantıyı yapın.
yüz verileri t1, t2 ve t3 şekilde kayıt edecektir.
Bağlantıyı yaparken sensörlerin sıralamasına dikkat
edin. 7. Kızağın ilk konumunu, sensörlerin konumunu, kızak
ağırlığını, ipe asılı ağırlığı ve t1, t2, t3 sürelerini
4. Bir eğik düzlem elde etmek için, eğik düzlem
raporunuza kaydedin.
aparatını rayın tek ayaklı ucundaki ayağa sabitleyin.

5. Kızağı ilk konumuna yerleştirin.

6. Ara-yüzü açın ve MODE 1 konumuna alarak

hareket için hazır hale getirin.

7. Kızağı ilk sensörün en az 20 cm önünden serbest

bırakarak sabit ivmeli hareketi gözlemleyin. Ara-yüz
verileri t1, t2 ve t3 şekilde kayıt edecektir.

8. Kızağın ilk konumunu, sensörlerin konumunu, kızak

ağırlığını, eğik düzlemin yüksekliğini ve t1, t2, t3
sürelerini raporunuza kaydedin.

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Rentech Hava Rayı

4. Experiment 4: Hava Rayı

Deney Raporu

Adı ve Soyadı: Cengiz Yıldırım

Bölüm: Havacılık ve Uzay Müh.

Öğrenci No: 20210615039

Tarih: 2.01.22

Eğik Düzlem

Eğik düzlemin eğim açısı hesabı:

L=1.36 h=0.08 =3.372

lk=kızak perdesinin boyu=0.17 mk=kızağın ağırlığı=0.2

x0=1.1 x1=0.86 x2=0.3

t0 = 0 t1 = 0.2815 t3 =0.1578

x0’daki PE=0.0921
x0’daki KE=0

x1’daki PE=0.0472
x1’daki KE=0.0363
x2’daki PE=0
x2’daki KE=0.116
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Rentech Hava Rayı

Atwood Makinası

lk=kızak boyu=0.17 mk=kızağın ağırlığı=0.2 masılı=0.03

x0=1.1 x1=0.86 x2=0.3

t0 =0 t1 = 0.1877 t3 = 0.1119

x0’daki PE=0.2352
x0’daki KE=0
x1’daki PE=0.1646
x1’daki KE=0.082
x2’daki PE=0
x2’daki KE=0.2307

5. Sorular

1. Hem eğik düzlem deneyi için hem de Atwood

deneyi için enerji korunumu doğrulanıyor mu?
Grafik çizerek açıklayın.

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Rentech Hava Rayı

2. Bu deneydeki olası hata kaynakları nedir?

Mathematical Errors, Measurement Equipment
Error, Friction.

CALCULATIONS:

L x sin = h

1.36 * sin = 0.08

 = 3.372

x0’daki PE :

(0.17/2+x0- x2) * sin = h

0.885 * 0.0588 = 0.052

mgh = 0.2 * 9.8 * 0.052 = 0.1019

x1’daki PE:
(x0- x1) * sin = h

h=0.475 * 0.0588 = 0.0279

PE(x0)- mgh = PE(x1)

0.1019-0.2* 9.8 * 0.0279 =0.0472

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x1’deki hız → x = v*t

0.17 = v(ort)* 0.2815

v(ort) = 0.603

x1’deki KE → 0.0363

½(0.2)(0.603)^2 = 0.0363

x2’deki hız → 1.077

0.17 = v(ort)* 0.1578

x2’deki KE → 0.116 -

½(0.2)(1.077)^2 = KE

FOR THE SECOND

EXPERIMENT:

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Rentech Hava Rayı

x0’daki PE=0.03*9.8*(1.1-0.3) = 0.2352

x1 daki PE=0.03*9.8*(0.86-0.3) = 16.46

x1 daki v = 0.17 = v(ort)* 0.1877 = 0.9057

X1’daki KE = ½(0.2)(0.9057)^2 = 0.082

X2 daki v = 0.17 = v(ort)* 0.1119 =1.5192

½(0.2)(1.5192)^2 = 0.2307

Question1)

0,14

0,12

0,1

0,08

0,06

0,04

0,02

0
-0,5 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3

0,250,2352 0,2307

0,2
0,1646

0,15
KE
0,1 0,082
PE
0,05
0 0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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