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A Design of AM Radio Receiver & Transmitter

Technical Report · September 2019

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.27566.02882

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Samit Hasan Md. Nasim Afroj Taj

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 BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

A PROJECT ON

AM Radio Receiver & Transmitter

Course No.: EEE 310

Course Title: Communication Laboratory

Members’ Information:
Md. Nasim Afroj Taj – 1606037
Fahim Mashroor – 1606046
Md. Sultan Mahmud – 1606050
Samit Hasan – 1606056

Department: EEE
Level/Term: 3/1
Date of Submission: 14/09/2019

Submitted to:
Arnab Bhattacharjee Dip Joti Paul
Assistant Professor Lecturer
Department of EEE, BUET Department of EEE, BUET
Table of Contents

No. Content Page No.

1. Introduction 02
2. Theory 03
3. Working Principle 04-10
4. Circuit Design and Schematics 11-26
5. Outputs of Hardware Implementation and PCB Design 27 – 33
6. Problems We Faced During Work 34
7. Conclusion 35
8. References 36

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INTRODUCTION:
In this project, we have constructed an Amplitude modulation and demodulation circuit.
Amplitude modulation is used in real world for transmission of message signals over long
distances with minimum distortion. For long distance transmission, a major drawback the
message signal transmitted, which are usually audio and video signals, have a low frequency.
Such signals lose strength over long distances and thus reconstruction at receiving end
becomes quite hard, at times impossible. Higher the frequency of the transmitted signal, lower
the attenuation. Thus, in order to minimize attenuation, the message signal is modulated into a
high frequency carrier signal (usually a sine wave). Thus, the attenuation reduces by a great
extent and the signal can be reconstructed after demodulation to get almost the perfect signal.
This is what we have implemented in our project in a basic level, where as a message signal we
have used only, sine, triangular and rectangular wave of a definite frequency. The same can be
done of a signal having multiple frequencies e.g. voice.

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THEORY:
For long distance data transfer, the first condition of the signal power has to be enough strong.
The voice signal frequency is in almost below 3400Hz signal which has no good enough power
to transmit long distance.

Amplitude modulation (AM) is a modulation technique in which the amplitude of a high-

frequency sine wave (usually at a radio frequency) is varied in direct proportion to that of a
modulating signal. The modulating signal carries the required information and often consists of
audio data, as in the case of AM radio broadcasts or two-way radio communications. The high-
frequency sine wave (the carrier) is modulated by adding the modulating signal to it in a mixer.
A simplified AM radio transmitter system is shown below:

A simple form of amplitude modulation was originally used to modulate audio voice signals
onto a low-voltage direct current (dc) carrier on a telephone circuit. A microphone in the
telephone handset acts as a transducer and uses the sound waves produced by the human
voice to vary the current passing through the circuit. At the other end of the telephone line, a
second transducer (in the form of a small loudspeaker mounted in the remote handset) uses
the varying voltage to produce sound waves that are close enough to the original speech
patterns to be recognizable as the voice of the caller. Although the human voice is composed of
frequencies ranging from 300 to approximately 20,000 hertz, the public switched telephone
system limits the frequencies used to between 300 and 3,400 hertz, giving a total bandwidth of
3,100 hertz. This bandwidth is perfectly adequate for purely voice transmission since the higher
frequencies in the human voice (i.e. those above 3,100 hertz) are not really needed for
recognizable speech reproduction. The use of a limited bandwidth also makes the telephone
system much simpler from an engineering perspective.

Whereas telephone signals can be transmitted at audio frequencies, the same is not really a
practical proposition for radio transmissions. The main reason for this is that the optimum
length of a radio antenna is a half or a quarter of a wavelength. Since a typical audio frequency
of 3,000 hertz has a wavelength of approximately 100 kilometers, the antenna would need to
have a length of 25 kilometers to be effective - not a realistic proposition. By comparison, a
radio frequency of 100 megahertz would have a wavelength of approximately 3 meters, and
could use an antenna 80 centimeters long. It becomes necessary, therefore, to use a radio
frequency carrier signal in order to transmit audio signals, which are used to modulate the
carrier waveform.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE:
A basic block Diagram of how a full AM transmission and receiving system works is shown
below:

Figure 1: schematic of AM Signal Traansmitter

figure 2: Message signal (Base band)

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A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is the baseband message
signal, which contains the information. This wave has to be modulated.

According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance
with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which means the amplitude of the
carrier signal containing no information varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing
information, at each instant. This can be well explained by the following figures.

Figure 3: Carrier signal

Figure 4: Modulated Signal

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The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one is the
carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. The last one is the
resultant modulated wave.
It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave are interconnected
with an imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact shape of the modulating signal. This
imaginary line on the carrier wave is called as Envelope. It is the same as that of the message
signal.

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Mathematical Expressions

Following are the mathematical expressions for these waves.

Time-domain Representation of the Waves

Let the modulating signal be,
m(t) = Amcos(2πfmt)

and the carrier signal be,

c(t) = Accos(2πfct)

Where,
Am and Ac are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
fm and fc are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.

Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be,

s(t) = [Ac+Amcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct) (Equation 1)
[

Modulation Index

A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an
attempt is called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of modulation
that a carrier wave undergoes.

Rearrange the Equation as below.

s(t) = Ac[1+(AmAc)cos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)

⇒ s(t) = Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct) (Equation 2)

Where, μ is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of Am and Ac. Mathematically, we can
write it as

μ = A mA c (Equation 3)

Hence, we can calculate the value of modulation index by using the above formula, when the
amplitudes of the message and carrier signals are known.

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Now, let us derive one more formula for Modulation index by considering Equation 1. We can
use this formula for calculating modulation index value, when the maximum and minimum
amplitudes of the modulated wave are known.

Let Amax and Amin be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave.

We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfmt) is 1.

⇒ Amax = Ac + Am (Equation 4)

We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfmt) is -1.

⇒ Amin = Ac−Am (Equation 5)

Add Equation 4 and Equation 5.

Amax + Amin = Ac + Am + Ac −Am = 2Ac

⇒ (Equation 6)

Subtract Equation 5 from Equation 4.

Amax − Amin = Ac + Am − (Ac − Am) = 2Am

⇒ (Equation 7)

The ratio of Equation 7 and Equation 6 will be as follows.

⇒ (Equation 8)

Therefore, Equation 3 and Equation 8 are the two formulas for Modulation index. The
modulation index or modulation depth is often denoted in percentage called as Percentage of
Modulation. We will get the percentage of modulation, just by multiplying the modulation
index value with 100.

For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which implies the
percentage of modulation should be 100%.

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For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5, then the modulated
output would look like the following figure. It is called as Under-modulation. Such a wave is
called as an under-modulated wave.

Figure 5: Under Modulated wave

If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so, then the wave will be an
over-modulated wave. It would look like the following figure.

Figure 6: Over Modulated wave

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As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier experiences a 180 o phase reversal,
which causes additional sidebands and hence, the wave gets distorted. Such an over-modulated
wave causes interference, which cannot be eliminated.

Bandwidth of AM Wave

Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the signal.
Mathematically, we can write it as

BW=fmax−fmin

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

s(t) = Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)

⇒ s(t) = Accos(2πfct) + Acμcos(2πfct)cos(2πfmt)

⇒ s(t) = Accos(2πfct) + Acμ2cos[2π(fc+fm)t] + Acμ2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]

Hence, the amplitude modulated wave has three frequencies. Those are carrier frequency fc,
upper sideband frequency fc+fm and lower sideband frequency fc−fm.

Here, fmax=fc+fm and fmin=fc−fm

Substitute fmax and fmin values in bandwidth formula.

BW = fc+fm−(fc−fm)

⇒ BW = 2fm

Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulated wave is twice the
frequency of the modulating signal.

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CIRCUIT DESIGN AND SCHEMATICS (with necessary basic
construction theory):

AM TRANSMITTER SECTION:

Am transmitter Section consists of 2 sub-circuits.

1. Carrier frequency generator

2. Amplitude modulator

Carrier Frequency generator:

Normally allotted AM Radio Range is 500kHz-1.6MHz and sinusoidal signal is normally used as
the carrier frequency. There are many ways to generate carrier frequency within the allotted
range. Few types of sinusoidal oscillators are

 Phase Shift Oscillator

 Colpitts Oscillator
 Hartley Oscillator
 Wein Bridge Oscillator

For oscillation to be sustained, certain conditions known as Barkhausen criteria must be

fulfilled. These conditions are

I. Loop gain of the circuit must be equal or greater than 1

II. Phase shift around the circuit must be 0 or 360 degree

In our project, we use Colpitts oscillator for generating carrier frequency Fc.

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Construction

Let us first take a look at the circuit diagram of a Colpitts oscillator.

Figure 7: Colpitts Oscillator

The resistors R1, R2 and Re provide necessary bias condition for the circuit. The capacitor C e
provides a.c. ground thereby providing any signal degeneration. This also provides temperature
stabilization.

The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c. and to provide an a.c. path. The radio
frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high frequency currents which means it
shorts for d.c. and opens for a.c. Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps a.c. currents
out of d.c. supply source.

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Tank Circuit

The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of variable
capacitors C1 and C2 along with an inductor L. The junction of C1 and C2 are earthed. The
capacitor C1 has its one end connected to base via Cc and the other to emitter via Ce. the
voltage developed across C1 provides the regenerative feedback required for the sustained
oscillations.

Operation

When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or tank
circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across C 1 which are
applied to the base emitter junction and appear in the amplified form in the collector circuit
and supply losses to the tank circuit.

If terminal 1 is at positive potential with respect to terminal 3 at any instant, then terminal 2
will be at negative potential with respect to 3 at that instant because terminal 3 is grounded.
Therefore, points 1 and 2 are out of phase by 180o.

As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, it makes 360o phase shift between
the input and output voltages. Hence, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous
Undamped oscillations. When the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one,
oscillations are sustained in the circuit.

Frequency

The equation for frequency of Colpitts oscillator is given as

CT is the total capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series.

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Our Design

Figure 8: Designed Colpitts Oscillator in our project.

Here LC tank circuit oscillates in its resonant frequency.

The resonant frequency is,

√

In our circuits, we use L= L1=50uH and C1=C2=C=2.2nF.

After calculation, we get resonant frequency = 678.6KHz ≈ 680kHz.(Theoretical)

For simulation, we used National Instrument Multisim 14.0. Oscillator output graph from
simulation result is given below.

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 Figure 9: Oscillator’s Output Wave-shape

From the frequency counter used in the simulation we get, fc = 643.853kHz which is almost
equal to the theoretically calculated value.

Figure 10: Oscillator’s Output Frequency

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Amplitude Modulator:

Amplitude modulation by selective transistor amplifier

In order to generate the AM wave of Figure, it is necessary merely to apply the series of current
pulses of Figure(a) to a tuned (resonant) circuit. Each pulse, if it were the only one, would
initiate a damped oscillation in the tuned circuit. The oscillation would have an initial amplitude
proportional to the size of the current pulse and a decay rate dependent on the time constant
of the circuit. Since a train of pulses is fed to the tank circuit here, each pulse will cause a
complete sine wave proportional in amplitude to the size of this pulse. This will be followed by
the next sine wave, proportional to the size of the next applied pulse, and so on. Bearing in
mind that at least 10 times as many pulses per audio cycle are fed to a practical circuit as are
shown in Figure(b), we see that an extremely good approximation of an AM wave will result if
the original current pulses are made proportional to the modulating voltage. The process is
known as the flywheel effect of the tuned circuit, and it works best with a tuned circuit whose
Q is not too low.

Figure 11: Oscillator’s Output

It is possible to make the output current of a class C amplifier proportional to the modulating
voltage by applying this voltage in series with any of the dc supply voltages for this amplifier.

Class C power amplifier is a type of amplifier where the active elements (transistor) conduct for
less than one half cycle of the input signal. Less than one half cycle means the conduction angle
is less than 180° and its typical value is 80° to 120°. The reduced conduction angle improves the

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efficiency to a great extend but causes a lot of distortion. Theoretical maximum efficiency of a
Class C amplifier is around 90%.

Due to the huge amounts of distortion, the Class C configurations are not used in audio
applications. But in our design, we used additional tuned circuits for retrieving the original input
signal from the pulsed output of the Class C amplifier and so the distortion caused by the
amplifier has little effect on the final output. Input and output waveforms of a typical Class C
power amplifier are shown in the figure below.

Figure 12: Type C amplifier Output

Output characteristic of a Class C power amplifier is shown below:

Figure 13: Output Characteristics of Type C Amplifier

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In the above figure we can see that the operating point is placed some way below the cut-off
point in the DC load-line and so only a fraction of the input waveform is available at the output.

We have designed the modulator such that the operating point of the BJT is not too low, so that
a minimum portion of the input wave is cut off.

Figure 14: Class C power amplifier circuit diagram

Biasing resistor Rb pulls the base of Q1 further downwards and the Q-point will be set some way
below the cut-off point in the DC load line. As a result the transistor will start conducting only
after the input signal amplitude has risen above the base emitter voltage (V be~0.7V) plus the
downward bias voltage caused by Rb. That is the reason why the major portion of the input
signal is absent in the output signal.

Inductor L1 and capacitor C1 forms a tank circuit which aids in the extraction of the required
signal from the pulsed output of the transistor. Actual job of the active element (transistor)
here is to produce a series of current pulses according to the input and make it flow through
the resonant circuit. Values of L1 and C1 are so selected that the resonant circuit oscillates in
the frequency of the input signal. Since the resonant circuit oscillates in one frequency
(generally the carrier frequency) all other frequencies are attenuated and the required
frequency can be squeezed out using a suitably tuned load. Harmonics or noise present in the
output signal can be eliminated using additional filters. A coupling transformer can be used for
transferring the power to the load.

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The circuit shows an AM modulator. The two signals, NF and HF are additively superimposed
before the modulation on the base resistance (1). The amplitude of the sum signal is sufficiently
large in the positive range, and controls the transistor characteristic in the entire curved portion
of the base-emitter path of.
The highly distorted collector output signal is at a tuned to the RF carrier frequency oscillation
circuit, filtered out. The output of the resonant circuit is now the AM signal.

Figure 15: Amplitude Modulator Circuit

To better illustrate the AM modulated with a single tone frequency constant. The following
graph shows for each measurement point, the line graph and the Fourier analysis. At the
measurement point (2), first without, then with the resonant circuit.

Figure 16: Amplitude Modulator Output

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The beat signal at the measuring point (1) is the addition of the modulating signal and the
carrier to the effective resistance. At any time, the amplitude values of NF and HF are only
added. Within a 10 millisecond oscillating characteristics of the carrier are visible. The maxima
and minima of the modulating signal will follow the frequency bands of the HF signal.
Superposition of these two signals can be recovered by suitable filters from the output collector
signal. The frequency spectrum shows the frequency curve of the audio signal of 1 kHz and at
10 kHz of the carrier. There are no new frequencies added.

The middle line chart is collector output without an activated resonant circuit, amplified by the
transistor. Since the transistor has no preset operating point, it is controlled by only the positive
signal components of the sum signal. The entire curved line portion of the characteristic base-
emitter diode will be run. On this curve, the sum signal is potentiated. This multiple
multiplication creates various modulation products. Additional frequency lines in the frequency
spectrum adjacent to the single, double and triple carrier frequency can be seen. They are
arranged symmetrically with respect to the support line at a distance of ± 1 kHz, the modulation
or signal frequency. In accordance with the power series shown above, the amplitude of the
high integer multiple of the carrier frequency is decreased rapidly.

The bottom two graphs show the AM signal after filtering by the switched resonant circuit. The
resonant frequency of the parallel resonant circuit is equal to 10 kHz with the carrier frequency.
When properly sized the bandwidth of the resonant circuit to filter out all about low and high
frequency bands from the overall spectrum.

In the AM signal, the original information signal is no longer included. Right and left to the
carrier frequency line, two side lines of equal height at a distance of frequency information. The
information is encoded or modulated there. The left side line is located at 9 kHz (carrier
frequency - frequency information) and the right side line at 11 kHz (carrier frequency
information + frequency).

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Our Design

The amplitude modulator consists of a simple BJT and Bias circuitry with it. Here C 6 is used to
block DC portion of Audio waveform. It is selected such a way so that it’s impedance is keep
minimum so an audio wave of low frequency can pass through it.

C6=1/2πflow(message)R8 = 10uF

C5 is used to block the Dc portion of Colpitts Oscillator output. As it allows to pass high
frequency, so its impedance can be lower enough for the low value of c5.

C5=1/2πflow(Colpitts)R5 = 1uF

The circuit schematic for modulator is give below:

Figure 17: Designed Modulator Circuit in our project

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The oscillator output graph of the message signal and the amplitude modulated signal in dual
mode in multisim is given below:

Figure 18: Modulated Output with Message signal above the output

So, the whole transmitter circuit including both the oscillator and modulator becomes:

Figure 19: Complete Transmitter Circuit

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AM Receiver:

The process of demodulation for DSB-AM is relatively straightforward. The radio frequency
carrier can be removed from the signal using a simple diode detector consisting of a diode, a
resistor, and a capacitor. The incoming signal is rectified by the diode, which allows only half of
the alternating waveform to pass through it. The capacitor removes the remaining radio
frequency signal components to provide a smooth output, and the resistor allows the capacitor
to discharge. An AM receiver can thus be produced relatively cheaply since there is no
requirement for specialized components. The basic circuit diode detector circuit is shown
below.

Figure 20: Demodulator Circuit

Time constant τ=RC selected such a way so that it maintains the following conditions.

Where fc=680kHz is the carrier frequency and B=6800Hz is the Bandwidth of the signal.

So1.2us≪τ≪147us. For this condition to fulfill we select the value of R=1kΩ and C=20nF.

Diode Selection: In diode detection circuit we use a germanium diode to detect the message
sign. The stage by stage oscillator output of the receiver circuit is given below:

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 Figure 21: Output of diode detector

First we observe the output from the diode detector giving the received modulated wave as the
input.

Here, we observe both the message and the modulated signal in dual mode. We observe that
the envelope of the modulated wave is correctly detected and matches the message signal. But
the demodulated signal contains a high frequency component which is a distortion and is
undesired. Zooming in on the detected wave we observe a high frequency ripple.

Figure 22: Ripple observation

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AMPLIFIER DESIGN:

The amplitude of the message signal reduces by a significant amount after transmission. So in
order reconstruct the original message signal accurately, we design an amplifier circuit using
op-amp ua741. We use Rf = 10k ohm and R1 = 1k ohm to get a closed loop gain, Af = -Rf/R1 = 10.
Thus we increase the amplitude of the attenuated message signal obtained from the detector.

FILTER DESIGN:

These high frequency components distort the original message signal and thus the message
becomes understandable. In order to get rid of the high frequency noise we designed a low
pass filter. We used a -40dB filter to filter out the high frequency components. We determine
the cutoff frequency using formula fc = 1/2πRC. We used a 0.1uF capacitor and a variable 100k
pot to vary the cutoff in order to get a clean and distortion-less signal.

Figure 23: Whole circuit schematic

Thus, the whole transmitter and receiver circuit with filter and amplifier at output becomes:

And the final output, the reconstructed, filtered and amplified signal obtained is observed in
the oscilloscope along with the original message signal.

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 Figure 24: Both transmitted and received signal

Thus we observe that we obtained the original transmitted message signal after transmission
using amplitude modulation. Still some slight distortions are observed that is negligible. We
observed the inverted output of the received signal in order to compare with the original
message signal. The actual output signal has about a 180 degree phase shift from the original
message signal since we used an inverting amplifier in the receiver circuit. Besides we used a
number of capacitors and inductors in the circuit that resulted in some phase shifts. But phase
shifts are not a problem since for correctly getting the message, only the wave-shape of the
message signal is to be considered.

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Outputs of Hardware Implementation and PCB Design:

Figure 25: Breadboard Circuit

Figure 26: PCB of Designed Circuit (Using EAGLE Software)

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 Figure 27: PCB (1st design)

Figure 28: PCB (2nd design)

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 Figure 29: Oscillator Output

Figure 30: Modulated Sine Wave

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 Figure 31: Modulated Triangular Wave

Figure 32: Modulated Rectangular Wave

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Output after Diode Detection and Amplifier Circuit is given below:

Figure 33: For Sinusoidal Wave

Figure 34: For Triangular Wave

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 Figure 35: For Rectangular Wave

Figure 36: Output after Using Low-Pass Filter

180 degree phase shift occurs due to non-inverting amplifier.

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After Inverting Ch2 of Oscilloscope we get:

Figure 37: In phase Transmitted and received signal

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PROBLEMS WE FACED DURING WORK:
 After designing the transmitter and receiver circuits and simulating them in Multisim
simulation software, we got our desired results. But as we started implementing the
circuit on breadboard, we were not able to get the obtained outputs similar to
simulation. We came to the conclusion that it was due to the different tolerance rating
of the components we used in our circuit and also due to some faults in our
components.

 After achieving satisfactory results from the breadboard implemented circuit, we

designed our pcb using eagle. Unfortunately, the quality of the printed pcb was not up
to the mark. Some traces and connections were not complete, moreover some
connections were shorted whereas they were not so on our design. Our first pcb was a
failure, so we printed another one, but that had faults as well. Thus, we had to use wires
to make the connections correct. Also, this was our first pcb project and soldering was
not 100% accurate, for which we found the output quite different from the desired one.

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CONCLUSION:
In this project, we successfully implemented amplitude modulation which is a widely used
modulation technique in communication system. We implemented what we had learnt in our
theory course, and thus were able to know a lot more about amplitude modulation. We have
used only sin, triangular and square waves in our project, but our design will also work for voice
signals, for which, a band pass filter will have to be added with cutoffs at 300Hz and 3400Hz,
since voice signal’s frequency is in this range. Other than that the whole transmitter and
receiver circuit are the same for voice transmission. One drawback of our circuit is that it
cannot produce DSB-SC signal, which would have made our design more efficient.

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 References:
1. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/sinusoidal_oscillators/sinusoidal_colpitts_oscill
ator.htm
2. http://www.circuitstoday.com/class-c-power-
amplifier?fbclid=IwAR181cX7GxhBSPFhAT2hiO2WcuoREtqLLTMz5dCkivOpsnBhp
VFUpau3VuE
3. https://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/160407-Amplitude-modulation-
by-selective-transistor-amplifier.aspx?fbclid=IwAR3SX9x2-
eqlZlB3hdPlQ2dVUwNugFIdw8k6XeLRe0Wx7ZwHbi6I13pP1mo
4. https://eeetechbd.blogspot.com/2016/08/am-radio-receiver-transmitter.html

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