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MYANMAR INSTITUTE OF ORIENTIAL STUDIES

YANGON, MYANMAR

MASTER OF ARTS IN PALI AND BUDDHIST STUDIES

Third Semester Assignments

Candidate Name: Ma Khine Su Wai

Registration Number: MABPS/2/3/12

Title: အဘိဓမ္မာ ၇ကျမ်းတွင် ဘု ရားဟောကြားထားသော စိတ်၊ စေတသိက်၊ ရု ပ်၊ နိဗ္ဗာန်နှ င့်

ပညတ်သဘောတရားများကို အများနားလည်အောင် ရှ င်းပြပါ။

These assignments are submitted to Myanmar Institute of Oriental Studies, in

Partial Fulfillment of the respective courses (2022)
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Contents
No Page
1. Introduction to Abhidhamma 3
2. Abhidhamma and four kinds of realities 5
3. Basic principles of abhidhamma 8
4. Unskillful and skillful mental factors 11
5. Paññatti and Asabhāva Dhamma 13
6. Conclusion 14
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Introduction to Abhidhamma
The following three essays have been grouped together at the beginning of the book because
they all deal in a fairly general way with some basic ideas used in abhidhamma. They provide
some background to the canonical books of abhidhamma and introduce the way in which
abhidhamma analyses experience in terms of four ‘basic realities’, namely consciousness
(citta), the mental factors which arise withconsciousness (cetasika), matter (rupa) and
nibbana.
Abhidhamma
The Pali Canon (canonical writings of Theravada Buddhism) is in three parts: Vinaya-pitaka,
or rules for monastic life; Sutta-pitaka, or discourses of the Buddha; and Abhidhamma-pitaka.
Traditionally the Abhidhamma pitaka has been ascribed to the Buddha, although scholars
maintain that it dates from later periods. It consists of seven books, and its basis can also be
found in the suttas. Other schools, notably the Sarvastivadins, have slightly different versions
of abhidhamma, although all versions agree on essentials.
The Abhidhammattha-sangaha is a digest of the Abhidhamma pitaka, composed probably
about eight or nine centuries ago, and is the most used textbook for abhidhamma studies. It
gives a full list of the cittas (mental states) and cetasikas (ingredients of citta) which are
found in the thought process by which all sensation, thinking and action occurs. It is meant
for practical use in following the Eightfold Path, rather than for abstract theorizing. Its
analysis of phenomena and the thought process demonstrates anicca (impermanence) and
anatta (no permanent self), and so promotes right understanding. By describing citta and
cetasika it helps in developing right concentration and also the four foundations of
mindfulness. It thus aids the awareness conducive to sila and to right thought and right effort.
According to tradition the Buddha, on the night of his enlightenment, ascended to a heaven
world and recited the whole of the abhidhamma to his mother, in order to make to her the
greatest act of generosity, the gift of dhamma. This mythical account contrasts with the
scholarly approach to the texts, which tries to pin down the Buddha’s life and his teachings to
specifics. Perhaps it is necessary to balance the two approaches: the latter has the effect of
narrowing down while the former opens and expands possibilities.
The term cetasika (paragraph three) was also discussed, and one major difficulty proved to be
finding a suitable translation - as for many terms in abhidhamma. The word comes from the
same root as citta, ‘cit’, which means ‘think’. ‘-ika’ means ‘belonging to’. Cetasika is that
which supports citta. English has no adequate translation for the word. ‘Property’ of mind has
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too many connotations of possession to be accurate. Here we have used the translation
‘mental factor’; if rather meaningless, it is at least neutral.
The point is made that knowledge of anicca and anatta are closely connected, and thus right
understanding is promoted. The question was raised as to how they were connected. Since
there is no phenomenon or thought process which is permanent, there is nothing which can be
identified as a permanent self: realisation of this therefore promotes right understanding. A
similar example of the usefulness of abhidhamma is the way in which it helps develop right
concentration, by the reading, for example, of its description of jhana factors or the different
attributes of certain states of mind. Such knowledge makes it easier to return to a level of
concentration which has been experienced.
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Abhidhamma and four kinds of realities

The word ‘abhidhamma’ may be translated as ‘further teaching’. The texts embodying the
abhidhamma form one of the three collections into which the earliest body of Buddhist
scriptures is divided. The other two collections are the collection of discourses, containing the
talks and sermons given by the Buddha; and the collection of the discipline, comprising the
rules which govern the way of life of Buddhist monks and nuns.
The abhidhamma is a ‘further teaching’ in several senses. Its teachings go further than the
discourses in being more analytical, and are best understood once some feeling for the suttas
has been established. Moreover, the abhidhamma deals with truths which, although they do
not contradict our everyday experience, cannot be fully expressed in terms of everyday
language. Accordingly, certain new concepts and habits of thought and observation are
needed, to attain a degree of precision and clarity that goes beyond anything required for the
ordinary purposes of our habitual speaking and thinking.
The purpose of abhidhamma is to enable us to reach a deeper understanding and a clearer
awareness of ourselves and the world. Rightly approached, in other words, it is conducive to
mindfulness and wisdom, which are in turn the means by which we and others may reach the
end of suffering. For this purpose abhidhamma offers an analytical method through which all
our experience may be examined and understood. It follows that the study of abhidhamma
cannot be fruitful unless it is combined with observation of our own immediate experience,
whatever that may be. Just as abhidhamma will enable us to understand experience, so
experience will help us to understand abhidhamma, and the two kinds of learning should
develop together.
The subject matter of abhidhamma consists of four kinds of realities. These are:
1. Consciousness
2. Mental factors
3. Matter
4. Nibbana
Each of these terms requires some comment, and the first three need some re-definition, for
the English words must take on slightly new senses if they are to be useful in the context of
abhidhamma.
Consciousness is that in all our experience which watches, which knows. It might also be
called ‘mind’, if mind is taken to mean not a permanent entity, or a faculty of the individual,
but the quality of living awareness in whose field all that we know takes place.
Consciousness is impermanent: no form of consciousness lasts very long (even casual
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observation shows, for example, that our ‘states of mind’ change frequently, that we cannot
concentrate on one thing indefinitely, that wakefulness tends to alternate with sleep, and so
on) and closer analysis reveals that consciousness arises and ceases and arises again a very
large number of times each second. At each such arising, the consciousness which comes into
being bas certain qualities, and is directed to some object. Accordingly many different kinds
of consciousness may be distinguished. The description of the kinds of consciousness
occupies an important place in the abhidhamma.
Mental factors apply a consciousness to its object. They are not the same as consciousness,
but every consciousness is accompanied by some of them and they arise and cease with it.
For this reason mental factors are also sometimes called ‘concomitants of consciousness’.
The mental factors are the basis of our commonsense understanding that different kinds of
consciousness ‘feel’ different. When we recognize in ourselves pleasant or unpleasant states
of mind, dull or alert ones, generous or malicious ones, we are noticing some of the mental
factors that are present. The abhidhamma lists and describes the range of mental factors we
may experience and explains which kinds of consciousness they accompany.
Matter is that which has form, that which, through the senses, becomes an object of
consciousness. Without consciousness matter cannot be experienced; without matter
consciousness cannot be experienced. When they exist, they exist together. The abhidhamma
gives an analysis of the nature of matter and its relationship to our senses, of how it comes
into being and how it ceases.
Nibbana is the end of suffering. Beyond all worlds, beyond existence and non-existence, it
cannot be described. The Buddha, however, has called it the supreme happiness and it is the
goal towards which all Buddhist teaching and practice strives. It is the only one of the four
basic realities which is not subject to impermanence. The abhidhamma teaches that these four
fundamental realities, consciousness, mental factors, matter and nibbana, comprise all that
can be, all that we can conceive or possibly could conceive. This may seem an extravagant
claim, and indeed it should be tested and tested again more closely as the study of
abhidhamma progresses.
The full meaning of these technical terms can only become fully clear as more of the
abhidhamma’s theory is examined and given meaning by relating it to life.
Abhi, in Pali, means ‘higher’ or ‘further’ and abhidhamma is sometimes called ‘deep
dhamma’, as it penetrates right into the nature of things. There are various translations for
dhamma, including ‘truth’ and ‘teaching’. The latter is not really meant in this context so
much as the former. In fact, it is arguable if dhamma ever means ‘teaching’ in the sense of
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imparting knowledge; it is rather a living expression of truth in words or experience. The

earliest occurrence of the term abhidhamma is in the suttas, when a distinction is drawn
between abhivinaya, ‘further training’, and abhidhamma, ‘further teaching’. It is usually
supposed, however, that the term here has not yet acquired its technical sense.
There was considerable discussion about matter or rupa, perhaps indicating that it was a topic
of abhidhamma about which most people felt hazy. The point was taken that ‘without
consciousness, matter cannot be experienced’, but what does this mean in practice? For many
kinds of beings, the converse is also true, that ‘without matter, consciousness cannot be
experienced’. Abhidhamma also states that there is a world in which consciousness exists
without any matter at all (the arupa loka), so the relationship between consciousness and
matter is not a simple one.
There are three defining characteristics of matter:
1. that which changes,
2. that which suffers disintegration,
3. that which suffers impact.
The first of these raises the question of the way in which the changeability of matter is
different from that of consciousness. Perhaps the difference is that matter has a longer life-
span than consciousness, and so it undergoes a more obviously definable process of change
during that life-span. With regard to the third characteristic, it is said that one state of
consciousness cannot make impact with another, while one unit of matter can make impact
with another. No doubt this is because mind is not spatial in nature whereas matter is. In fact
space is a label for the arrangement of units of matter.
Nibbana is not suffering and neither is it subject to impermanence. The question arises from
this, does the third mark of existence, no-self, apply 10 nibbana? There has been much
controversy about this in Buddhist tradition. In one view nibbana is not the same as the five
aggregates, it is not part of the aggregates, they are not part of it and it is not in the
relationship of owner to the aggregates; it is therefore considered not self. In another view,
nibbana transcends the categories of self and no self.
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Basic principles of abhidhamma

In trying to write on any subject in abhidhamma, I kept on coming across the same problem.
Abhidhamma as a system undercuts nearly all fixed structures and assumptions through
which we perceive the world and acquire experience; so even, or perhaps especially in the
most basic principles of abhidhamma certain basic ways of looking at the world have to be
put aside, at least on an intellectual level.
The most important principles of abhidhamma could be summarized in the three marks of
existence: impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and no self. In abhidhamma there is no
permanent ‘I’ experiencing the world, and no permanence in the world that is experienced.
There are only four realities: consciousness, the mental factors that characterize
consciousness, matter and nibbana. The first three are conditioned, and each unit of
consciousness, each mental factor and each unit of matter last for an infinitesimally short
period of time. Millions of thought-moments are said to occur in the twinkling of an eye.
Matter is slightly more durable and course than consciousness. With certain exceptions
seventeen thought-moments elapse in the life-time of one unit of matter. So what we call the
self is simply a rapid succession of single thought-moments, occurring one at a time, each
having its own object.
Despite the countless number of thought-moments which occur in the lifespan of a human
being, there are altogether only one hundred and twenty-one different states of consciousness,
each accompanied by its own specific attributes and functions. Some of these are active, in
that they produce a result either skillful or unskillful; some are passive, or resultant, in that
they are states of mind which are the product of earlier active mental tendencies, but which
do not in themselves create further states of mind. So, if there has been an unskillful thought-
moment rooted in aversion there will almost certainly be an unpleasant state of mind as a
result of this some time in the future - this state of mind, however, will not in itself create
further states of mind, though its occurrence may make it likely that active thought-moments
rooted in aversion may arise in response to its unpleasantness. The other kinds of
consciousness are functional, in that they operate outside the sphere of skillful and unskillful
cause and effect. In everyday life, for instance, they are the thought moments concerned with
directing attention to the five senses or to mental states. While they are technically outside the
world of cause and effect, they are extremely important in the tendencies of moment by
moment consciousness, as it is these which direct the mind either inwards or outwards.
Each thought-moment is colored or characterized by different mental factors, in various
combinations. These could be termed the attributes of each perceiving moment of
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consciousness. There are fifty-two of them, and in different groupings there are varying
numbers of them accompanying each thought-moment. They include phenomena such as
pleasant feeling, unpleasant feeling, joy, aversion and wisdom. So a purely functional
moment of consciousness, such as one directing attention to the senses, contains only ten
mental factors. These include the seven factors common to all moments of consciousness,
which provide a basic framework keeping all thought-moments in working order. A thought-
moment with skillful roots, however, accompanied by knowledge and pleasant feeling, will
have the nineteen mental factors present in all skillful consciousness, the seven universal
factors, and other attributes such as joy and effort.
The non-perceiving world of matter has a lack of solidity comparable to the world of mind.
What we regard as solid objects are merely rapidly changing conglomerations of units of
matter. The shape of an object is merely the mental construct we impose on a constantly
fluctuating series of sense impressions impinging on our consciousness. As thought-moments
can have only one object at a time, and as only one sensory thought-moment can be operative
at any one time, the experience of looking at an object is not simply one activity but a rapid
oscillation between different sense impressions, the organization of these impressions to
conform to the mental framework by which we order our world, and the various feelings
arising from this constant stream of sensory information. The effect could be compared to a
multi-dimensional television transmission, with three rapidly-moving dots that make up the
picture - matter, consciousness and mental factors - working on the senses of smell, taste,
hearing and touch as well as sight and mind.
It soon emerges from even the most cursory study of abhidhamma, then, that the view it gives
of the world is entirely different from the one that we are used to. While it may appear that
we are all experiencing highly individual states of emotion and that the world we see is
composed of an enormous variety of sights, smells and textures, according to abhidhamma all
these impressions may be reduced to a series of processes composed of certain specific
attributes and functions. The complexity in the world we see and in our emotional make-up is
the result of different arrangements and fluid patterns of thought, moments, mental factors
and units of matter. At various points in the succession of thought-moments intervention is
possible. The processes are not simply automatic but may be redirected, so that more skillful
mental tendencies may develop.
These categories in abhidhamma may be reduced even further, all the conditioned realities
exhibiting the marks of impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and no self. Only nibbana, the
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fourth reality, is not subject to the laws of cause-and-effect, impermanence and

unsatisfactoriness.
Consciousness, mental factors and rupa are transitory phenomena and so it is tempting to say
that they are less ‘real’ than the laws inherent in the world and our experience of it; these, at
least, hold for all times and places. But laws cannot normally be seen. Consciousness, mental
factors, matter and nibbana, however, can be ‘pointed out’ and perhaps in this sense they are
said to be ‘realities’. As one of the four realities, rupa is usually translated as ‘matter’, which
is suggestive of the solid world of objects around us. The first four meditations, or jhanas,
however, are called rupa-jhanas (as opposed to the other four arupa-jhanas, or jhanas without
rupa). Yet in the rupa-jhanas there is no perception of the realm which we are accustomed to
call ‘matter’, which we know through our bodily senses.
The three realities are not fixed levels, but simply levels in relation to one another. Their
‘actual’ level may change according to what is being investigated. Thus attainment of jhana
may involve a change in levels: what performs the role of consciousness in the lower realms
is taken as the rupa of the jhana consciousness. According to this interpretation, the arupa-
jhanas are so-called because there is no lowest level, i.e. they have no limit. Certainly in some
versions of abhidhamma, there is a list of one hundred and twenty-one cittas, but perhaps this
does not have to be taken too literally. An essential aspect of consciousness is that it is
unitary and thus in this sense it cannot be divided up into different kinds. Also, different
schools of abhidhamma give different numbers of cittas. It may be that each list is giving a
useful way of understanding consciousness for a given purpose, rather than an inflexible
definition.
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Unskillful and skillful mental factors

In each moment there arises consciousness through contact with an object. Each conscious
moment is accompanied by a variety of mental factors, each of which carries an activating
force that determines the quality of the arisen consciousness. The concern here is with two of
the three groups of mental factors identified in abhidhamma; those which increase the
condition of wrong knowing and those which work towards a reduction of the wrong
knowing and its eventual destruction. All unskilful mental factors are expressions of the three
roots of attachment, aversion and wrong knowing. Four of these mental factors, all
expressions of wrong knowing, arise in any consciousness that is unprofitable. These are
cloudiness, agitation, lack of concern for, and disregard of, consequences arising from present
actions.
If the root of attachment is present, one at least of the following mental factors will operate:
attachment to, false views about, or conceit regarding an object. When rejection of the object
of consciousness is present, as opposed to a craving for the object, the mental factor of
aversion will operate alone or with one of its particular f1owerings; that is, jealousy,
miserliness or guilt. Sometimes the four common factors are accompanied by doubt and also,
on some occasions, by stiffness and sluggishness as well. All the above mental factors in
operation result in the mind being unable to see clearly the object of the mind. Thus it cannot
understand the true nature of the object as being characterized by the three marks of
impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and voidness of self. In addition to a lack of understanding
there is present an identification with the object, the consciousness and the various unskillful
mental factors.
Release from the suffering conditioned by this inability to know the nature of the object of
consciousness as it is, is achieved through the development of wisdom. Wisdom is fully
operative when the eightfold path is fully developed. It is stressed in many suttas that
mindfulness is the key to development. When studying the profitable group of mental factors
in abhidhamma it is possible to realize the importance of mindfulness in this process. The
initial step in development is to ‘set the wheel in motion’. This means to break out of the
cycle of recurring wrong knowing which operates through the power of the unskillful mental
factors.
There are nineteen skillful or ‘beautiful’ mental factors that arise together if conditions allow.
However, it is possible to view the first one mentioned as that which sets the wheel in
motion. This mental factor is confidence or faith. This faith arises because of an acceptance
that the teachings of the Buddha are valuable and to be treasured. It is not a grasping of the
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teachings, saying: This is truth’, but rather a type of understanding of an intuitive nature. It is
like the type of feeling that arises as: ‘Yes! There is a way!’, when wishing to solve a
problem. When this confidence has made the first point of contact, mindfulness arises.
Mindfulness is a noticing of what object is in the mind. It is typified by a lack of unknowing
involvement with the object. A wider vision is created, including knowledge of
accompanying mental factors. Mindfulness can be seen as that which allows the wheel to
turn, creating a skillful cycle that tends towards development.
Faith initiates and mindfulness establishes. Simultaneously will arise other profitable mental
factors. As a result of the aspect of memory in mindfulness, there arises a wish not to be
involved with unskillfulness, accompanied by a fear of the consequences of such an
involvement. Attachment is replaced by generosity; that is, rather than holding on to an object
there is an acceptance of the presence of the object, no more. Ill will is replaced by warmth
towards the object. Being freed from the clouded fixing onto an object found when unskillful
mental factors operate; the mind is able to maintain an even balance. There is also a group of
factors which arise and which affect both the mind and mental objects. These factors are
tranquility, lightness, pliancy, fitness, skillfulness and correctness. All these enable the mind
to work skillfully.
When these mental factors occur more frequently it is possible to develop additional factors
that benefit the development of the path, which include compassion and sympathetic joy,
both of which use positively energies previously invested in ill-will and grasping. The most
important of the remaining mental factors is understanding, or wisdom. When mindfulness
and the other skillful mental factors arising together are sufficiently established,
understanding will develop; gradually removing the hold that wrong knowing has over the
mind. The last three skillful mental factors, all necessary for the development of freedom
from craving, are the qualities of right speech, right action and right livelihood, which will
arise depending upon circumstances.
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Paññatti and Asabhāva Dhamma

The term “paññatti” or “making known” was used to describe other conceptions or notions
based upon these paramattha dhammas. It is the synthetic mental act that, based on the
particular arrangement and conditions of paramattha, conceives them as another type of
distinct phenomena. Furthermore, the synthesized idea with through word, term or speech,
are also two distinct types of paññatti. The term paññatti is broad in meaning, including both
the names and concepts for dhammas themselves, and also those phenomena that are
comprised of dhammas.
Anything that can be further broken down into dhammas, is considered as a paññatti. Fro
example, a computer can be rendered into its components and they in turn can be rendered
into merely rupa. Both computer and components are paññatti. A cat consists of the physical
form, the cat’s rupa and also its various mental states, which would correspond more or less
to the nāmakkhandhas of a human being. In this way, pa ññatti is the complementary opposite
to paramattha. Together, the two are mutually exclusive, yet encompass the entirely of all
phenomena.
Because they are non-paramattha, paññatti are also asabhāva, in the sense of “not intrinsically
existent”, rather than “intrinsically non-existent”. They exist as it was purely as a mental
function or action, either as name, word or concept. Without that mental action, they are not.
For example, the basis for the name “table” exists in itself as a mass of rupa dhammas,
independent of its perception or cognition by an observer. However, the word “table” and the
notion of “table” as “flat surfaced, four legged object and so on” or a generic mental image of
table, and so forth, are both purely perceptual and conceptual actions of the mind. Paññatti
are based upon the actual paramattha sabhāva rupa dhammas of the “table”. Just a relation
between paramattha and paññatti, just is the relationship between sabhāva and asabhāva
dhammas.
Because paññatti has no actual existent that corresponds to them, the three characteristics of
arising, abiding and ceasing are not predicated of them in the strict sense. The three
characteristics belong only to the paramattha sabhāva dhammas proper. Rather than
attributing to paññatti the phases of arising and ceasing, it is only correct to refer to the
arising and cessation of their designated paramattha dhammas. For example, a “person” does
not arise and cease, however, their khandhas do undergo arising and cessation.
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Conclusion
They are the creation of a group of people seeking to understand and practise the way of the
Buddha. Their experience differs and their contributions reflect their differences. Some were
members of the group from the beginning, some joined a little later and some much more
recently. There are those with great facility in expressing their thought on paper, others who
can do so much more easily in speech or gesture.
Whatever we construct is the product of the proliferating tendency of the mind, driven by
craving, views and self-importance. This is one formulation of the Second Noble Truth. Not
surprisingly the understanding of abhidhamma is impeded by these very things. We do not
like to see things to which we are attached given a place of no importance. We reject ideas
and teachings which require us to let go of previous views and understandings. We act, speak
and write in ways that reinforce our own self involvement.
The proliferating tendency of the mind can be stilled in a transcending happiness and peace.
The imperfect can be relinquished. The white paper underlies the black print. Behind these
essays and the work of the group lies an aspiration and a pointing towards this dhamma. The
way to that realization is known and can be put into practice. Such is the Fourth Noble Truth:
the bringing into being of calm and insight - samatha and vipassana. The growth of
understanding must rest upon a willingness to make errors and learn from them, to
understand partially and accept correction as well as upon the ability to still the mind and free
it from conceptual knowledge. If the understanding of abhidhamma is still incomplete in the
West, then our incomplete knowledge expressed here may serve to indicate to the
abhidhamma masters of the East what it is that we need to know and what precisely are our
problems. Let us hope they may respond.
Conversely we may also be glad to have been able to do so much. If some problems remain
for future endeavor, others have been solved. From the resolving of many doubts and
difficulties may come the ability to aid the doubts and difficulties of others. So these essays
and discussions are published also in the hope that they may be useful to others who seek to
understand dhamma.