Line Following Robot without Using Microcontroller

Mini Project Submitted for the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Electrical Engineering

Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow

Submitted by

Ayush Singh (2100910200026)

Bhumi Singh (2100910200027)
Chirag Tomar (2100910200028)
Deepanshu Tomar (2100910200029)

Under the guidance of

Ms. Abhilasha Pawar & Dr. Amit Kumar Roy
Assistant Professor, Electrical Engineering Department

Session: 2022-23 (ODD)

JSS MAHAVIDYAPEETHA
JSS Academy of Technical Education, Noida
Department Of Electrical Engineering
C-20/1, Sector – 62, Noida- 201301
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

DECLARATION.......................................................................................................................ii

CERTIFICATE ………............................................................................................................iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…......................................................................................................v

ABSTRACT…..........................................................................................................................iv

LIST OF TABLES.....................................................................................................................v

LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................................................vi

CHAPTER:1- Introduction

1.1 Introduction…………………………..….…..……...………………...……………..7

1.2 Objectives of Project ………………………..…..……...………….…...…………7-8

CHAPTER : 2- Working Principle

2.1 Principle of Operation ……..……………….……………….……………..………...9

2.2 Working of Component……….…………….……………….……………...……9-10

2.3 How does a Line Follower Robot Navigates? ……………….…………………10-13

CHAPTER :3- Connections and Hardware Used

3.1 Circuit Diagram ..…………..……………….……………….…………………….14

CHAPTER :4- Result and Conclusion

4.1 Result and Conclusion ...……….………….……………….…………………….15

References…………………………………………………………………………………..16

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 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this submission is our own work and that, to the best of our knowledge and
belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which
to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the university
or other institute of higher learning except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.

Signature of Student:

Student’s Name: Ayush Singh

Roll No: 2100910200026

Date:

Signature of Student:

Student’s Name: Bhumi Singh

Roll No: 2100910200027

Date:

Signature of Student:

Student’s Name: Chirag Tomar

Roll No: 2100910200028

Date:

Signature of Student:

Student’s Name: Deepanshu Tomar

Roll No: 2100910200029

Date:

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that 3rd Semester Mini Project/ Internship Report (KEE-354) titled “Line Following
Robot without using Microcontroller” which is submitted by Ayush Singh (2100910200026),
Bhumi Singh (2100910200027), Chirag Tomar (2100910200028), Deepanshu Tomar
(2100910200029) in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree B. Tech in
Department of Electrical Engineering of J.S.S Academy of Technical Education, Noida, affiliated to
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam University, Lucknow is a record of the candidates’ own work carried out by
them under my supervision. The matter embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted
for the award of any other degree.

Dr. Amit Kumar Roy Ms. Abhilasha Pawar

Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor,
Electrical Engineering Department, Electrical Engineering Department,
JSS Academy of Technical Education, Noida. JSS Academy of Technical Education, Noida.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind
support and help of many individuals and organizations. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to
all of them.

We am highly indebted to Dr. Amit Kumar Roy and Ms. Abhilasha Pawar for their guidance and
constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the project & also for
their support in completing the project.

Finally, as one of the team members, I would like to appreciate all my group members for their support
and coordination, I hope we will achieve more in our future endeavors.

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 ABSTRACT

People have been enthralled by modern robots ever since they first began to develop. Today, there
are countless robots operating in practically every industry. Since its inception, a lot of innovative
robotics techniques have been developed. This led to the use of electronic concepts in the creation of
cutting-edge modern robots that can almost perfectly mimic humans and perform all difficult tasks
without error. In this article, a line-following robot without the need of any microcontrollers has been
researched and created. For this application, transistors and other pure analogue components have
been utilized. Making little DIY robots this way is more affordable and reliable. It is a compact,
enjoyable programme that is geared toward beginners.

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 LIST OF TABLES

TABLES PG. NO

Table 3.1: List of Hardware Components used in the Project …………………..………………..14

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES PG. NO

Fig. 1.1: Line Follower Robot without Microcontroller……………………………………………...8

Fig. 2.1: Flow Diagram ……………..….…………………..….……………………………………..9

Fig. 2.2: DC Motor …...………….…………………………………………………………………10

Fig. 2.3: IR Sensor ……………...………………………………………………...………………...11

Fig. 2.4: Forward Movement …...…………………………………………………………………..11

Fig. 2.5: Turning Left Movement …………………………………………………………………..12

Fig. 2.6: Turning Right Movement …………..……………………………………………………..12

Fig. 2.7: Stopping Movement…...…………………………………………………………………..13

Fig. 3.1: Circuit Diagram…...……………...………………………………………………………..14

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 Chapter 1

1. Introduction

To put it simply, a robot is a machine that is capable of performing complex tasks thanks to an
intelligence that is guided by hardware built into it and controlled by software LED (Light Emitting
Diode). Robots are typically made to make life easier for humans. The term "robotics" has been in
use since the early 20th century. The industrial revolution marked the start of the development of the
modern concept of robots. The concept of robotics has advanced to the point that modern robots can
mimic human ideas and behaviours. The robots of today were created as industrial machines for use
in factories, called Line Following Robots without Microcontrollers. Since the early 2000s, industrial
robots are controlled digitally by artificial intelligence. The three laws of robotics are a set of rules
coined by the Russian science-fiction author Isaac Asimov in 1942.

As a result, they are sometimes known as Asimov's laws.

1. A robot may neither damage a human being nor, through inaction, permit a human to be harmed.
This is the first of the three laws of robotics.
2. Unless such orders would be in violation of the First Law, robots must accept human commands.
3. As long as it does not violate the First or Second Laws, a robot must defend its very existence.
[1]

The two main categories of robotics are fixed robots and mobile robots. Robots that employ
manipulators to carry out predetermined duties are known as fixed robots because they are fixed in
place. While the mobile robots can move around their environment. The most sophisticated and ideal
example of mobile robotics is the line following robot. A line following robot is a mobile robot that,
via feedback mechanisms, follows a predetermined path or trajectory and takes its own, intelligent
actions in response to the impediments in its path. Depending on the contrast on a lighter surface,
these robots have the capacity to follow a black or dark course. This robot can be used for a very
diverse range of tasks, from simple household tasks to complex industrial tasks like a system that
carries a package from one place to another in an industry following a predefined path [2].

1.1 Objectives of Project

1. The project aims to create a line follower robot able to follow a path and reach its destination.

2. Sensing a line and maneuvering the robot to stay on course while constantly correcting wrong
moves using feedback from sensors forms a simple yet effective system.

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3. It should be capable of taking various degrees of turns.

4. It must be insensitive to environmental factors like lighting and noise.

5. Scalability must be a primary concern in the design.

Fig.1.1 Line Follower Robot without Microcontroller

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 Chapter-2
2. Working Principle
2.1 Principle of Operation

The concept of working of a line follower robot is based on the phenomenon of light. We know
that white colour reflects almost all of the light that falls on it, whereas black colour absorbs
most of the light. In case of a line follower robot we use IR transmitters and receivers also called
photodiodes. They are used for sending and receiving light. IR transmits infrared lights. When
infrared rays falls on white surface, it’s reflected back and catches by photodiodes which
generates some voltage changes. When IR light falls on a black surface, light is absorb by the
black surface and no rays are reflected back, thus photo diode does not receive any light or
rays.

Fig.2.1 Flow Diagram

Line sensors detect the presence of a black line by emitting infrared (IR) light and detecting the light
levels that return to the sensor. They do this using two components: an emitter and a light sensor
(receiver).

2.2 Working of Components

DC Motor: The first electric motors were designed by Scottish monk Andrew Gordon and American
experimenter Benjamin Franklin in the 1740s. DC motors are the machine that converts electrical
energy to mechanical energy. The electrical energy is in the form of direct current, hence DC. The
simplest type of DC motor is the brushed type. It consists of a permanent magnet having north and
south poles opposite to each other and a current carrying coil is placed in the center which produces
torque when a direct current is made to flow through it. The current is supplied to the armature coils

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through commutators. There are innumerous types of DC motors available in the market in the present
day.[3] DC motors produces either linear force or torque in fans, conveyor belts, or any other external
mechanism. The DC motor is generally designed for continuous rotation, or for linear movement over
a significant distance compared to its size.

Fig.2.2 DC Motor

IR Sensor Module: IR stands for Infra-Red. IR sensor has an IR transmitter and an IR receiver. IR
transmitter transmits an electromagnetic radiation (EMR) which has a wavelength longer than the
visible light. IR wavelength spans from 700nm to 1mm. The basic working of IR sensor is, it emits
IR rays through transmitter and receives the IR rays through the receiver. But the position of the
transmitter and receiver is in such a way that the IR rays received by the receiver is the rays that has
been reflected from a solid surface after the emission. There are basically two types of IR sensors.
Passive IR sensor and active IR sensor. Passive IR sensor, also known as PIR is generally used for
motion detection whereas; the active IR sensor is used for obstacle detection. In the IR sensor module,
the receiver is further coupled to an operational amplifier (op-amp) which amplifies the voltage
received from the receiver. The voltage after the detection of IR rays is generally in the order of
millivolts. It has to be amplified before sending it for further modifications; hence the operational
amplifier is used.

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 Fig.2.3 IR Sensor

2.3 How does a Line Follower Robot Navigates?

A typical line follower robot has two sets of motors, let's call them left motor and right motor.
Both motors rotate on the basis of the signal received from the left and the right sensors
respectively. The robot needs to perform 4 sets of motion which includes moving forward,
turning left, turning right and coming to a halt. The description about the cases are given
below.

Moving Forward:

Fig.2.4 Forward Movement

In this case, when both the sensors are on a white surface and the line is between the two
sensors, the robot should move forward, i.e., both the motors should rotate such that the robot
moves in forward direction (actually both the motors should rotate in the opposite direction

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due to the placement of motors in our setup. But for the sake of simplicity, we will call the
motors rotating forward.)

Turning LEFT:

Fig.2.5 Turning Left Movement

In this case, the left sensor is on top of the dark line, whereas the right sensor is on the white
part, hence the left sensor detects the black line and gives a signal, to the microcontroller.
Since, signal comes from the left sensor, the robot should turn to the left direction. Therefore,
the left motor rotates backwards and the right motor rotates in forward direction. Thus, the
robot turns towards left side.

Turning RIGHT:

Fig.2.6 Turning Right Movement

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This case is similar to the left case, but in this situation only the right sensor detects the line
which means that the robot should turn in the right direction. To turn the robot towards the
right direction, the left motor rotates forward and the right motor rotates backwards and as a
result, the robot turns towards the right direction.

Stopping:

Fig.2.7 Stopping Movement

In this case, both the sensors are on top of the line and they can detect the black line
simultaneously, the microcontroller is fed to consider this situation as a process for halt.
Hence, both the motors are stopped, which causes the robot to stop moving.

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 Chapter-3

3. Connections and Hardware Used

Table3.1 List of Hardware Components used in the Project

Sl. No. Component Name Quantity Specifications

Driver Chip: Double H Bridge L298N
1. L298N Motor Driver Motor Supply Voltage (Maximum): 46V
Motor Supply Current (Maximum): 2A
Detection distance: 2 - 30cm
2. IR Sensors Detection angle: 35 °
Comparator chip: LM393
3. DC motor 150-300 rpm geared
Nominal Voltage: 3.6V
4. li-ion 18650 Battery
Nominal Capacity: 2,850 mAh

5. Wheels ---------

3.1 Circuit Diagram

Fig.3.1 Circuit Diagram

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 Chapter-3
4. Result and Conclusion
In this project we came across the basic principles of electronics and the implementation
techniques which can be used for advanced project implementation.
In this project we used the basic ideas of electronics for practical application. Basics of transistors are
used for this and the motors are driven by this, the circuit is designed in such a way that we are able
to use advance application of this robot.
For more precision, one can easily use an array of more than four IR sensor modules and connect it
to a motor in a similar manner. For the learning purposes this project is understandable and its
debugging is easy. Once all the errors are cleared we can see the robot in action on the floor.

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References

1. https://www.engineersgarage.com/step-by-step-line-follower-robot-without-microcontroller/
2. https://circuitdigest.com/electronic-circuits/line-follower-robot
3. https://roboticsclub.mnnit.ac.in/projects/overview/32/
4. https://rootsaid.com/line-follower-without-microcontroller-for-beginners/
5. https://www.instructables.com/Line-Follower-without-microcontroller/

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