Name : Vina Listiana

Student Number :1911040508

Class : 6A

REFERENCE

In philosophy and semantics, Wales (1989:396) observes that reference is concerned with the
relation between words and extra linguistics reality: what words stand for or refer to in the
outside world or universe of discourse. In grammar and text linguistics, reference is used in a
much boarder sense to mean any kind of designation, Textual as well as Situational. There are 4
type of reference : personal reference, demonstrative reference, comparative reference, retrieval
system of Reference.

Example

1. Neither the syntactic function of the personal itself, nor the syntactic function of its referent,
has any bearing on the anaphoric relation between the two, notice the following example:

a. John has moved to a new house./x. He had built it last year.

b. John‟s house is beautiful./y. His wife must be delighted with it.
c. That new house is John‟s./z. I didn‟t know it was his.

In the example above, (x) has personal pronoun „he‟, (y) has possessive determiner „his‟ and (z)
has possessive pronoun „his‟.

2. The Twelve Dancing Princess

Then she gave him a cloak, and said, „As soon as you put that on you will become invisible, and
you will then be able to follow the princesses wherever they go.‟ When the soldier heard all this
good advice, he was determined to try his luck, so he went to the king, and said he was willing to
undertake the task.

“This” is demonstrative reference which anaphorically refers to “As soon as you put that on you
will become invisible, and you will then be able to follow the princesses wherever they go.‟

3. It‟s not that I value my honour and my reputation more than the other girls, but my price is
much higher than theirs. I come to realize that a female employee is more afraid of losing her job
than a prostitute is of losing her life. An employee is scared of losing her job and becoming a
prostitute because she does not understand that the prostitute„s life is in fact better than hers.
And so she pays the price of her illusory fears with her life, her health, her body, and her mind.
She pays the highest price for things of the lowest value. I know that all of us were prostitutes
who sold themselves at varying princes, and that an expensive prostitute was better than a cheap
one. I also knew that if lost my job, all I would lose with it was the miserable salary, the
contempt I could read every day in the eyes of the higher level executives when they looked at
the lesser female officials, the humiliating pressure of male bodies on mine when I rode in the
bus, and the long morning queue in front of a perpetually overflowing toilet.

Comparatives reference can be seen from “more...than” and “better than”. The form of
comparison “more...than” is used to compare two things beetwen the same things. So that way,
comparative reference is important to use in this sentence.

SUBTITUTION

Substitutions are grammatical cohesion. In English grammar, substitution is the replacement of a

word or phrase with a filler word such as "one", "so", or "do" to avoid repetition. Substitution is
the process the substitution of language elements by other elements to produce different or
different elements to explain a particular element. It also have a few types in substitution,
nominal, verbal clausal, and phrase substitution. The common example of Substitution are yes-
no, here-there, then-at the time, one-ones-the same, do, so-not, this- that.

Example

1. a. Yes and No

We often use the words yes and no instead of long sequences of other words. These are clausal
substitutions as they are replacing whole clauses:

A: Do you know what you want to watch on TV tonight?

B: Yes. (= I know what I want to watch on TV tonight)

b. Here and There

We use words such as here and there as substitution in English grammar to replace details about
place. In other words, to replace adverbials of place:

 John asked me to go for dinner at Toni's Italian, but I didn't want to go there as it's so
busy at the weekend.
 I'm so glad I moved to Australia. I hope you'll visit me here one day
ELLIPSIS

Ellipsis is concerned with the ways in which grammatical features of the context of utterance. It
is also concerned with the ways in the interpretation of utterances depends on the analysis of that
context of utterance.1Halliday& Hassan define ellipsis in relation to another important cohesive
device, i.e substitution, since they embody the same fundamental relation between parts of the
text. Ellipsis is substitution by zero. It is divided into three kinds, namely nominal ellipsis, verbal
ellipsis and clausal ellipsis.

Ellipsis is divided into three kinds, namely :

1. Nominal Ellipsis

Therefore are those with deictic or numerative as head:

a. deitic as head
b. numeral as head

2. Verbal Ellipsis

There are two types of verbal ellipsi namely:

a. lexical ellipsis
b. operator ellipsis

3. Clausal Ellipsis

a. Modal ellipsis
b. Propositional ellipsis
c. Yes/no question ellipsis
d. WH Ellipsis

CONJUNCTION

Conjunctions are very important in English, with special focus on their meaning, type and use or
function in the language. In doing this, many simple but straightforward examples of sentences
have been provided to facilitate understanding in our paper. In English, conjunctions – such as
and – are commonly called conjunctions. Conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and
clauses to make sentences easier to understand and easier to read.

Example : “I started my day with having a breakfast. Both bread and tea are my favorite
breakfast. As soon as I finished my breakfast, I took my bag and hurry to go to school. My father
drove fast in order that I could arrived on time. I arrived at school neither late nor too early. I'm
still studying in elementary school whereas my brother has graduated from his senior high
school last year.”
Text above is example of using corrrelative conjunctions connect similar parts of a sentence,
such as adjectives, nouns, and clauses. They always come in pairs and link grammatically
equivalent items.

REITERATION

Reiteration is a form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of a lexical item, at one
end of scale, the use of general word to refer back to lexical item, at the other end of scale and a
number of things in between the use of a synonym or near-synonym, superordinate. There are six
types of reiteration, those are: repetition (one lexical item refers back to another, to which it is
related by having a common referent), synonym or near synonym (lexical cohesion results from
the choice of a lexical item that is in the some sense synonymous with a preceding one), antonym
(is lexical objects that in a text are contrary in meaning and function as a cohesive impact),
super-ordinate (to refer a word, which has general properties, not the specific one), meronym
(refers to a part-whole or concept used in the linguistic community, particularly concerning parts
and wholeness), and general word (the kinds of word one creature for animal (sometimes also for
people), person and people for humans; and for concrete count nouns).

Example : “John comes to the farewell party in this school. This farewell party is held at 07.00
p.m until 12 p.m”

Repetition is the simplest form. In repetition, the same reference is repeated over and over again
throughout the whole discourse makes the discourse coherent and, therefore, contributes to the
cohesion. The word farewell party is repeated in that sentence above. Repetition is a way to
maintain cohesion between sentences in a discourse. That relationship is formed by repetition is
used to maintain the idea or topic that is discussed, but, too many repetitions in a text can make
reader feel bored.

COLLOCATION

English collocation is divided into grammatical and lexical collocations. Grammatical

collocations consist of noun, verb, or adjective plus a particle, adverb, or a grammatical
structure, such as an infinitive, gerund or clause. Lexical collocations are combinations of
adjective + noun ; adverb + adjective; verb + noun, etc.

Each type of collocation may impose difficulty or confusion on learners of English. This is due
to the fact that there is hardly clear-cut guideline for non-native learners to decide which
combinations are exactly acceptable and whose co-occurence are highly predictable, or which
ones are possibly acceptable for creative purpose, or which one are simply unacceptable. The
only way to get better grasp of English collocations is building up awareness of it and
experiencing it receptively and productively.
Example of Noun + that-clause :

We reached an agreement that she would represent us in court

He took an oath that he would do his duty

However, when the „that-clause‟ can be replaced by „which-clause‟ as that in relative clauses,
such a noun + that-clause construction is not considered as collocational. For example: We
reached into an agreement that/ which would go into effect in a month.