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Effect of fat-type on cookie dough and cookie quality

Article  in  Journal of Food Engineering · March 2007

DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.01.058

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 Effect of fat-type on cookie dough and cookie quality
Jissy Jacob, K. Leelavathi *

Flour Milling, Baking and Confectionery Technology, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore 570020, India

Received 6 June 2005; accepted 23 January 2006

Available online 10 March 2006

Abstract

Effect of four different fat types on the rheology of the cookie dough and subsequently their effect on the quality of cookies were stud-
ied. The dough containing sunflower oil had the least initial farinograph consistency while that containing the bakery fat (‘marvo’) had
the most consistency. Observation of the response of the above two cookies doughs to farinograph mixing showed that the one contain-
ing the oil showed more resistance to mixing while the other containing the bakery fat decreased in its consistency denoting the softer
nature of the later. The cookies containing the oil had relatively higher spread value than the others. While the cookies containing the
non-emulsified hydrogenated fat (‘dalda’) had the least spread. Studies also showed that the cookies containing the oil started to spread
earlier and continued to spread for a longer time. Cookies containing oil had relatively harder texture and probably so because of the
poor entrapment of air during creaming. However, the quality of these cookies was significantly improved by including 0.5% sodium
steroyl lactylate in the formulation.

Keywords: Cookies; Shortening; Fat; Set-time; Cookie spread; Farinograph consistency

1. Introduction fat added to the dough has a strong effect on the viscoelas-
tic properties (Baltsavias, Jurgens, & van Vliet, 1997).
Fat forms one of the basic components of a cookie for- Baltsavias et al. (1997) also reported that reducing the fat
mulation and is present at relatively high levels. Fat acts as content or substituting liquid oil for solid caused a marked
a lubricant and contributes to the plasticity of the cookie decrease in the stiffness of the dough which implies that fat
dough (Maache-Rezzoug, Bouvier, Allaf, & Patras, is a crucial structure component. Increasing the level of fat
1998). It also prevents excessive development of the gluten in short doughs has a softening effect on the consistency of
proteins during mixing. Fat imparts desirable eating qual- the dough (Miller, 1985).
ities and contributes to texture and flavour of the product. The shortening that are used in bakery products range in
The addition of shortening is done principally to stabilize their consistency from liquid oils to high melting point
air cells that are generated by mixing (Given, 1994). Fat plastic fats. The only difference between a fat and an edible
influences the dough machinability during processing, the oil is that at ambient temperature, a fat is semi-solid, and
dough spread after cutting out, and textural and gustatory appears more or less firm to the touch, and an oil is in
qualities of the biscuits after baking (Vettern, 1984). Pres- liquid form. They are both of similar chemical composition
ence of fat contributes to the reduction of elastic nature (Manley, 1998). In cookie production plastic shortening is
of dough and shrinking of the dough during moulding creamed with sugar to incorporate air bubbles that are
(Maache-Rezzoug et al., 1998). The type and amount of trapped in the liquid phase of the shortening. Shortening
to be effective must possess ‘plastic’ properties which are
in turn exemplified by the correct solid-to-liquid index at
dough mixing temperature. Solid fat index (SFI) denotes
the proportion of solid to liquid fat in a shortening at a
given temperature and has an important relationship to the 2.2.2. Rheological characteristic of cookie dough
performance of the product at that temperature. High SFI Cookie dough was prepared in a Hobart mixer accord-
shortenings do not have enough oil volume for adequate ing to AACC micro method (10–52, 1995). The cookie for-
aeration, and low SFI shortenings do not have the ability mulation consisted of wheat flour 40.0 g, sugar powder
to hold the air until mixing is complete (O’Brien, 2004). 24.0 g, shortening 12.0 g, NFDM 1.20 g, sodium bicarbon-
The presence of some solid fat during mixing is thought ate 0.32 g, ammonium chloride 0.20 g, sodium chloride
to be essential and the use of liquid oil is reported to have 0.18 g and water according to requirement. Consistency
adverse changes in the handling characteristics of the of the cookie dough as influenced by different types of fats
dough (Abboud, Rubenthaler, & Hoseney, 1985). Another was measured using Brabender Farinograph according
characteristics of fat is its crystalline nature. The three Olewnik and Kulp (1984). Three hundred grams capacity
basic polymorphs are designated a, b and b’ (Bailey, mixer bowl was used in the experiment and the third lever
1950). It is essential for the fat to be in the b’ crystal form position was used to measure the cookie consistency. The
to promote optimum creaming (Baldwin, Baldry, & Johan- mixing speed of the farinograph was 61 rpm. Three hun-
sen, 1972). Utilization of emulsified bakery shortening dred grams of the pre-mixed cookie dough was transferred
helps in the fine dispersion of the fat in the batter or dough to the farinograph bowl and the farinograph was run for
system as compared to non-emulsified shortenings (Pyler, 10 min. Cookie dough consistency was recorded at 0 and
1988). 10 min mixing periods respectively. The above experiments
The main objective of the present work was to study the were conducted at ambient temperatures.
effect of four such commercially available fats on cookie
quality. The fats selected were, an emulsified bakery fat 2.2.3. Texture of the cookie dough
‘‘marvo’’, specially designed for cookie and biscuit produc- The textural characteristics of the cookie dough were
tion; margarine, an emulsified fat manufactured to resem- measured in ‘Instron’ Universal Testing machine (Model
ble butter; a non-emulsified hydrogenated vegetable fat 4301) using an aluminum plunger with 6.0 cm diameter.
‘‘dalda’’, and a non-emulsified refined sunflower oil. The load cell used was 50 kg and the crosshead speed
Refined sunflower oil was selected because of its high nutri- was 10 mm/min with a clearance of 1.5 cm. Cookie dough
tional value. Sunflower oil seeds are rich source of linoleic piece of 4 cm diameter and 1 cm height was used to mea-
acid, which is one of the nutritionally essential fatty acids. sure the texture. The force required to compress the dough
The study included the effect of these four type of fats on by 80% was recorded and the average value of six replicates
the rheology of the cookie dough and consequently on is reported. The above experiments were conducted at
the quality of the cookies. ambient temperatures.

2. Materials and methods 2.2.4. Cookie preparation and evaluation

Cookies containing four different fats respectively were
2.1. Materials prepared according to AACC micro method (No. 10–52,
1995). The cookie dough was sheeted to a thickness of
Commercially available refined wheat flour was used 0.5 cm and cut using a circular die of 6.5 cm diameter.
for the preparation of sugar-snap cookies. Four types of Cookies were baked at 205 °C. Cookies were subjectively
commercially available fats were used in the formulation. evaluated for thickness, spread, spread ratio, texture and
These were, an emulsified bakery shortening ‘marvo’ surface cracking pattern. The breaking strength was mea-
(M/s. Hindustan Lever Ltd., India), an emulsified marga- sured using the triple beam snap technique of Gains
rine (M/s. Hindustan Lever Ltd., India), non-emulsified (1991) using ‘Instron’ Universal Testing machine (Model
vegetable hydrogenated fat -‘dalda’ (manufactured by 4301) at a crosshead speed of 50 mm/min and load cell of
Bunge Agribusiness Pvt, Ltd., India), and sunflower oil 250 kg. Force required to break a single cookie was
(ITC Agrotech Ltd., India). Commercially available sugar recorded and the average value of six replicates is reported.
powder, non-fat dry milk (NFDM), and food grade
sodium chloride, dextrose, sodium steroyl lactylate (SSL), 2.2.5. Statistical analysis
sodium bicarbonate and ammonium chloride were used The results were analyzed statistically using Duncan’s
in the formulation. New Multiple Range Test (Duncan, 1955).

2.2. Methods 3. Results and discussion

2.2.1. Chemical and rheological characteristics of wheat flour The refined wheat flour used in the study had moisture
Wheat flour was analyzed for moisture (44–19), ash (08– content of 11.9% and protein content of 9.7% respectively.
01), protein (46–12), gluten (38–10), falling number (56– The flour had an ash content of 0.43% and dry gluten con-
81b), diastatic activity (76–0A), and Farinograph water tent of 7.13%. The falling number of the flour was 439 s
absorption (54–21) according to standard AACC proce- and the diastatic activity was 408 g maltose/10 g flour.
dures (1995). Flour had Farinograph water absorption of 59.6%.
3.1. Measurement of the cookie dough consistency proteins. Maache-Rezzoug et al. (1998) explain that it is
only when fat is mixed with flour before hydration, that
The farinograph dough consistency and the farinograph it prevents the formation of a gluten network and produce
bandwidth of the pre-mixed cookie dough were recorded at less elastic dough. When liquid oils are used in a dough sys-
0 and 10 min mixing respectively (Table 1 and Fig. 1). The tem it gets dispersed on mixing through out the dough in
horizontal position of the band on the chart is considered a the form of minutes globules which are far less effective
measure of consistency (resistance to movement), with lar- in their shortening and aerative actions than are plastic
ger numbers (BU) indicating stiffer dough and the band- fat films (Pyler, 1988). It is possible that when sunflower
width is considered to denote the degree of tenacity oil was used in the present study, it lacked the ability to
properties of doughs (Olewnik & Kulp, 1984). The result smear all the flour particles and therefore had the tendency
showed that the cookie dough containing the sunflower for gluten protein to develop during the mixing resulting in
oil had the least initial consistency of 200 BU, which an increase in the consistency of the dough. Development
increased to 400 BU with continued mixing in the farino- of gluten proteins would also make the dough elastic,
graph. The initial bandwidth of this farinogram was rela- which offers resistance to mixing resulting in wider band
tively narrow at 20 BU. With continued mixing however, width. It can also be speculated here that the cookie dough
the bandwidth increased to 120 BU. This denotes that the containing oil was less aerated because unlike the solid or
dough containing the oil, even though, was less stiff ini- plastic fats liquid oil do not aid in aeration of the dough
tially, became relatively more stiff and tenacious with con- or batter in which they are present (Pyler, 1988). Dough
tinued mixing. Subjective observation during dough density depends on the type of fat used. Less aerated
preparation showed that mixing of oil, sugar and water dough is denser than aerated dough resulting in stiffer
formed a very smooth and less aerated thin paste and when dough consistency. It is believed that the solid content of
flour was added to the above cream it transformed into the fat at mixing affects dough density, doughs with lower
dough quite easily. Olewnik and Kulp (1984) infer that solid fat have higher densities (Baltsavias et al., 1997).
physical properties of cookie dough depend on the distri- Cookie dough containing the non-emulsified hydroge-
bution of fat and water in the system and when fat is poorly nated fat (‘dalda’) had an initial consistency of 310 BU
distributed in the cookie system flour particles remain and the consistency did not change much even after
accessible to water which results in development of gluten 10 min mixing. The bandwidth of the above farinogram
was 60 BU at 0 min and increased marginally to 80 BU
at the end of 10 min mixing. The above observation
Table 1 showed that the dough was relatively stiff and maintained
Effect of fat type on the farinograph consistency of cookie dough its consistency even after 10 min mixing in the farinograph.
Fat type Farinograph dough consistency This could be due to the fact that hard fats when used in a
(BU) dough system solidify into undesirable b crystalline form
0 (min) 10 (min) that do not aid in proper aeration resulting in dense and
Bakery fat (Marvo) 440 360 stiff dough (Knightly, 1981). O’Brien, Chapman, Neville,
Margarine 380 270 Keogh, and Arendt (2003) also reported that hydrogenated
Hydrogenated fat (dalda) 310 300 vegetable fats produced very stiff biscuit dough. Baltsavias
Sunflower oil 200 400 et al. (1997) explained that a firm fat will be broken down
to large lumps, whereas the standard fat will be smeared
out over the flour particles. Another draw back of this
fat was the absence of an emulsifier in its system. An emul-
sifier is able to trap air and improve the creaming property
of the dough or batter system (O’Brien, 2004). A well aer-
ated dough is less stiff than a poorly aerated dough. Incor-
poration of mono- and di-glycerides reduces the
dependence of shortenings upon the crystalline properties,
solids-to-liquid ratios, and mixing procedures to develop
creaming properties (O’Brien, 2004). Presence of emulsifi-
ers in fat is also highly effective in promoting the uniform
dispersion of the fat in dough (Pyler, 1988).
Cookie dough containing margarine had an initial con-
sistency of 380 BU, but the consistency decreased to
270 BU with further mixing. The bandwidth of the farino-
gram was initially 60 BU and did not alter much with mix-
Fig. 1. Effect of: (1) bakery fat (marvo), (2) margarine, (3) non-emulsified ing further. Subjective observation during dough
hydrogenated fat (dalda), and (4) sunflower oil, on Farinograph charac- preparation in the Hobart mixer showed that the fat, sugar
teristics of cookie dough. and water formed a very light, fluffy, well aerated cream
and with the addition of flour transformed into a soft is influenced by factors such as amount of solid material
dough. Therefore, it is possible that even though the initial present, size and form of the individual crystals etc. In
consistency of this dough was relatively higher, on further ordinary plastic shortening the content of solid fats gener-
mixing in the farinograph, the consistency of this dough ally comprises 20–30%, while the remaining 70–80% repre-
decreased significantly by about 100 BU denoting that the sent liquid oils (Pyler, 1988). In order for the fat to be
dough became less stiff. In most of the cases processing effective it should have a correct solids-to-liquid ratio at
of margarine is directed at achieving a b’-crystal modifica- dough mixing temperature (Given, 1994).
tion, which ensures that the fat can readily incorporate and
retain air (Hamm & Hamilton, 2004). In addition the mar- 3.2. Texture analysis of cookie dough
garine fat that was used in this study also contained certain
emulsifiers, which would further have enhanced the aerat- The force required to compress the cookie dough con-
ing properties of the cream. Due to these reasons the coo- taining four different types of fats respectively is shown in
kie dough containing margarine broke down easily when Fig. 2. Results show that the cookie dough containing
mixed in the Farinograph with a relatively narrow band- the non-emulsified hydrogenated fat (‘dalda’) was the hard-
width indicating a less elastic dough. est requiring more strength to compress it to the required
Finally, the cookie dough containing the emulsified bak- extent. Cookie dough containing ‘margarine’ was the soft-
ery fat ‘‘marvo’’ had an initial consistency of 440 BU, high- est requiring the least force to compress it. Dough samples
est recorded amongst the four fats studied. The consistency containing the bakery fat and sunflower oil respectively
however, decreased to 360 BU after 10 min mixing. The ini- had almost similar textural properties that were marginally
tial bandwidth was 80 BU and did not change with mixing harder than that containing margarine. It is possible that
the dough further. During manufacture of bakery fats b’ dough made with oil is generally more cohesive and viscous
hard fats are added to extend their plastic range which and hence softer. On the other hand, dough made with
improves their creaming properties, texture and consis- hydrogenated fats gives higher values.
tency (O’Brien, 2004). Even though the initial consistency
of this dough was relatively more compared to the other 3.3. Physical characteristics of cookies
three cookie doughs, the consistency reduced considerably
during continued mixing in the farinograph, most probably The physical characteristics of cookies made using differ-
because the dough was well aerated hence less dense. The ent fats are shown in Table 2. The result showed that cook-
narrow bandwidth of the above dough also indicates the ies containing sunflower oil had relatively higher spread
non-elastic nature of the dough. This observation was sim- value. Abboud et al. (1985) had earlier reported that with
ilar to the one made for the dough containing margarine. the use of oil there was a non-significant increase in the
It can be argued here that if the initial consistency is diameter of the cookies. Cookies containing margarine
taken into consideration, the stiffest of the four doughs and bakery fat (‘Marvo’) respectively had similar spread
was the one containing the bakery fat ‘marvo’ and the soft- values. On the other hand, cookie dough containing the
est was that containing the oil. However, if their response hydrogenated fat (‘dalda’) had significantly less spread. Fin-
to mixing is considered, the dough containing oil showed ney, Yamazaki, and Morris (1950) and later Abboud et al.
more resistance to mixing maintaining its consistency (1985) concluded that fat type is not an important variable
throughout the mixing period hence the stiffest, while the for cookie spread. But in the above experiment it was noted
dough containing both margarine and ‘marvo’ decreased that the cookies containing the non-emulsified hydro-
in its consistency denoting they had the least resistance genated fat ‘dalda’ had spread less. The hydrogenated fat
towards mixing hence the least stiff. The dough containing
‘dalda’ could also be considered to be stiff, as it did not
break down on continued mixing in the farinograph. If
the band width could be related to the tenacious properties
of the dough, according to Olewnik and Kulp (1984), even
though the initial band width of the dough containing oil
was less it increased to about 120 BU and maintained its
band width. The least tenacious dough was the one con-
taining the margarine.
The variation in the consistency of the dough containing
different fats could be due to the variation in their SFI
which is an indication of the actual proportion of the solid
component present in a shortening. Plastic shortenings,
although exhibit the properties of solids at room tempera-
ture are in reality a mixture of both crystalline and liquid Fig. 2. Effect of bakery fat (marvo), margarine, non-emulsified hydroge-
triglycerides in which the liquid oil is enmeshed in a mass nated fat (dalda), and sunflower oil respectively, on cookie dough
of minute fat crystals. The plastic nature of the shortening hardness.
Table 2
Effect of fat type on the physical characteristics of cookies
Fat type Width (W) (cm) Thickness (T) (cm) Spread ratio (W/T) Breaking strength (kg f)
b
Bakery fat (Marvo) 8.1 1.08 7.51 4.6a
Margarine 8.1b 1.10 7.37 4.7a
Hydrogenated fat (dalda) 7.8c 1.03 7.58 5.1ab
Sunflower oil 8.8a 1.05 8.38 9.7c
Figures followed by different letters are significantly different from each other (p 6 0.05).

tends to form beta crystals which do not support aeration fat ‘Marvo’ spread more gradually. However, the set point
(Knightly, 1981). Partial hydrogenation is applied to help for both the dough was around 6 min.
produce vegetable bakery shortenings having desirable
plastic character (Given, 1994). 3.5. Measurement of cookie texture

3.4. Measurement of cookie set time Measurement of the breaking strength showed that
cookies containing the oil were the hardest (Table 2 and
In the present study it was of interest to observe the set Fig. 4). On the other hand, breaking strength of cookies
time of the cookie dough containing different fats. The ‘set- containing the other three types of fats was not signifi-
time’ is the point at which, expansion of the cookie dough cantly different from each other. It was of interest to
stops (Hoseney, Wade, & Finley, 1988). In order to observe observe here that hardness of the dough (Fig. 2) did not
the set time of the cookie dough, the sheeted and cut cookie necessarily control the texture of the cookies (Fig. 4). As
dough (4.5 cm diameter) was placed in the baking oven observed earlier cookie dough containing hydrogenated
maintained at 205 °C. Respective cookie doughs were care- fat was the hardest and the least dough hardness was
fully removed from the oven at every 1 min interval until observed for that containing margarine. The texture of
the final baking time. The spread of the cookie dough the cookie dough containing sunflower oil was similar to
and eventually the cookie was measured at each point of that containing the bakery fat. In contrast, cookies made
removal. The results are shown in Fig. 3. Accordingly, it using sunflower oil were the hardest while those containing
was observed that dough containing sunflower oil started the bakery fat were the least hard. Abboud et al. (1985)
to spread earlier than the other doughs and continued to also reported that it is not possible to obtain a satisfactory
spread for a much longer time until the dough reached its creamed mass with oil hence lacking proper aeration.
set point. A high spread rate plus a delayed set time gives Greethead (1969) claim that more plastic and smooth tex-
the largest diameter to the cookies (Stauffer, 1994). On tured the fat greater its shortening power. Softer the
the other hand, dough containing the hydrogenated fat worked fat, lower the breaking strength of the cookies.
‘‘dalda’’ reached its set point much early. Cookie dough Plasticity in fats is required since during the creaming pro-
containing margarine spread faster initially than that con- cess they entrap and retain considerable volumes of air
taining the bakery fat ‘Marvo’ and reached its set point resulting in an important leavening effect. Ordinary liquid
around 5 min of baking. Cookie dough containing bakery oils on the other hand, are dispersed upon mixing through
out the dough in the form of globules that are less effec-
tive in their shortening and aerating actions (Hartnett &
8
bakery fat
margarine
hydrogenated fat 12
sunflower oil
7
Cookie spread (cm)

10
Breaking strength (Kg)

8
6

5 4

2
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0
Baking time (minutes) Bakery fat Margarine Hydrogenated fat Sunflower oil

Fig. 3. Effect of bakery fat (marvo), margarine, non-emulsified hydroge- Fig. 4. Effect of bakery fat (marvo), margarine, non-emulsified hydroge-
nated fat (dalda), and sunflower oil respectively, on the rate of cookie nated fat (dalda), and sunflower oil respectively, on the breaking strength
spread. of cookies.
Thalheimer, 1979). Hornstein, King, and Benedict (1943)
claimed that consistency of the worked fat has a highly sig-
nificant effect with softer the worked fat, lower the break-
ing strength of the cookie. Kamel (1994) explains that
although large amounts of air can be incorporated into
liquid oil, it cannot be retained in the system and this might
explain the hard texture of the cookie.

3.6. Surface cracking pattern of cookies

One of the important features of sugar-snap cookies is

their surface cracking pattern. Cookies containing the bak-
ery fat had uniform medium sized islands (Fig. 5). Rela-
tively smaller islands were seen in cookies containing Fig. 6. Effect of sunflower oil (SFO), sunflower oil + bakery fat (marvo)
margarine. Cookies made using the hydrogenated fat (SFO + BF), sunflower oil + SSL (SFO + SSL), respectively, on cookie
‘dalda’ had still smaller islands. On the other hand, cookies breaking strength.
containing the oil had large sized islands. Doescher and
Hoseney (1985) explain that during baking, sucrose present
on the surface of the cookie crystallizes, causing the surface
to dry rapidly and as the cookie spreads, the dry surface
cracks. In the present study, it can be recalled that the coo-
kie doughs containing the three plastic fats respectively
stopped spreading around 5 min of baking while that con-
taining the oil continued to spread till about 7 min of bak-
ing. It can be reasoned here that sugar crystallization took
place at the appropriate time that led to drying of the coo- Fig. 7. Effect of bakery fat (marvo) (2); and SSL (3); on the surface
kie surface. But since the cookie dough continued to spread cracking pattern of cookies containing sunflower oil (1).
because the dough was not sufficiently viscous to stop the
spread the hardened surface cracked leading to larger sized
islands. strength of these cookies reduced significantly to 5.3 kg
from 9.7 kg when only oil was used in the formulation
3.7. Replacement of oil with bakery fat (Fig. 6). There was an improvement in the surface islands
also (Fig. 7). These islands that were large when only oil
Since presence of oil produced cookies which had very was present in the formulation became medium sized and
large surface islands and hard texture it was of interest to more acceptable with partial replacement with the bakery
see if partial replacement of oil with the bakery fat would fat. Partial replacement with a plastic fat was sufficient to
have any improving effect on these cookies. Accordingly aerate the cookie dough during mixing which imparted a
50% of oil was replaced with the bakery fat and the cookies significant effect on both the texture and surface islands
were prepared. The results showed that the breaking of the cookies.

3.8. Effect of sodium steroyl lactylate (SSL) on quality of

cookies containing oil

SSL has been demonstrated to contribute to aeration of

the dough, improve top grain score and also the viscosity
of the cookie dough during baking (Tsen, Bauck, &
Hoover, 1975). In the present study 0.5% SSL was included
in the cookie formulation containing the oil. The results
were very significant. The hardness of the cookies reduced
significantly (Fig. 6). The hardest of the cookies as was seen
earlier were the ones containing the sunflower oil recording
a breaking strength of 9.7 kg. When SSL was added this
value reduced to 3.5 kg. There was also a significant
improvement in the surface cracking pattern of the cookies.
Fig. 5. Effect of (1) bakery fat (marvo), (2) margarine, (3) non-emulsified The islands on the cookie surface were of medium size
hydrogenated fat (dalda), and (4) sunflower oil on surface cracking pattern instead of the large ones when no emulsifier was used
of cookies. (Fig. 7). There was also a reduction in the spread of the
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viscosity of the system. Viscosity of the cookie dough in the of short doughs at small deformation. Journal of Cereal Science, 26,
289–300.
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