Elk331e CH7

Department of Electrical Engineering
ELK331E – POWER ELECTRONIC

CIRCUITS (CRN:11939)
Chapter 7 – DC Power Supplies
Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. S. Barış ÖZTÜRK
E-mail: [email protected] , Office: EEB 7313
Source: Daniel W. Hart, Introduction to Power Electronics, Int. Ed., 1st Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2013
OUTLINE OF THE LECTURE
○Introduction
○Transformer Models
○The Flyback Converter (CCM)
○The Forward Converter
○The Push-Pull Converter – Not Covered
○Full-Bridge and Half-Bridge DC-DC Converters – Not
Covered
○Converter Selection
○Pspice Simulation of DC Power Supplies
11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 2

INTRODUCTION
○ A basic disadvantage of the DC-DC converters (buck, boost, etc.) is

the electrical connection between the input and the output.
○ If the input supply is grounded, that same ground will be present
on the output.
○ A way to isolate the output from the input electrically is with a
transformer.
○ If the DC-DC converter has a first stage that rectifies an AC power
source to DC, a transformer could be used on the AC side.
○ However, not all applications require AC to DC conversion as a first
stage.
○ Moreover, a transformer operating at a low frequency (50 or 60
Hz) requires a large magnetic core and is therefore relatively large,
heavy, and expensive.

INTRODUCTION (CONT.)
○ A more efficient method of providing electrical isolation between

input and output of a DC-DC converter is to use a transformer in
the switching scheme.
○ The switching frequency is much greater than the AC power-
source frequency, enabling the transformer to be small.
○ Additionally, the transformer turns ratio provides increased design
flexibility in the overall relationship between the input and the
output of the converter.
○ With the use of multiple transformer windings, switching
converters can be designed to provide multiple output voltages.

TRANSFORMER MODELS
○ Transformers have two basic functions: to provide electrical isolation and

to step up or step down time-varying voltages and currents.
○ The dot convention is used to indicate relative polarity between the two
windings.
○ When the voltage at the dotted terminal on one winding is positive, the
voltage at the dotted terminal on the other winding is also positive.
Figure 7-1 (a) Transformer; (b) Ideal model.

TRANSFORMER MODELS (CONT.)
○ Resistors r1 and r2 represent resistances of the conductors, L1 and L2

represent leakage inductances of the windings.
○ Lm represents magnetizing inductance, and rm represents core loss.
○ A somewhat better approximation for power supply applications includes
the magnetizing inductance Lm.
○ The value of Lm is an important design parameter for the flyback
converter.
Figure 7-1 (c) Complete model; (d) Model used for most power electronics circuits.
TRANSFORMER MODELS (CONT.)
○ The leakage inductances L1 and L2 are usually not crucial to the general
operation of the power electronics circuits described in this chapter, but
they are important when considering switching transients.
○ Note that in AC power system applications, the leakage inductance is
normally the important analysis and design parameter.
○ For periodic voltage and current operation for a transformer circuit, the
magnetic flux in the core must return to its starting value at the end of
each switching period.
○ Otherwise, flux will increase in the core and eventually cause saturation.
○ A saturated core cannot support a voltage across a transformer winding,
and this will lead to device currents that are beyond the design limits of
the circuit.

THE FLYBACK CONVERTER
○Continuous-Current Mode (CCM)
Figure 7-2 (a) Flyback converter; (b) Equivalent circuit using a

transformer model that includes the magnetizing inductance.

THE FLYBACK CONVERTER (CONT.)
○A DC-DC converter that provides isolation between input

and output is the flyback circuit of Fig. 7-2a.
○In the steady-state first analysis, Fig. 7-2b uses the
transformer model which includes the magnetizing
inductance Lm.
○The effects of losses and leakage inductances are important
when considering switch performance and protection, but
the overall operation of the circuit is best understood with
this simplified transformer model.

○Assumptions:
● The circuit is operating in the steady state.
● The inductor current is continuous.
● The capacitor is large enough to assume a constant output
voltage.
● The switch is closed for time DT and open for (1-D)T.
● The components are ideal.
○The basic operation of the flyback converter is similar to that
of the buck-boost converter described earlier.
○Energy is stored in Lm when the switch is closed and is then
transferred to the load when the switch is open.
○The circuit is analyzed for both switch positions to determine
the relationship between input and output.
○Analysis for the Switch Closed (On)
Figure 7-2 (c) Circuit for the switch on.

Figure 7-2 (c) Circuit for the switch on.
○ So while the switch is closed, current is increasing linearly in the

magnetizing inductance Lm.
○ There is no current in the windings of the ideal transformer in the model.
○ In the actual transformer, this means that the current is increasing linearly
in the physical primary winding, and no current exists in the secondary
winding.

○Analysis for the Switch Open (Off)
Figure 7-2 (d) Circuit for the switch off.


○ When the switch opens (Fig. 7-2d), the current cannot change
instantaneously in the inductance Lm.
○ So the conduction path must be through the primary turns of the ideal
transformer.
○ The current iLm enters the undotted terminal of the primary and must exit
the undotted terminal of the secondary.
○ This is allowable since the diode current is positive.
Figure 7-2 (d) Circuit for the switch off.


○ Since the net change in inductor current must be zero over one period
for steady-state operation
○ Note that the relation between input and output for the flyback
converter is similar to that of the buck-boost converter but includes the
additional term for the transformer ratio.


○ Other currents and voltages of interest while the switch is open are
○ Note that vsw, the voltage across the open switch, is greater than the
source voltage.
○ If the output voltage is the same as the input and the turns ratio is 1, for
example, the voltage across the switch will be twice the source voltage.

○The Flyback Converter Waveforms
Figure 7-3 Flyback converter current and voltage waveforms. (a) Magnetizing
inductance current; (b) Source current; (c) Diode current; (d) Capacitor current.
○The Flyback Converter Waveforms
Figure 7-3 (e) Transformer primary voltage.

○The power absorbed by the load resistor must be the same

as that supplied by the source for the ideal case, resulting in
○The average source current Is is related to the average of the

magnetizing inductance current ILm by
Figure 7-3 Flyback converter current waveforms. (a)

Magnetizing inductance current; (b) Source current.
○The average inductor current is also expressed as

○The maximum and minimum values of inductor current are

obtained as

○Continuous-current operation requires that ILm,min > 0.

○At the boundary between CCM and DCM; ILm,min = 0
○where f is the switching frequency. Solving for the minimum

value of Lm that will allow continuous current,

○In a flyback converter design, Lm is selected to be larger than

Lm,min to ensure continuous current operation.
○A convenient expression relating inductance and current
variation is found from

○ The output configuration for the flyback converter is the same as for the
buck-boost converter, so the output ripple voltages for the two
converters are also the same.
○ As with the converters described earlier, the equivalent series resistance

of the capacitor can contribute significantly to the output voltage ripple.
○ The peak-to-peak variation in capacitor current is the same as the
maximum current in the diode and the transformer secondary.
○ The voltage ripple due to the ESR is

○Example 7-1 (D. Hart)



(D. Hart)
○ Example 7-2 (Flyback Converter Design, Continuous-Current Mode)

(D. Hart)

(D. Hart)

(D. Hart)
0.4%

○Summary of Flyback Converter Operation

○ When the switch is closed in the flyback converter of Fig. 7-2a, the source
voltage is across the transformer magnetizing inductance Lm and causes
iLm to increase linearly.
○ Also while the switch is closed, the diode on the output is reverse-biased,
and load current is supplied by the output capacitor.
○ When the switch is open, energy stored in the magnetizing inductance is
transferred through the transformer to the output, forward-biasing the
diode and supplying current to the load and to the output capacitor.
○ The input-output voltage relationship in the continuous-current mode of
operation is like that of the buck-boost DC-DC converter but includes a
factor for the turns ratio.

THE FORWARD CONVERTER
○The forward converter, shown in Fig. 7-5a, is another

magnetically coupled DC-DC converter.
Figure 7-5 (a) Forward dc-dc converter.

THE FORWARD CONVERTER (CONT.)
○ Steady-state operation is assumed for the analysis of the circuit, and the
current in inductance Lx is assumed to be continuous.
○ The transformer has three windings: windings 1 and 2 transfer energy
from the source to the load when the switch is closed.
○ Winding 3 is used to provide a path for the magnetizing current when
the switch is open and to reduce the magnetizing current to zero before
the start of each switching period.

○ The transformer is modeled as three ideal windings with a magnetizing

inductance Lm, which is placed across winding 1.
○ Leakage inductance and losses are not included in this simplified
transformer model.
○ For the forward converter, energy is transferred from the source to the
load while the switch is closed.

○ Recall that for the flyback converter, energy was stored in Lm when the
switch was closed and transferred to the load when the switch was open.
○ In the forward converter, Lm is not a parameter that is included in the
input-output relationship and is generally made large.


○ Closing the switch establishes the voltage across transformer winding 1
showing that D3 is off.
Figure 7-5 (b) Circuit for switch closed.
○ A positive v2 forward-biases D1 and reverse-biases D2.


○ The relationship between input and output voltages can be determined
by examining the current in inductor Lx. Assuming the output is held at a
constant Vo,
Figure 7-5 (b) Circuit for switch closed.
○ The voltage across the magnetizing inductance Lm is also Vs, resulting in


○ The currents in Lx and Lm do not change instantaneously when the switch
is opened. Continuity of iLm establishes i1= - iLm.
The inductor current decreases linearly

when the switch is open.


○ For steady-state operation, the net change in inductor current over one
period must be zero.
○ Note that the relationship between input and output voltage is similar to
that for the buck DC-DC converter except for the added term for the
turns ratio.


○ Current in Lx must be continuous for to be valid.
○ The voltage across Lm is v1, which is negative, resulting in
○ The current in Lm should return to zero before the start of the next period
to reset the transformer core (return the magnetic flux to zero).
○ When the switch opens, iLm decreases linearly.
○ Since D3 will prevent iLm from going negative as long as iLm is positive.

○ For iLm to return to zero after the switch is opened, the decrease in
current must equal the increase in current
○ Letting Tx be the time for iLm to decrease from the peak back to zero,


○ Because the current must reach zero before the start of the next period,
○ For example, if the ratio N3/N1=1 (a common practice), then the duty
ratio D must be less than 0.5. Voltage across the open switch is


○ The circuit configuration on the output of the forward converter is the
same as that for the buck converter, so the output voltage ripple based
on an ideal capacitance is also the same.
○ The equivalent series resistance of the capacitor often dominates the

output voltage ripple. The peak-to-peak voltage variation due to the ESR
is

○Forward Converter Current and Voltage Waveforms
Figure 7-6 Current waveforms for the forward converter.

○Forward Converter Current and Voltage Waveforms
Figure 7-6 Current waveforms for the forward converter.

○Forward Converter Voltage Waveform
Figure 7-6 Voltage waveform for the forward converter.

○Summary of Forward Converter Operation

○When the switch is closed, energy is transferred from the
source to the load through the transformer.
○The voltage on the transformer secondary is a pulsed
waveform, and the output is analyzed like that of the buck
DC-DC converter.
○Energy stored in the magnetizing inductance while the
switch is closed can be returned to the input source via a
third transformer winding while the switch is open.





○Example 7-5 (Forward Converter Design) (D. Hart)




CONVERTER SELECTION
○In theory, any power supply circuit can be designed for any
application, depending on how much the designer is willing
to spend for components and control circuitry.
○In practice, some circuits are much more suited to particular
applications than others.
○The flyback converter,
● having a low parts count, is a simple circuit to implement and is
very popular for low-power applications.
● The main disadvantages are that the transformer core must be
made large as power requirements increase, and the voltage stress
across the switch is high (2Vs).

CONVERTER SELECTION (CONT.)
○Typical applications can go up to about 150 W, but the

flyback converter is used most often for an output power of
10 W or less.
○The forward converter,
● is a popular circuit for low and medium power levels, up to about
500 W.
● It has one transistor as does the flyback, but it requires a smaller
transformer core.
● Disadvantages are high voltage stress for the transistor and the
extra cost of the filter inductor.

○The push-pull converter,

● is used for medium to high power requirements, typically up to
1000 W.
● Advantages include transistor drive circuits that have a common
point and a relatively small transformer core because it is excited
in both directions.
● Disadvantages include a high voltage stress for the transistors and
potential core saturation problems caused by a DC imbalance in
nonideal circuits.

○The half-bridge converter,

● is also used for medium power requirements, up to about 500 W,
and has some of the same advantages as the push-pull.
● The voltage stress on the switches is limited to Vs.
○The full-bridge converter,
● is often the circuit of choice for high-power applications, up to
about 2000 W.
● The voltage stress on the transistors is limited to Vs.
● Extra transistors and floating drive circuits are disadvantages.

PSPICE SIMULATION OF DC POWER SUPPLIES
○PSpice simulations of the magnetically coupled DC-DC

converters discussed in this chapter are similar to those of
the DC-DC converters discussed earlier.
○For initial investigation, the switches can be implemented
with voltage-controlled switches rather than with transistors,
simplifying the switching and allowing examination of the
overall circuit behavior.
○Transformers can be modeled in PSpice as two or more
inductances with ideal coupling.
○Since inductance is proportional to the square of the turns in
a winding, the transformer turns ratio is

PSPICE SIMULATION OF DC POWER SUPPLIES (CONT.)
○For the flyback converter, let
○For other converters where Lm is not a design parameter, let

L1 be any large value and determine L2 accordingly.
○For two-winding transformers, the part XFRM_LINEAR can
serve as a template.

○Figures 7-16 and 7-17 show circuits for the flyback and
forward converter topologies.
○The flyback simulation uses the XFRM_LINEAR part, and the
forward simulation uses mutually coupled inductors.
○The switches and diodes are idealized by setting Ron=0.01Ω
for the switches and n = 0.01 for the diodes.

Figure 7-16 (a) The flyback converter circuit for simulation.

Figure The actual flyback converter circuit in PSpice.

Figure The flyback converter circuit Pspice probe output showing the transient and
steady-state output voltage Vo.
Figure The actual forward converter circuit in PSpice.

Figure The forward converter circuit Pspice probe output showing the transient and
steady-state output voltage and current Vo, io.

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Department of Electrical Engineering

ELK331E – POWER ELECTRONIC

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 2

○ A basic disadvantage of the DC-DC converters (buck, boost, etc.) is

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 3

○ A more efficient method of providing electrical isolation between

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 4

○ Transformers have two basic functions: to provide electrical isolation and

Figure 7-1 (a) Transformer; (b) Ideal model.

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 5

○ Resistors r1 and r2 represent resistances of the conductors, L1 and L2

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 7

○Continuous-Current Mode (CCM)

Figure 7-2 (a) Flyback converter; (b) Equivalent circuit using a

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 8

○A DC-DC converter that provides isolation between input

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 9

○Analysis for the Switch Closed (On)

Figure 7-2 (c) Circuit for the switch on.

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 11

○Analysis for the Switch Closed (On)

Figure 7-2 (c) Circuit for the switch on.

○ So while the switch is closed, current is increasing linearly in the

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 12

○Analysis for the Switch Open (Off)

Figure 7-2 (d) Circuit for the switch off.

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 13

○Analysis for the Switch Open (Off)

Figure 7-2 (d) Circuit for the switch off.

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 14

○Analysis for the Switch Open (Off)

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 15

○Analysis for the Switch Open (Off)

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 16

○The Flyback Converter Waveforms

○The Flyback Converter Waveforms

Figure 7-3 (e) Transformer primary voltage.

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 18

○The power absorbed by the load resistor must be the same

○The average source current Is is related to the average of the

Figure 7-3 Flyback converter current waveforms. (a)

○The average inductor current is also expressed as

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 20

○The maximum and minimum values of inductor current are

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 21

○Continuous-current operation requires that ILm,min > 0.

○where f is the switching frequency. Solving for the minimum

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 22

○In a flyback converter design, Lm is selected to be larger than

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 23

○ As with the converters described earlier, the equivalent series resistance

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 24

○Example 7-1 (D. Hart)

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 25

○Example 7-1 (D. Hart)

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 26

○Example 7-1 (D. Hart)

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 27

11/21/2022 ELK331E Power Electronics Circuits – Chapter 7 28