Environment Pollution Development The Case of Uzbekistan

MĀRIS KĻAVIŅŠ,
AZAMAT AZIZOV,
JĀNIS ZAĻOKSNIS
ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION,
DEVELOPMENT:
THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN
Rīga, 2014
Māris Kļaviņš, Azamat Azizov, Jānis Zaļoksnis. Environment,
pollution, development: the case of Uzbekistan. Riga, UL Press, 2014
The book is prepared with the support of Project «Master Program in

Environmental Science and Sustainable Development with Focus on
Water Management for Uzbekistan Higher Education – UZWATER»
and with the support of University of Latvia.
Translation by Andra Damberga
Figures prepared by Laura Kļaviņa
Layout by Ieva Tiltiņa
Cover photo: Māris Kļaviņš
© Māris Kļaviņš,
Azamat Azizov,
Jānis Zaļoksnis, 2014
© University of Latvia, 2014
ISBN 978-9984-45-888-5
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2. UZBEKISTAN: A COUNTRY WITH HISTORY, PRESENT AND FUTURE . . . . . . . . 9
2.1. Geographic situation and climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2. Natural resources of Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3. Biological resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4. Natural ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3. WATER RESOURCES OF UZBEKISTAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1. Hydrological cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2. Water resources of Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3. River Amu Darya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4. River Syr Darya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.5. The Aral Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4. HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1. Systems of the Earth: the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere . . 43
4.1.1. Environmental science – a science of environmental systems . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1.2. Atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1.3. Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2. Cycling of elements and energy on the earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2.1. Energy flow and the Earth’s climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.2. Carbon cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2.3. Nitrogen biogeochemical cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2.4. Phosphorus biogeochemical cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5. GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.1. Environmental pollution and environment quality degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.2. Global environmental pollution problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2.1. Earth’s ozone layer and the consequences of its depletion . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2.2. Global warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.3. Regional environmental pollution effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.3.1. Sulphur compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.3.2. Nitrogen compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3.3. Dust and aerosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.4. Indoor air pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6. ACTION OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN THE ENVIRONMENT –
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ECOTOXICOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.1. Concept of ecotoxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.2. Effects of toxic substances on living organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.2. Toxicity assesment of substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3
6.3. Effects of pollutants and physical factors on humans and ecosystems . . . . . . . . 107
6.3.1. Types of toxic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.3.2. Effects of environmental pollutants and factors on human beings . . . . . . 108
6.3.3. Effects of environmental pollutants on the endocrine system . . . . . . . . . 109
6.3.4. Genotoxic effects of environmental pollutants and factors . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.3.5. Carcinogenic effects of environmental pollutants and factors . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3.6. Teratogenic substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7. AIR POLLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.1. Sulfur compounds in the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.2. Nitrogen compounds in the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.3. Carbon compounds in the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.4. Dust and aerosols in the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.5. Halogenated organic compounds in the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.6. Urban air pollution problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.7. Acid precipitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.8. Indoor air pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8. WATER POLLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.1. Water resources and their use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.2. Natural water composition and conditions of formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.3. Most significant water pollution problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9. POLLUTION OF SOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
9.1. Contamination of soil with organic substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.2. Contamination of soils with inorganic substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
9.3. Soil desertification and salinization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
10. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
10.1. Mutual cooperation and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
10.2. International environmental issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
10.3. Institutions involved in international environmental protection . . . . . . . . . . . 209
10.3.1. International environmental organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
10.3.2. Environmental activist groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
10.3.3. International corporations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
10.4. Role of science and scientists in identification and tackling of
environmental problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
10.5. Development of international cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
10.5.1. First phase: sea resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
10.5.2. Second phase: activities of the environmental protection movement
and the united nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
10.5.3. Third phase: from Stockholm (1972) to Rio de Janeiro (1992) . . . . . . . . . 223
10.5.4. Fourth phase: the period of integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
10.6. Recent tendencies in international cooperation on environmental protection
and sustainable development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
4 ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN

11. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: LEGISLATION, POLICIES, INSTITUTIONS . 233
11.1. Legislation of environmental protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
11.1.1. Law as an environmental protection instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
11.1.2. Law and environmental science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
11.1.3. Law and environmental ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
11.2. Legal principles of environmental protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
11.3. Process of enforcement of environmental legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
11.3.1. Approaches to elaboration of legal documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
11.3.2. Environmental legislation instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
11.3.3. Dialogue with society and the role of society in
environmental protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
11.4. Environmental policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
11.5. Environmental management system – from vision to implementation . . . . . . . 250
11.5.1. Discussion and approval of the environmental policy vision . . . . . . . . . 251
11.5.2. Determination of environmental problems and their causes . . . . . . . . . 252
11.5.3. Setting environmental policy objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
11.5.4. Types of action to accomplish environmental policy objectives . . . . . . . 258
11.5.5. Development of the programmes to accomplish
environmental policy objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
11.5.6. Implementation and control of the environmental action
programme or plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
11.5.7. Further development of the process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
11.6. Voluntary measures of environmental policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
11.7. EU environmental management institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
11.7.1. EU directorate-general for the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
12. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
12.1. Limits to growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
12.1.1. Nature of growth and social development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
12.1.2. Limits to development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
12.1.3. Beyond the limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
12.2. Concept of sustainable development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
12.3. Formation of the concept of sustainable development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
12.4. Guiding principles of sustainable development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
12.5. Ecological footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
12.5.1. Ecological footprint calculation methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
12.5.2. Contemporary society’s ecological footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
12.5.3. How to reduce the ecological footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
5
1. INTRODUCTION
Understanding of the environ ment, human-nature relations,

pollution impacts and the need to protect environment is a necessity
nowadays for any professional as well a question of the general public
concern, a driving force for actions of a large number of human
activities. The idea of the environment in which the person lives and
its quality assurance seems to be simple enough, but actually it has
been recognized and, more importantly, as a basis for practical action
only during the recent decades. The content of the concept «environ
mental science» is new, but within a very short time it has developed
into an overarching idea crosscutting many activities, a source of
social developments affecting the research in other fields of science,
technologies, as well as legislation and government institutional
framework. There are multiple examples, to mention but a few:
environmental legislation, both on a national and international level,
environmental protection as one of the main issues of international
politics. After all, the identified environmental issues can be assessed
at the level of the material substances: for example, taxes for
resource recycling, direct investments in environmental protection.
Therefore, obviously, the environmental quality has become a major
problem for any society’s functioning, directly affecting development
of the society: it is the main benchmark to determine whether the
development is sustainable or not. Thus, the understanding of environ
mental processes, pollution sources, former, existing and emerging
threats caused by environmental pollution and environmental quality
Figure 1.1. Monument
degradation is of a great importance to support development and dedicated to Mirzo
consider it as sustainable. Understanding of environmental pollution, Ulugbek in Samarkand
the hazards of exposure is essential. (Photo by M. Kļaviņš)
Today the concept of sustainable development is not just an opinion
on how humanity as such and also each community and society
should develop; it is principally a set of opinions about the model of a
society that can ensure its own existence. The concept of sustainable
development includes physical conditions, political conceptions, the
notions of the quality of life or welfare and an optimised influence on
the environment to ensure that the resources are equally accessible
to all generations. The concept of sustainable development is based
on the understanding of three pillars: development, needs of society
and needs of the future generations. Within the concept of sustainable
development, the concept ‘development’ includes not only growth (of
production, gross national product, welfare) but also the development
of social and economic spheres that guarantees the preservation of
natural ecosystems and the human living environ ment. Thus, the
1. INTRODUCTION 7
concept of sustainable development is not limited to viewing the short-
term processes (to satisfy the current needs) but also aims at ensuring
equal opportunities for the next generations.
Development, especially in Western societies, is understood as
human domination over nature (illustrated by the phrase ‘man – the
crown of creation’) and the use of its resources for the development of
production. This attitude ignores the role of nature and ecosystems in
providing for the development of humanity; it also ignores the value
of nature per se and that other forms of life and living organisms may
have needs and, most importantly, a right to exist.
The main priorities in the development model that dominates in
Western societies is economic growth and consumption, the latter
being the principal parameter of an individual person’s and humanity’s
Figure 1.2. Monument
welfare. In conformity with this concept, social welfare is the standard
dedicated to Mirzo
Ulugbek in Rīga of life – the part of income that is used to purchase goods and services.
(Photo by M. Kļaviņš) This model of development, based on individual consumption,
eventually leads to huge inequality in terms of income and welfare
even within a single country (especially because of the cyclic nature of
free market economy), to say nothing of the arising differences between
different regions of the world. The inevitable differences resulting from
such welfare model lead to social tension, military conflicts and social
instability.
The consumer society’s development based on the constant in
crease of the need for resources unavoidably leads to the increase in
consumption and industrial waste (pollution) and depletion of resour
ces. Due to the growth of production and growth of consumption, the
nature of environmental problems over the last decades has changed.
Understanding the character of the development in the so-far
existing Western societies was based on the idea of limitless de ve
lopment and growth. Now we have to admit that there are limits to
economic growth. These limits are determined by the planet’s carry
ing capacity, accessibility of resources whose amount is limited, and
the capacity of the planet’s ecosystems to absorb pollution. Although
technological progress can, undoubtedly, increase the efficiency of
resource use, it is impossible to overcome these development limits.
Hence, the development of humanity must guarantee a balance between
the planet’s ability to sustain human existence and the desired lifestyle.
These concepts are relevant also in respect to development of
each specific country and related to a great challenge – the decision
in which direction to develop. These challenges are actual also for
Uzbekistan and rising of public awareness in respect to urgent environ
mental issues and sustainable development is of a key importance. The
current book aims to contribute to these tasks. Another major task is
to summarize the available knowledge about the environment and
environmental problems in Uzbekistan, to provide a comprehensive
overview for the readers both in Uzbekistan and other countries.

2. UZBEKISTAN: A COUNTRY WITH
HISTORY, PRESENT AND FUTURE1
2.1. Geographic situation and climate

Republic of Uzbekistan is a doubly landlocked country in
Central Asia, comprising 12 provinces, 1 autonomous republic and
1 independent city. The Republic of Uzbekistan is situated in the Figure 2.1. Flag of the
central part of the Eurasian continent, between the 37° and 45° North Republic of Uzbekistan
latitudes, and the 56° and 73° East longitudes. Its total surface area
is 447 400 km2. Uzbekistan borders Kazakhstan to the North and
West, Turkmenistan and Afghanistan to the South, and Tajikistan and
Kyrgyzstan in the East (Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.2. Emblem

of the Republic of
Uzbekistan
Figure 2.3. Geographic

location of Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan is unequally divided into two parts: the plains

occupy about three quarters (78.8%) of its territory, while mountains
and mountainous valleys constitute the rest (21.2%). The plains,
which stretch out from the Northwest to the Southeast, comprise the
larger part of the Turan Lowland. This area mainly contains deserts
and semi-deserts, including the Karakum Desert – the largest in
Central Asia – stretching from the Zeravshan river valley to the Aral
1
The chapter is based on the information from Initial communication of the Re-
public of Uzbekistan under the United Nations Framework Convention on cli-
mate change. 1999, Taskhent
2. UZBEKISTAN: A COUNTRY WITH HISTORY, PRESENT AND FUTURE 9

Figure 2.4. Lowland
landscape of Uzbekistan
(Photo by Adriana
Dinu by United
Nations Development
Programme in
Europe and CIS UN
Photostream)
Sea. Small mountainous ridges and elevations cross its central part,
closed inland drainage basins are common for the landscape in the
South. In the South and Southeast of the country the plains gradually
transform themselves into ridges and reliefs of the Tien-Shan and
Gissar-Allay mountain systems. Between these ridges are located
vast valleys with plane-like surfaces (e.g. Tashkent-Golodnosteppe
Valley, Fergana and Zeravshan Valleys). The territory of the Republic
is characterised by significant variations in altitude. The lowest spot
is at the bottom of the Mingbulak depression (12 meters under sea
level). Khazret Sultan peak of the Gissar Chain is the highest point,
at 4643 m above sea level.
Uzbekistan’s climate is strongly influenced by its location
between the subtropical and temperate zones. High solar radia
tion, coupled with the unique features of its surface and air
circulation patterns form a continental-type climate. This climate is
characterized by seasonal and day-to-night fluctuations in tempera
ture, long, hot, and dry summers, humid springs, and irregular
(sometimes cold) winters. Depending on the location, average July
temperatures vary from 26 °C in the North, to 30 °C in the South,
with the peak temperature around 45-47 °C. Average January
temperatures are –8 °C in the North, and 0 °C in the South, with the
lowest temperature being –38° (on the Usturt Plateau). Uzbekistan’s
territory is penetrated by diverse air masses. Transformed Atlantic
and Arctic air masses access the vast plains from the North and
Northwest. Incursion of tropical air masses and warm southern
cyclones can occur across Central Asia, particularly during the cold

Figure 2.5. Mountain
landscape of Uzbekistan
(Photo by Ole Christian
Rousing)
half of the year, provoking intensive warming and abrupt changes in

the weather.
Precipitation occurs all year-round, peaking between April and
May, or between March and April in higher altitudes. However,
precipitation is most common in winter and spring. In spring, snow
avalanches are likely and intense rainfall can lead to mudslides.
Highly arid, continental, tropical air forms in the summer months,
intensely heating the deserts. On the whole, precipitation is minimal
(within the range of 80-200 mm a year), yet very unstable, with an
annual precipitation variation factor of 0.5. Precipitation can be as
much as 300-400 mm a year in the foothills, and 600-800 mm a year
on the western and south west slopes of mountain ranges, which are
subject to wet air masses. Conspicuously, the Aral Sea does not affect
the quantity of precipitation very much, only contributing to slight
increases of humidity in the narrow coastal areas.
2.2. Natural resources of Uzbekistan1

Natural resources can be divided into several groups, and
this classification helps to understand the formation of natural
resources, their potential use, the importance and renewal of
their reserves. There are real, or identified, and potential natural
1
The chapter is prepared with contribution of prof. O. Nikodemus

resources. Real natural resources include those that have been
identified and evaluated, and whose use is economically grounded.
Natural resources includes mineral deposits, soils, timber, as well as
protected areas, sand beaches and a microclimate that is suitable for
life and recreation. From a historical perspective, this is a dynamic
classification since the needs of society are constantly changing;
however, this classification is essentially influenced by technological
developments. Potential natural resources include those that have
not yet been discovered, sufficiently explored or whose use is not
economically justified. Among the typical examples are wave and
earthquake energy, as well as iceberg freshwater.
It is difficult to establish a border between these groups. For
example, the riches of larch timber in Siberian taiga should belong
to real natural resources as they constitute a calculated or practi
cally verified quantity. However, this timber becomes a real natural
resource only through an economically grounded use of this resource
and a traffic infrastructure for the transportation and subsequent
processing of timber. A similar approach applies to the valuation of
the volume of water in Greenland’s glaciers, the heat released from the
active zone of the Atlantic volcanic ridge, or natural building material
from Vesuvius. If we subtract the costs of building roads and creating
infrastructure from the potential value of the resources, it is evident
that these resources can be classified only as potential resources.
Traditionally, natural resources are classified according to their
accessible quantity and rate of the substance turnover cycle:
inexhaustible resources,
conditionally inexhaustible resources,
exhaustible – partially renewable resources,
exhaustible – non-renewable resources (Figure 2.6).
NATURAL
RESOURCES
Exhaustible Inexhaustible
natural resources natural resources
Non-renewable Partially renewable Inexhaustible Conditionally

natural resources natural resources natural resources inexhaustible
(mineral deposits) (soil, peat) natural resources
Solar energy
Renewable Wind energy
Water resources
natural resources
Geothermal
(plants, animals) Air resources
energy
Figure 2.6. Classification Tidal energy
of natural resources

It must be noted that even this classification is conditional and
the belonging of some natural resources to one or another group
may be reconsidered; classifications in popular publications and
scientific research can also demonstrate essential differences. Inex
haustible natural resources are the resources whose reserves are not
depleted by use, for example, solar energy, wind energy and heat
of the Earth’s interior. Water resources have long been regarded to
be inexhaustible natural resources; however, now many would class
them as conditionally inexhaustible or partially renewable resources,
considering the particular importance of freshwater for sustaining
life and its increasing consumption in the world.
In dividing resources into renewable and non-renewable, it is
important to consider the time necessary for the used natural pro
ducts to be replaced by new ones. It is assumed that it takes several
generations for the renewable natural resources to be replaced by
other resources. Such are, for example, timber, game animals, fish.
Non-renewable resources can never be renewed, for example, fossil
fuels (oil and coal) and metallic ores. It is necessary to determine
the period of renewal since some resources are renewed over a very
long time. Oil or coal has formed over millions of years, which is
thousands of times slower than their human consumption rate.
The inclusion of some natural resources among renewable
resources lacks justification. For example, resources of the sea (fish,
crustaceans) were long considered as exhaustible renewable natural
resources. At the turn of the 20th century, the per capita consumption
of fish was ~16 kilograms. For many peoples fish and other seafood
are their principal daily sustenance. It has been calculated that the
total admissible annual harvest of fish and other sea animals in the
world amounts to 85 million tons. However, the figure was ignored
until fishing exceeded the species’ replenishment rate. 47‑50% of
fish and other populations of sea animals have decreased so rapidly
that their natural replenishment is nearly impossible; 15-18% of
populations are potentially endangered; 9-10% have decreased
but their natural replenishment is possible; 21% are moderately
exploited, while only 4% of populations have not been affected.
Uzbekistan is rich in natural resources. Resources of natural
gas covers local needs and the extraction of gas in 2005 reached
60 billions m3. Also resources of oil have industrial importance.
Ore mining is of major importance for national economy. The gold
resources are evaluated to be 2100 tons, but this amount can reach
3500 tons. The yearly mining of gold reaches 80-85 tons (~3% of
the global production). Uzbekistan also has significant resources of
polymetallic ores.
One of the most important natural resources is agricultural
land and soil – the biologically active upper layer of land with a

unique property – fertility. Soil development is an extended, gradual
and very complex process. Soil is commonly understood as the
uppermost layer of the Earth’s crust formed by mineral particles,
organic substances, water, air and living organisms. Soil is the
contact and interaction zone for the Earth, air and water, and the
habitat for most of the biosphere.
Agrarian land can be divided into three categories: irrigated land,
dry land, and natural pasture. The Republic’s State Forest Reserve
accounts for about 3.2% of its total surface area (444 600 km2).
Uzbekistan’s forests can be divided into sand-desert, wetland and
valley, and mountainous forests; bushes and shrubs also occupy a
significant area. The Republic’s State Forest Reserve accounts for
about 80 thousand square kilometres, some 85% of which lies in the
sand zone, 13% in the mountainous zone, and only 2% in wetland and
valleys.
As solar radiation is abundant, the only factor inhibiting
utilization of agrarian land is a shortage of water resources. Thus,
irrigated farming is the basis of agricultural production. Most arable
land is irrigated, and only a minor portion of this land is non-
irrigated land. The climate in Uzbekistan is favourable for growing
crops that thrive in temperate or tropical zones, particularly cotton.
Indeed, cotton is its major crop. However, grains, rice and potatoes
are also cultivated on irrigated land. Sometimes insufficient warmth
in the northern areas can hinder crop ripening. Harsh weather (i.e.
late-spring and early-fall frosts, draughts, high temperatures) and
Figure 2.7. Overgrazed

foothills in southern
Uzbekistan
(Photo by Adriana
Dinu by United
Nations Development
Programme in Europe
and CIS UN)

pollution in a number of regions have limited the full use of agrarian
land resources. Besides cotton, cereals, gardens, and vineyards are
planted in the foothills. Astrakhan sheep and camels are bred on vast
desert and semi-desert areas. Only 20% of the total area for natural
pasture lies in the foothills and the mountains. The saline lands
occupy 174 800 km2 of the area of the Republic, 241 000 hectares
of which are extremely saline. The processes of salinization are
progressing in Karakalpakstan, as well as in Bukhara and Syr Darya
regions. The territories are subject to irrigation, and wind erosion
also takes place. During the last 20-30 years the humus content in
soil (the main indicator of soil fertility) has been reduced by 30‑50%.
The soils with very low humus content occupy about 40% of the
whole irrigated territory.
Desertification is a loss of natural vegetation which causes a
rapid decrease in soil fertility and an eventual total extinction of
the soil cover due to the soil erosion. This process involves changes
in the soil moisture regime, and soil gets salinised and compacted.
It is commonly believed that desertification is most characteristic
for desert and temperate desert zones. Regular burning of savannas
ranks among the major desertification causes. Natural fires are
characteristic of savannas; however, nowadays most of them are
consciously started by humans. The burning of vast grass and
shrubland territories has affected soils in savannas, they are often
depleted, and fire in the regions adjoining deserts and temperate
deserts has facilitated the advance of sands.
Figure 2.8. Soil with

high salinity
(This photo is part
of IFPRI’s Economics
of Land Degradation
project.
Photographer:
Milo Mitchell)

2.3. Biological resources
Location of the Uzbekistan in Central Asia and local climatic
conditions determines presence of diverse groups of ecosystems1:
1. Desert ecosystems of plains are common for aeloian and alluvial
plains and often extends over territories with increased salinity
of soils;
2. Foothill deserts and steppe covers ~2/3 of the foothill territories;
3. River and river delta eocsystems covers river bank territories
and significant part of areas in basins of Amu Darya, Syr Darya,
Chirchik and are covered with an abundant vegetation;
4. Wetland ecosystems covers ~700 000 ha;
5. Mountainous ecosystems with a common forest vegetation
Biological natural resources include vegetable and animal life.
Uzbekistan is home to 27 000 specific species of flora and fauna.
Vegetation. Natural flora are represented by almost 4800 species
of vascular plants, which belong to 115 families, the most common
of which are compositae (570 species); legumes (almost 440 species),
and cereals (260 species). This complex and diverse system of
vegetation is specific feature of Uzbekistan’s climatic and soil. On
the plains, desert types of vegetation are formed: saxaul (haloxylon),
sand acacia, saltwort, wormwood (absinthe), and sand sedge. The
total amount of biomass in the deserts is estimated at 50-60 metric
centners per hectare. Biological productivity in the desert is rather
low, confined mostly to cattle breeding. Along the riverbanks are
tugais and wetland forests where hygrophilous trees, bushes and
grass grow, as well as turanga, loeaster, tamarisk, willow, malt, cane,
reed, and dog-bane. Some 500 species of wild plants for medicinal,
food and raw materials are cultivated in the Republic. However,
only 45 of these are commercially used, including dog-rose, rhubarb,
St. John’s wort, cumin, oregano, bayberry, sage, and malt. In the
forests, the main species include: saxaul, kamdym, saltwort (deserts);
almond tree eltas, turanga, loeaster, tamarisk (wetlands and river);
juniper and pistachio trees (mountains). Forests are of great value
and fulfil protective, sanitary and hygienic functions. As such, they
belong to and are protected by the State.
The animal world. Of 15 000 species of wild animals, the
vertebrates are represented by 5 classes, which include 664 different
species: birds (424); mammals (97); fish (83); reptiles (59); and
amphibians (3). Some 53 of these species are endemic to the Republic.
The fauna in the desert belt is diverse. Reptiles include lizards (toad
1
Первое Национальное сообщение Республики Узбекистан по рамочной
конвенции ООН об изменении климата. Ташкент 1999. – 110 с.; Второе
национальное сообщение РУз по рамочной конвенции ООН об изменении
климата. Ташкент 2008. – 205 с.

agama, monitor lizard, gecko) and snakes (viper, Central Asian
cobra). Of the large mammals, goitred gazelle (Middle Asian gazel)
and ‘saigak’ are particularly important to protect. Jackals, wild boar,
honey badger, wolves, foxes, porcupines, badgers, and hedgehogs
dwell in the plains and foothill areas. The rich diversity of bird
life includes eagles, jackdaws, and kites. Many species common to
mountainous areas of Central Asia also dwell in Uzbekistan’s Alpine
zones: the Siberian goat, snow leopard, mountain turkey and others.
Figure 2.9. Tulipa

turkestanica in
Uzbekistan in Nuratau-
Kyzylkum biosphere
reserve
(Photo by Adriana
Dinu by United
Nations Development
Programme in Europe
and CIS UN)
Figure 2.10. Bukhara

deer in the tugai forest
(Photo by Phillip
Edwards)

2.4. Natural ecosystems
Given these natural and climatic conditions, a number of
different natural ecosystems have evolved on the territory of
Uzbekistan: the desert ecosystems of the plains; ecosystems in the
foothill semi-deserts and steppes; river and coastal ecosystems;
wetland and delta zone ecosystems, and mountainous ecosystems.
Each contains a complex system of natural elements that shape the
development and health of the above specified flora and fauna. The
desert ecosystems of the plains are found in the Kyzylkum Desert,
Ust’urt plateau, Karshinsky Steppe, in the south of the Republic and
the Ferghana Valley. Geologically, desert territories are divided into
sand, brackish, clay and rocky (gypsum) soils. Desert ecosystems are
the main dwelling area of rare and endangered animal species in
the Republic. Sand deserts occupy 27% of the plains. The Kyzylkum,
Sundukli, and Kattakum are the largest areas of sand tracts. Rocky
desert is typical of the Ust’urt plateau, part of the Kyzylkum Desert,
as well as along the southern foothills. Saline soil deserts are
found in the Ust’urt plateau and its slopes, in the inland hollows
and present delta of the Amu Darya River. The characteristics of
these deserts are high salt concentrations in the upper soil layers,
a constant humidity level and temporary water reservoirs. Clay
deserts are located in the clay and loess deposits in the basin of the
Kashradarya River, in Dalverzin and in the Golodnaya Steppes.
Foothill semi-deserts and steppes are found in the foothill
zone 800-1200 m above sea level, and a 30-50 km strip that en
compasses the mountainous ranges. They account for around
two-thirds of the mountainous territory of the Republic. River
and coastal ecosystems are in the plains of the Amu Darya and
Syr Darya River valleys and downstream areas of the Zeravshan
River and the Surkhan Darya River. Here, there are three main types
of ecosystems: tugai, weed thickets, and rivers and open shoals. Tugai
tracts are preserved in narrow strips or islands in the Amu Darya
River and its delta. They can also be found in the Syr Darya, Surkhan
Darya, Zeravshan, and Chirchik River valleys. The rivers and open
shoals are home to many rare and endangered animal species.
Wetland areas (inland waterways and marshes) can be divided into
natural and anthropogenic ecosystems. They are similar to river and
coastal ecosystems, except for their larger water surface area and
higher humidification. Natural wetland areas are located in the Amu
Darya River delta, occupying approximately 700 thousand hectares.
As water in-flow to the delta declined, shifting the coastal outlay of
the Aral Sea, numerous natural freshwater lakes disappeared, tugai
areas decreased two-fold, and reed areas decreased six-fold. Only
in recent years, as inflow of collected drainage water has slowly

increased, have some lake ecosystems recovered. Anthropogenic
wetlands are artificial water reservoirs and overflow lakes. The
Aydar-Arnasai lake system, Dengizkul, Karakir, and Solyonoe Lakes
are the vastest of these.
Mountain ecosystems occupy areas of certain inclines, soil,
moisture, and slope conditions. Mountainous steppes are found
at heights of 2000-2600 meters above sea level. Deciduous forests
grow at the heights between 1000 and 2500-2800 meters above sea
level. The largest tracts of deciduous forest are concentrated in the
Western Tian-Shan (Ugam, Pskem, Chatkal, and Fergana mountain
ranges), and the Pamir-Alay (Gissar mountain range). Walnut, plane,
and persimmon trees grow in relict forests. In mountainous areas, at
heights of 1400-3000 meters above sea level, juniper forests grow.
Sub-alpine and alpine meadows are found at heights between 2700
and 3700 meters above sea level.
References
Initial communication of the Republic of Uzbekistan under the United
Nations Framework Convention on climate change. 1999, Taskhent
Атлас Узбекской ССР. Ч. 1. – М-Ташкент ГУГК, 1982. – 124 с.
Окружающая среда и безопасность в бассейне Амударьи. ЮНЕП, ПРООН,
ЕЭК ООН, ОБСЕ, РЭЦ, НАТО. 2011. – 11 с. Accessible: www.unep.org.
конвенции ООН об изменении климата. Ташкент 1999. – 110 с.;
Второе национальное сообщение РУз по рамочной конвенции ООН
об изменении климата. Ташкент 2008. – 205 с.
Национальный доклад о состоянии окружающей среды и использова-
нии природных ресурсов в Республике Узбекистан (1988-2007).
Госкомприроды. Ташкент, 2008. – 298 с. Accessible: www.econews.uz.
Экологический обзор Узбекистана, основанный на индикаторах.
ПРООН, Госкомприроды РУз. Ташкент 2008. – 88 с.
Central Asia Atlas of natural resources. ADB. 2009. – 173 с.
Азизов А. А. Водные ресурсы Центральной Азии – проблемы безопас-
ности и управления. Сб. научных трудов «Водохранилища, чрез-
вычайные ситуации и проблемы устойчивости. МВССО РУз, НУУз.
Ташкент 2004. – стр. 32-42.

3. WATER RESOURCES OF UZBEKISTAN
«Water is not a commercial product like

any other but, rather, a heritage which must be
protected, defended and treated as such»1
3.1. Hydrological cycle

Water is a renewable natural resource that sustains life on
the Earth. Water is the most important chemical substance for the
existence of human beings and all other species. Only a minor amount
of the global water resources is available for a human consumption.
Deterioration of the freshwater quality and depletion of its
resources is becoming one of the major problems of society in the
21st century. In 2005, good quality drinking water was not available
to two billion of the world’s population. According to the UN
prognosis, 2.8 billion people in 48 countries will suffer from the
shortage of freshwater by 2025; 40 of these countries are in central
Asia (including Uzbekistan), northern Africa and the Sahel zone in
Africa. For now, the international society does not have a solution to
this problem, and a chronic freshwater deficit in 2050 is expected to
affect as many as four billion people.
Although the Earth’s freshwater resources are huge, many of
them are not easily accessible for a variety of reasons (situated high
up in the mountains or deep underground), or their quality is not
suitable for human consumption. However, availability of water has
already caused conflicts between people and countries alike. Experts
warn that in the future water problems can create conflicts in central
Asia, among Turkey, Syria and Iraq if Turkey builds dams on the
Tigris and the Euphrates. In Africa, battles are going on for the waters
of the Niger, in Asia for the Mekong, the Indus and the Ganges.
The use of water resources differs from country to country based
on the level of development of the country and accessibility of water
resources. In economically developed countries the average daily
water consumption per person is 200-800 litres, while in developing
countries it will hardly exceed 60-150 litres per day.
1
«Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
establishing a framework for the Community action in the field of water policy»
or EU Water Framework Directive
3. Water resources of Uzbekistan 21

Freshwater has a variety of uses. According to the UN data, the
household use of water accounts for 12% of water consumption,
8% is consumed by the power sector and industry, and agriculture
uses nearly 70%. In agriculture, water is used for the daily intake
of livestock, watering and irrigation of fields. For a better harvest,
farmers have turned to improved irrigation methods in many places.
In Spain, for example, 14% of irrigated agricultural lands provide
over 60% of the total agricultural produce. Because of the irrigation
of agricultural lands, surface water resources are running short in
certain places, groundwater stores are being depleted, and salt-water
intrusion would make freshwater unsuitable for human consumption.
Climate change and drier summers in central Asia and elsewhere in
the world have increased the use of water resources; therefore, water
now has to be imported to the places which never previously have
suffered from water shortage. Scientists consider that the pledge of
the EU countries to increase the amount of biofuel up to 10% of the
total amount of vehicular fuel by 2020 will result in a substantial
increase in water consumption for agricultural needs.
Natural waters are categorized according to their overall level
of mineralization (the proportion of mineral substances dissolved in
water). The main types of water are the following: freshwater (its
overall concentration of salts is up to 1 g/l), brackish water (1-10 g/l),
saline water (10-35 g/l) and brine (35 g/l and more).
Freshwater makes a small part of all the water on the Earth –
approximately 3%. Two thirds of freshwater is accumulated as ice
and snow, one third is underground water, while rivers and lakes
make just a very small portion of the total volume of freshwater on
the Earth (Figure 3.1, Table 3.1).
Soil (0.41%)
Underground
Rivers and lakes (0.82%) waters (20.58%)
Glaciers and icecaps (78.19%)
Freshwater
Rivers and lakes (0.02%) Soil (0.01%)
Underground waters (0.50%)
Glaciers and icecaps (1.90%)
Figure 3.1. Distribution The World Ocean (97.57%)

of water resources on
the Earth

Table 3.1. Water resources on the Earth
Types of water Volume, km3

The World Ocean 1 338 000 000
Groundwaters 23 900 000
incl. freshwaters 10 530 000
Moisture in the soil 16 500
Glaciers, icecaps, permanent snow 24 064 100
Freshwater lakes 91 000
Saline lakes 85 400
Rivers 2120
Water in the atmosphere 12 900
Water in the atmosphere

Water storage Condensation
in snow and ice
Precipitation Evapotranspiration
Freshwater
storage
Surface
Infiltration runoff
Rivers Evaporation
Groundwater Ocean surface
runoff
Water storage
in the oceans and seas
Figure 3.2. Hydrological

cycle
The hydrological cycle (Figure 3.2) represents the movement

of water on the Earth. Five main sources of water are involved in
the hydrological cycle: water in the World Ocean, the atmosphere,
glaciers and icecaps, underground and freshwater sources. The
hydrological cycle describes the relations among these main sources
of water and shows the vital role of the processes of atmospheric
evaporation and precipitation fallout for the planet’s water balance.
The Sun is the main source of energy, driving the global hydrological
cycle as it warms the water masses on the Earth’s surface, making
them evaporate or sublimate: not only from the surfaces of seas
and oceans but also from the soil, glaciers, icecaps and the Earth’s
snow cover. This water evaporates into the atmo sphere, where
the vapour cools down and condensates. The dust particles in the
atmosphere become the condensation centres for water vapours.

The particles formed from the impact of cosmic radiation can also
cause water condensation. The condensation processes take place at
the upper layers of the atmosphere as well as on the Earth’s surface.
Precipitation occurs in a variety of forms, including rain, snow and
hail. When water evaporates in the atmosphere, it becomes subject
to the atmospheric diffusion. Consequently, the water vapour, which
is mostly formed above the surface of seas and oceans, can be
carried to great distances along with the movement of air masses,
until it finally falls out on the continents as well.
Atmospheric precipitation can form a snow cover, it can be
assimilated by plants or absorbed in the soil, replenishing the under
ground water resources. Furthermore, one of the most important
water movements is its accumulation in river basins and subsequent
surface runoff with rivers. With this, the water cycle is complete.
Water can stay in each of the abovementioned environments for a
different period of time (water residence time). The duration of a
water turnover period depends on the mass of water in the respective
environment (for example, oceans contain most of the water mass
that undergoes the hydrological cycle) and on the intensity of
processes that the water is subject to in the respective environment.
The duration of the period in which water completes a full cycle in
the oceans and seas is estimated as approximately 4000 years; in
lakes – approximately 10 years; for underground waters – from a few
weeks to 10 000 years; for glaciers – from 100 to 10 000 years; in the
atmosphere – approximately 10 days.
An essential factor for the hydrological cycle is the character
of the largest water mass – the World Ocean, particularly its water
currents. Currents on the ocean surface are generated by the inter
action of wind, the Earth’s rotation (the Coriolis force) and thermal
factors. The warm water surface currents move a huge amount of
heat energy from the tropical zones of the World Ocean to the tem
perate and arid climatic zones. In effect, the climate becomes much
milder in vast areas of dry land. The cold currents, in turn, chill the
tropical regions.
25 000 km3
20 000
15 000
10 000 Agriculture
Figure 3.3. Water 5000
consumption variability Industry
Public utilities
tendencies and forecasts
in the main sectors 1960 1975 2000 2030 2060

Water is one of the substances most consumed by human beings –
large amounts of water are used for household needs, production,
especially in agriculture (Figure 3.3). Humans mostly use high-
quality freshwater, but at the same time wastewater is produced as
a by-product of human activities, and quite often it does not receive
sufficient treatment. The highest water consumption rates in the
world are in the following sectors: agriculture (69%), industry (23%),
households and services (approx. 8%). Industrial consumption of water
is mostly related to various technological processes. Considering the
relatively large volumes of water required for industrial production,
in many cases the availability of freshwater is the decisive factor for
the placement of plants and factories at certain locations. Today, when
many other economic factors also come to the fore, most industrial
technologies reuse the water for production after proper treatment.
Households consume large amounts of water. It is generally
known that a human being, depending on his or her weight and out
door temperature, for personal consumption needs approx. 40 grams
of water per weight kilogram daily. Calculations show that one city
dweller in the temperate zone consumes approximately 200-220 litres
of water daily. Even more, over 320 litres of water are consumed
daily in order to satisfy all the needs of one person, including pro
duction of food and commodities and provision of services.
Due to the relatively high precipitation and low evaporation
rates, sufficient freshwater supplies are available for people and eco
nomies in the Baltic Sea Region. Presently, because of the low po
pulation density, the availability of water is not an issue and does not
in any way affect the quality of life and economy in the northern part
of the Baltic Sea basin. At the same time, in Germany and Poland, the
availability of water resources has already become the limiting factor
for further development of agriculture. Poland, for example, now uses
18% of the total water runoff in rivers, which is considered to be the
maximum amount of water that can be consumed without affecting
the water ecosystems. The situation is even more critical in the
Mediterranean countries. They do not have enough freshwater, and
this deficit is substantially delimiting the development of traditional
forms of agriculture. Therefore, these countries are reorienting their
national economies to the service sector (mainly tourism).
Agriculture is the industry that consumes the largest amount of
water. While in the developed countries this consumption does not
exceed 20-25%, in the developing countries up to 80% of water or
even more is used for irrigation.
The Baltic Sea is an inland sea. Therefore, its water exchange
is limited, it has a relatively low salinity level, it is not deep, it
has a large catchment basin and significant freshwater influence.
Together these factors make the Baltic Sea particularly sensitive

to pollution, for the harmful substances discharged into the sea
remain there for relatively long periods of time, contaminate water
and living organisms, form sediments.
Even though the water masses involved in the hydrological cycle
are huge, human activity affects the flows of water. At present, the
amount of water that humans consume is comparable to a substantial
part of the runoff of the world’s rivers. However, the consumption is
expected to exceed the resources of natural water flows in the near
future.
3.2. Water resources of Uzbekistan

An illustration of the negative impact of human activity on water
resource depletion is the desiccation of the Aral Sea (Figure 3.4)
caused by the intensive use of water from the major inflow rivers
for irrigation (mostly for cotton cultivation). In 1960 the area of the
Aral Sea was 67 000 square kilometers, while by 2008 it has shrunk
to 17 000 square kilometers. The prognosis for the future of the Aral
Sea is bleak: it may completely disappear in a foreseeable future,
leaving a vast salt desert in its stead.
50 km
N
Uzbekistan is the main water consumer in the central Asia and
it consumes ~47% of the discharge of Amu Darya and Syr Darya1.
Figure 3.4. Aral Sea in Water resource use and water availability very much differs between
2008 (The black line countries of Central Asia (Figure 3.5).
shows the area of the Water resource availability of Uzbekistan determines the relief
Aral Sea in 1960)
of the country as far as 78.8% of the territory cover plains and the
remaining areas are allocated to mountains and their hill slopes.
Plains of Uzbekistan are formed by Kyzilkum desert, alluvial plains
of Amu Darya River, river deltas and plateau of Ustjurt formed by
undulated surfaces of solonchaks. Major part of plains in Uzbekistan
can be used for agricultural purposes considering that agricultural
acti
vities require irrigation and extensive water supply2,3. Also
historically water use to cover needs of agricultural activities was
common for this country4. Major consumer of water resources in the
Uzbekistan is agricultural production, consuming 84.2-91.8% of the
total water consumption; industrial production consumes 1.8-3%;
domestic use is 3-6%; energy production 2-6%.
1
Вода жизненно важный ресурс для будущего Узбекистана. Ташкент,
ПРООН. 2007. – 128 с.; www.undp.uz.
2
Чуб В. Е. Изменение климата и его влияние на природно-ресурсный потен-
циал Республики Узбекистан. Ташкент: Главгидромет РУз, 2000. – 252 с.
3
Атлас Узбекской ССР. Ч.1. – М-Ташкент ГУГК, 1982. – 124 с.
4
Миддендорф А. Ф. Очерки Ферганской долины. С приложением К. Шмидта
«Химических исследований почв и воды». Перевод с немецкого В. И. Кова
левского. СПб., 1882. – 489 с.

Table 3.2. Freshwater withdrawal by Country and Sector (top 15 countries,
per capita)1
Total Freshwater Per Capita

Domestic Industrial Agricultural
Country Withdrawal Withdrawal
Use (%) Use (%) Use (%)
(km3/yr) (m3/p/yr)
Turkmenistan 24.65 5104 2 1 98
Kazakhstan 35 2360 2 17 82
Uzbekistan 58.34 2194 5 2 93
Guyana 1.64 2187 2 1 98
Hungary 21.03 2082 9 59 32
Azerbaijan 17.25 2051 5 28 68
Kyrgyzstan 10.08 1916 3 3 94
Tajikistan 11.96 1837 4 5 92
USA 477 1600 13 46 41
Suriname 0.67 1489 4 3 93
Iraq 42.7 1482 3 5 92
Canada 44.72 1386 20 69 12
Thailand 82.75 1288 2 2 95
Ecuador 16.98 1283 12 5 82
Australia 24.06 1193 15 10 75
Flow generation: km3 per year

water available in the country from rainfall and glacier melt 60
Water abstraction:
withdrawal from surface water sources (rivers, canals and lakes)
Metres TAJIKISTAN 50
3 000
2 000 UZBEKISTAN
1 000 40
500 KYRGYZSTAN
200
0 RUSSI A RU SSI A 30
TURKMENISTAN
ARAL 20
SEA KAZAKHSTAN
LAKE
Syr BALKHASH
-Da 10
rya
Figure 3.5. Water
CASPIAN
Am withdrawal and
u- 0
SEA Da
ry
CH I NA availability in the Aral
a
IRAN
Sea basin (Philippe
0 200 400 600 km
AF GHANIST AN Rekacewicz, UNEP/
P A K I ST A N
GRID-Arendal)
1
Gleick P.H. (2008). «The World’s Water 2008-2009». Island Press, Washington,
D.C.

The territory of Uzbekistan is an inland basin of the Aral Sea, to
which all its rivers and lakes drain. Water resources include natural
surface and ground water as well as recycled water. All countries in
Central Asia jointly use the surface water of the Aral Sea basin. Water
reserves in the lakes of the mountainous area of the Amu Darya
River make up 46 km3, while reserves from the Syr Darya River total
4 km3 1. Excluding the Aral Sea, the total volume of water from the
plains is approximately 70 km3. The volume of ice in the glaciers
of the Gissar-Alay area is estimated at 88 km3, and the glaciers of
Pamir-Alay at 465 km3. River runoff primarily collects in the largest
of Central Asia’s rivers – the Amu Darya and Syr Darya, which
flow into the Aral Sea. The annual volume of river runoff to these
rivers is shown in Table 3.4. Uzbekistan is subject to international
agreements allocating water use. Uzbekistan is entitled to an average
of 43‑52 km3 of water per year. In any given year, water allocations
are calculated and adjusted subject to the agreed ratio.
Table 3.4. Water Resources (km3/year) of the Rivers of the Aral Sea Basin2,3
Volume of runoff Volume of runoff

River average
corresponding to corresponding to
River long-term volume of
5% cumulative 95% cumulative
runoff
probability probability
Amu Darya 78.5 108.4 46.9
Syr Darya 37.9 54.1 21.4
Total number of different streams in Uzbekistan is 17 777 and

from them in basin of River Amu Darya are allocated 9930 and for
the basin of River Syr Darya are allocated 4926. In the Uzbekistan
are >500 lakes, but most of them are small with an area less
than 1 km2 4. Lakes usually are located in the river valleys. In the
mountainous areas lakes are formed as a result of glacier melting,
especially when the discharge possibilities are limited. The number
of lakes in mountainous and plain areas is relatively similar (corres
pondingly 56.5% and 43.5%). Mountainous lakes usually originate
from obstruction and glacier-moraine, while lakes located in the
plains form from drainage water.
1
Ирригация Узбекистана. Том I, Развитие ирригации в комплексе произво-
дительных сил Узбекистана. Ташкент, Из-во «Фан» 1975. – стр. 138‑169.
2
ЕЭК ООН, ОБСЕ, РЭЦ, НАТО. 2011. – 11 с. www.unep.org.
3
Вода жизненно важный ресурс для будущего Узбекистана. Ташкент, ПРО-
ОН. 2007. – 128 с.; www.undp.uz.
4
нии природных ресурсов в Республике Узбекистан (1988-2007). Госком
природы. Ташкент, 2008. – 298 с.; www.econews.uz

Much like the Aral Sea basin, Uzbekistan on the whole features
an unequal distribution of water resources. The plains contribute
very little to river flows. In irrigated zones, these flows are mainly
from irrigation canals. But in the upper watershed, the zone of flow
formation, there is a well-developed river network. Six percent of
the river runoff directly formed on Uzbekistan’s territory emanate
from the Amu Darya River basin and 15% come from the Syr Darya
River basin. However, less than 10% of total runoff are formed
on Uzbekistan’s territory; the bulk of water resources used in
Uzbekistan originate beyond its borders. The natural course of river
flow from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers is greatly distorted
by reservoirs, water withdrawal for irrigation, and the discharge
of drainage water. All of these break up their hydrodynamic and
hydrochemical regimes.
OVER THE LAST 10 YEARS THE AREA OF CULTIVATED LAND PER CAPITA
HAS REDUCED BY
30% 20% 15% 15% 9%
Kazakhstan Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Turkmenistan
DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATED LAND

1000ha
8600
SCENARIOS:
optimistic
8400
intermediate
business as usual
8200
2001
1997
1987
1977
1957
8000
7800
7600
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Figure 3.6. Trends

of changes of areas
IRRIGATED LAND 1999
of irrigated land in
cultivated Central Asia countries
land (I. Atamuradova,
95.0% 84.4% 65.0% 5.0% 0.8% irrigated V. Yemelin,
land P. Rekacewicz, UNEP/
Uzbekistan Turkmenistan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Kazakhstan GRID-Arendal)

The groundwater resources of Uzbekistan are 24 km3. The
ground water of the Aral Sea basin, including the territory of Uzbek
istan, is formed from precipitation as well as filtration from water
reservoirs, riverbeds, canals, lakes, and irrigated areas. Presently,
there are 95 deposits of ground water in the Republic. Recycled
water resources include collected drainage and wastewater. While
constituting a large share of water resources, at the same time it is
a serious source of pollution. The Tuyamuyun, Chardara, Karakum,
Charvak, and Andijan reservoirs are the largest artificial water
facilities in Uzbekistan. They were built to regulate seasonal river
runoff, accumulate water for irrigation periods, as well as to prevent
flooding. At the edge of irrigated areas, in natural depressions and
reliefs, lakes are formed from water overflow. The lakes of the
Arnasay and Sarykamish systems, in their current dimensions, were
formed by water drainage from reservoirs. Irrigated farming utilizes
more than 90% of the region’s available water resources.
The massive expansion of irrigated agriculture in the
1960s–1980s for cotton production has caused major alterations to
the runoff regime with well-known consequences for the deltaic
ecosystems and the Aral Sea. Today irrigated agriculture accounts
for 90% of crop yields and consumes over 92% of the total water
intake. About 64% of the population of Uzbekistan live in rural
areas and are thus directly or indirectly dependent on irrigated
agriculture. In the future the demand for water will grow even
more in order to maintain the food security of a rapidly increasing
population1.
3.3. River Amu Darya

The Amu Darya was traditionally known to the Western world
from Greek and Roman times as the Oxus and was called the
Jayḥūn by the Arabs. The name Amu is supposed to come from the
medieval city of Āmul, in modern Turkmenistan, with Darya being
the Persian word for «river». Historically Amu Darya’s course across
the Karakum Desert has gone through several major shifts till to the
late 16th century, the Amu Darya emptied into both the Aral and
the Caspian Seas, via a large distributary called the Uzboy River.
The Uzboy split off from the main channel south of the Amu Darya
Delta. Sometimes, the flow through the two branches was more or
less equal, but often most of the Amu Darya’s flow split to the west
1
Ирригация Узбекистана. Том I, Развитие ирригации в комплексе произ
водительных сил Узбекистана. Ташкент, Из-во «Фан» 1975. – стр. 138‑169.

and flowed into the Caspian. Since the 18th century, the river turned
north, flowing into the Aral Sea and the Uzboy River dried up1.
The Amu Darya River is the largest of the two rivers of Central
Asia that feed the Aral Sea with an average annual runoff of 78.5 km3.
The river’s total length is 2540 kilometres. It accounts for two thirds of
the total water resources in the Aral Sea basin. It is a glacier/snowmelt-
fed type of river and the water comes from the high mountains in the
south where annual precipitation can be over 1000 mm. Without its
mountain water sources, the Amu Darya would not exist, rains in the
lowlands through which most of the river flows are rare (throughout
most of the steppe, the annual rainfall is about 300 mm). The main
flow volume (85%) is formed by the Vakhsh and Pyandj tributaries in
the high mountain ranges of the Pamir, Tienshan and Hindukush in
Tajikistan and Afghanistan. It drains into the lowland desert plains of
Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. The catchment of the Amu Darya River
is 535 000 km2. Over 1000 km of the river borders with the states of
Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan before it enters the Aral Sea. Along
the river a significant quantity of water is abstracted for irrigated
agriculture.
Figure 3.7. River

Amu Darya
(www.flickr.com/photos/
joepyrek/3879372758/
sizes/o/in/
set-72157622084600263/)
Rainfall and temperature in the Amu Darya basin vary mainly

according to topography. Mid-latitude westerlies are the main source
of precipitation in the river basin. The precipitation falls mainly as
snow during the winter and helps feed the glaciers in the source
areas of the Amu Darya, at the highest elevations in the Pamirs
1
Географический энциклопедический словарь. М.: «Советская энцикло
педия» 1989. – 591 с.

and the Hindukush, where temperatures average below freezing in
winter and annual precipitation may exceed 1015 mm. Mean monthly
temperatures increase and precipitation decreases at lower elevations.
In the lower reaches of the Amu Darya, mean annual precipitation
is less than 100 mm, with mean July temperatures above 25 °C and
mean January temperatures ranging between 0 °C and 10 °C.
Hydrologically, therefore, the Amu Darya basin consists of
two units: a mountainous zone of nourishment and a lowland zone
of depletion. The Amu Darya’s headwaters rise in the mountains
of Tajikistan and Afghanistan, among the permanent snows and
glaciers of the Pamirs, the Trans-Alay Range to the northwest, and
the Hindukush, where elevations range from 5000 to 7000 m. The
river’s two principal sources, the Vakhsh River and the Panj River,
whose tributaries include the Pamir, follow a westerly course.
The Amu Darya’s flow increases from March to May, when snow
melts on the plains and rainfall increases, and the flow is further
augmented in summer as the ice and snow of the mountain ranges
melt. The flow gradually abates from September to February. During
winter, ice forms along the banks of the river’s upper reaches, and its
lower sections may freeze completely for more than two months. As
the ice floes begin to disperse in February and March, they jam the
river downstream, forming a natural dam. These dams sometimes
burst catastrophically and cause major flooding. In its upper course
the river’s flow is stable; in its lower course it is much less so. The
river’s sediment load is high.
Figure 3.8. Amu Darya

delta from space (Image
courtesy of Earth
Sciences and Image
Analysis Laboratory,
NASA Johnson Space
Center)

Before the 1970s, the Amu Darya branched into a number of
tributaries that emptied into the Aral Sea through an extensive delta.
However, the Soviet government began diverting massive amounts
of water from the river beginning in the 1950s to irrigate cotton and
other crops grown in the river’s lower basin. The main section of the
Karakum Canal was completed in the 1960s to carry water from the
Amu Darya at Kerki, Turkmenistan, westward to Mary and Ashgabat.
The diversion of water from the Amu Darya for irrigation decreased
the amount of water entering the Aral Sea, which consequently
began shrinking. Increased irrigation on the hot, dry floodplains
of the Amu Darya and in adjacent regions resulted in evaporation
that left salt deposits that make the soil infertile. Surface runoff
transported these salts into surface waters and increased the salinity
of the Amdarya. By the 1990s the discharge of the Amu Darya into
the Aral Sea stopped for one to three months in most years. Lakes
and bogs dried up in the former Amu Darya delta, now far from the
sea’s shores, and the wetlands fed by the river shrank to only a tiny
percentage of their former size.
It begins with the confluence of the rivers Pyandj and Vakhsh
in Tajikistan, and in the upper-reach it forms the border between
Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Afghanistan. From the mountains it
flows into the desert lowlands of Turan through Uzbekistan and
Turkmenistan and drains into the Aral Sea. Along the main river
there are two reservoirs with hydroelectric power stations, re
presenting the main structures for management of water flow and
salinity, several distribution points to serve irrigation water needs,
main and side inflows, including return flow, and water intake for
communal needs.
Next to the quantity of water allocated to the environment, its
quality is of equal importance. To conserve the remaining deltaic
lakes and semi-natural vegetation to the desired extent, a certain
amount of freshwater input is necessary. Water allocated to the
environ ment consisting mainly of drainage. Severe alterations
to the hydrological regime of the Amu Darya River over the past
40 years have caused serious degradation of the environment in
the whole river basin and especially in river delta and Aral Sea1.
Desertification processes initiated by the continuous decrease in
river flow have significantly changed the ecosystems of the region.
The deltaic lakes, pastures and riverine forests have been, and still
are, to a large extent, the means of existence for the local human
population. Their importance has even increased with the loss of the
fishing industry in the Aral Sea. In this respect of major importance
1
Schluter M., Savitsky A.G., McKinney D.C., Lieth H. (2005) Optimizing long-
term water allocation in the Amudarya River delta: a water management model
for ecological impact assessment. Environm. Modelling Software 20 529-545

are approaches used for allocation of water resources and regulation
of them. Allocation of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya transboundary
water resources between the five states of the central Asia is
still based on existing quotas of the Soviet times at first covering
irrigation water needs. However amongst countries of the region
need for adjustments of the water resource management is widely
accepted, considering changing needs in agriculture, the demands
of the ecosystems in the deltas and littoral of the Aral Sea, effects of
climate change, or other physical or socio-economic factors.
3.4. River Syr Darya

Syr Darya with a length of 3019 km is the longest river in
Central Asia, but it carries less water than the Amu Darya. Histo
rically river has been called Jaxartes. The Syr Darya is formed by
the confluence of the Naryn and Qoradaryo rivers in the eastern
Fergana Valley and generally flows northwest until it empties into
the Aral Sea.. Watershed of Syr Darya is not clearly defined except
in its upper course, where it drains a basin of 462 000 km2. Most
of the Syr Darya’s tributaries in the Fergana Valley fail to reach it
because they are used fully for irrigation. After leaving the Fergana
Valley the river flows northwest, receiving the Ohangaron, Chirchiq,
Keles, and Arys rivers on the right. In its middle and lower reaches
it follows a meandering course through the eastern outskirts of the
Kyzylkum Desert, frequently changing its bed, forming channels that
often lose themselves in the sands, and overflowing its low banks at
flood. It is fed in its upper mountainous basin mainly by snow and to
a lesser extent by glaciers, and high water lasts from March or April
to September. The Syr Darya carries a considerable amount of silt,
much of which it deposits in the vicinity of Qazaly, Kazakhstan. The
river freezes in its lower reaches from December to March.
There are a number of hydroelectric power stations on the Syr
Darya and its tributaries, of which the largest are the Farhod (in
Uzbekistan), Qayroqqum (Tajikistan), and Shardara (Kazakhstan)
stations on the main stream and, in Uzbekistan, the Chorwoq station
on the Chirchiq River and the Uchqŭrghon station on the Naryn
River. There are also dams in Kazakhstan at Qyzylorda and Qazaly.
The Toktogul hydroelectric power station, which was constructed on
the Naryn River in the 1970s and expanded in the ’80s, regulates the
river’s flow. As much as 2 000 000 hectares) of land are irrigated by
the Syr Darya and its tributaries, with cotton the chief crop in the
Fergana Valley and the Syr Darya’s middle course and rice in the
river’s lower reaches.

Figure 3.9.
Syr Darya floodplain
(ISS Expedition
25 crew – NASA Earth
Observatory)
The diversion of water from the Syr Darya for irrigation

contributed to the shrinkage of the Aral Sea in the latter part of
the 20th century. By the 1990s the flow of the Syr Darya along its
lower reaches was much reduced during the whole year. The gradual
retreat of the Aral Sea shoreline and the drying up of the Syr Darya’s
deltaic region exposed toxic fertilizer and salt residues to the winds,
devastating local plant and animal life and causing serious health
problems among the human population1.
Historical legacies and the regional political context are of par
ticular relevance in the Syr Darya basin. Agriculture was initially
made possible by the Soviet administration in the early 20th century
in Central Asia through the development of intensive irrigation
systems to fuel larger-scale cotton cultivation. By the 1960s, the
traditional belief in inexhaustible Central Asian water resources had
diminished as river flows and ground water reserves were depleted
and water and soil quality degraded. In order for the Soviet Union to
become self-sufficient, priority for water allocation was given to the
cotton production in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) and to
rice production in the Kazakh SSR, with the Kyrgyz SSR designated
as water supplier. Major investments were made in the construction
of dams, reservoirs, irrigation canals and other structures to promote
and manage the transfer of water from its source in the Kyrgyz
mountains to the main growing areas in the Uzbek and Kazakh SSRs.
The administrative borders of the Central Asian Republics did not
1
Оценка региональных рисков в Центральной Азии: реагирование на угро-
зы в области водной, энергетической и продовольственной безопасности.
Программа развития ООН. Региональное бюро по странам Европы и СНГ.
ЮНДП. Нью-Йорк. Январь 2009. www.undp.org/rbec

match the natural hydrological borders of the Syr Darya basin and
were disregarded in the construction process of irrigation canals
and dams. The costs of water management within the upstream
SSRs were paid for or subsidized from Soviet central funds and the
upstream republics received benefits such as the provision of cheap
fuel, electricity and food supplies1.
Major factors influencing water resource management in Uzbeki
stan and in general in Central Asia are:
1. Freshwater resources in the Central Asia are naturally limited
and unequally distributed with the region and also seasonally;
2. The water consumption in Central Asia and especially in Uzbeki
stan is permanently growing, but the water supply amount per
capita is permanently decreasing;
3. In the region there is a growing human pressures on the water
quality due to intensive use of agrochemicals, increase of mining
industry, oil and gas production as well as domestic wastes and
wastewaters;
4. Global climate change is influencing the water resource avail
ability already now and most probably much more in future;
5. The approaches used for water resource management largely
is based on historically accepted approaches and not always do
consider recent trends and best practices in the water resource
management.
The impacts of climate change most probably will significantly
reduce availability of water resources, especially in periods of most
intensive irrigation.
The impacts of climate change on the availability of water
resources can be associated with:
1. General decrease of water resource availability;
2. Increase of air, temperature, thus increase of evaporation,
reduction of precipitation amount, decrease of glacier volume;
3. Intensification of desertification processes;
4. Increase of risks caused by extreme climate events;
5. Reduction of bioproductivity of natural ecosystems.
3.5. The Aral Sea

The Aral Sea is a lake located between Kazakhstan and Uzbeki
stan. The name can be translated as «Sea of Islands», referring to
about 1500 islands that once were present in the Sea. The Aral Sea
1
Хамраев Н. Р., Ахунди М. Н., Эргашев А. К. Проблемы и перспективы устой-
чивого развития водохозяйственного сектора государств бассейна Араль-
ского моря. – Ташкент. – 1998. – 85 с.

a Water discharge, m3 per second
5000
Irrigation season
4000
Flow reduction
3000
2000 Figure 3.10. Changes

of annual discharge of
1000 Rivers Amu Darya (a)
and Syr Darya (b) under
0 conditions of changing
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec climate
(IPCC, 2007: Climate
b Change 2007: The
Water discharge, m3 per second
Physical Science Basis.
2000
Irrigation season Contribution of Working
Group I to the Fourth
1600 Assessment Report of
Flow reduction
the Intergovernmental
1200 Panel on Climate
Change [Solomon, S.,
800 D. Qin, M. Manning,
Z. Chen, M. Marquis,
400 K. B. Averyt, M.Tignor
and H. L. Miller (eds.)].
Cambridge University
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Press, Cambridge,
United Kingdom and
Today Projection 2071-2100 (A1B emission scenario) New York, NY, USA)
was formed about 5.5 million years ago. Formerly an area of the Aral
Sea was 68 000 km2 Aral Sea has been steadily shrinking since the
1960s after the rivers that fed it were diverted by Soviet irrigation
projects. The shrinking of the Aral Sea has been called «one of the
planet’s worst environmental disasters».
Prior to the drying of the Aral Sea, its volume was 1064 km3,
rivers Amu Darya and Syr Darya supplied yearly 56 km3, but
atmospheric precipitations (annual precipitation ranges between
90‑100 mm) added 9 km3, however the evaporation amounted on
average 65 km3 per year. The maximal depth of the Sea was 69‑66 m.
Presently the maximum depth of the North Aral Sea is 42 m (as of
2008). Irrigation resulted in a sharp decline of the water in-flow
to the Aral Sea, and, consequently, a drop in the Sea’s water level,
shrinking of its surface area, and an increase in salinity. By 1994,
the Sea’s total surface dropped to 31 700 km2. During 20th century
the sea’s surface has decreased by 75% and its volume by 90%. Salt
marsh and salty shifting sand areas formed and became sources of

aeolian transfer of sand and salt onto the contiguous territories. Prior
to 1992, salinity averaged 9-11%; but by 1992, salinity increased
to 35%, equal with the salinity of the World’s Oceans. Under such
conditions, the Sea’s functions to provide needed ecosystem services
are limited. As a result, the sea is divided into two separate water
bodies: the shallow Small Aral Sea in the north and the southern
Large Aral Sea. The shallow eastern basin and the deeper western
part of the Large Aral Sea are currently connected by a narrow
canal. This canal will dry up in the case of continuing sea level
decrease1.
Figure 3.11. Aral

Sea continues to
shrink (2009) (Jesse
Allen – NASA Earth
Observatory)
Aral Sea played a key role in the economy of the region. Annual
fish harvesting was approximately 400-500 thousand metric
centners, and the volume of cargo turnover was ~250 000 tons. The
Aral crisis is one of the most significant ecological disasters. About
35 million people including a considerable part of the Uzbekistan’s
1
Johansson O., Aimbetov I., Jarsjo J. (2009) Variation of groundwater salinity
in the partially irrigated Amudarya River delta, Uzbekistan. J. Mar. System, 76,
287-295

population experience its impact. Increased water scarcity in the
region has created social problems in Karakalpakstan and the
Khorezm Province. The present ecological situation has negatively
affected 1.5 million people. The region’s once-prosperous fishing
industry has been essentially destroyed, bringing unemployment
and economic hardship. The Aral Sea region is also heavily polluted,
with consequent serious public health problems. The retreat of the
sea has reportedly also caused local climate change, with summers
becoming hotter and drier, and winters colder and longer.
Figure 3.12. Ship of the

Aral Sea fleet
(Photo Staecker –
Own work )
Figure 3.13. Aralsk

harbor
(Photo Staecker –
Own work)

1960 2001
Aralsk Aralsk
KAZAKHSTAN KAZAKHSTAN
Aral
sea
Kzyl-Orda Sy Kzyl-Orda
r-D
aria
UZBEKISTAN
Nukus Nukus
UZBEKISTAN Tashkent Tashkent
Am
Am Bukhara
u-D
u- Bukhara
Da
ari
TURKMENISTAN TURKMENISTAN
a
ria
Figure 3.14. The socio- Dry zone and unusable
Fishing zone areas (salination)
economic impacts of the
shrinking of the Aral Sea Food crops, partly irrigated Cotton and rice, Dam
widely irrigated Cotton and
(Philippe Rekacewicz, Fish exports
UNEP/GRID-Arenda) Fish imports rice exports
Global warming that has already occurred has only aggravated

the complex ecological situation in this region. The ecosystems
of the Aral Sea and the river deltas feeding into it have been
nearly destroyed, not least because of the much higher salinity.
The receding sea has left huge plains covered with salt and toxic
chemicals – the results of weapons testing, industrial projects, and
pesticides and fertilizer runoff – which are picked up and carried
away by the wind as toxic dust and spread to the surrounding area.
The land around the Aral Sea is heavily polluted, and the people
living in the area are suffering from a lack of fresh water and health
problems, including high rates of certain forms of cancer and lung
diseases. Respiratory illnesses, including tuberculosis (most of
which is drug resistant) and cancer, digestive disorders, anaemia,
and infectious diseases are common ailments in the region. Liver,
kidney, and eye problems can also be attributed to the toxic dust
storms. Health concerns associated with the region are a cause for
an unusually high fatality rate amongst vulnerable parts of the
population. The child mortality rate is 75 in every 1000 newborns
and maternity death is 12 in every 1000 women. Crops in the region
are destroyed by salt being deposited onto the land. Vast salt plains
exposed by the shrinking Aral have produced dust storms, making
regional winters colder and summers hotter.

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потенциал Республики Узбекистан. Ташкент: Главгидромет РУз,
2000. – 252 с.
Большое Аральское море в начале XXI века. Москва: Наука 2012. – 229 с.

Наши воды: возьмемся за руки минуя границы. Первая оценка состояния
трансграничных рек, озер и подземных вод. ЕЭК, ООН, Нью-Йорк и
Женева, 2007. – 377 с. Accessible: www.unece.org/env/water/.
Национальный доклад о состоянии окружающей среды и использо
вании природных ресурсов в Республике Узбекистан (1988-2007).
Азизов А. А. Водные ресурсы Центральной Азии – проблемы
безопасности и управления. Сб. научных трудов «Водохранилища,
чрезвычайные ситуации и проблемы устойчивости. МВССО РУз,
НУУз. Ташкент 2004. – стр. 32-42.
Традиционные знания в области землепользования в странах
Центральной Азии: Информационный сборник/Под общей
редакцией Г. Б. Бектуровой и О. А. Романовой – Алматы: S-Принт,
2007. – 104 с.

4. HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
4.1. Systems of the Earth: the lithosphere,

hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere
4.1.1. Environmental science – a science of environmental

systems
Everything is interrelated. All elements and processes in both
organic and inorganic nature are interrelated – they influence each
other in myriads of ways. However, among these innumerable inter
connections, there are groups of individual elements or processes
that can be marked out as more closely related, for example, clock
work parts, computer microchip components or members of one
family. Each of these aggregates of elements has specific functions:
clock shows time, computer processes information, family raises new
members of society.
An aggregate of interconnected elements that performs specific
functions is called a system (from the Greek word systema, which
means ‘a whole consisting of parts’). System theory classifies systems
by their level of complexity. The natural systems comprising the Figure 4.1. Earth viewed
Earth and everything on it are extremely complicated systems. from space
The Sun and its planets formed from the condensation of gas and
dust clouds in the interstellar space about 4.6 billion years ago. The
Earth functions by means of specific systems (spheres) – the atmo
sphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere – and the flows of substances
and energy among these systems. The spheres of the Earth differ
with respect to their composition, mass and processes taking place
in them (Table 4.1), i.e. the processes of exchange of substances
composing each sphere (e.g., water evaporation, condensation and
runoff cycle) (Table 4.2).
Systems can be open or closed. In an open system, the flows
of substances and energy are not confined. Ocean is an open
system with respect to the Earth’s combined mass of water – the
hydrosphere. The Earth, on the one hand, can be considered a
closed system with respect to the flows of substances (the Earth’s
mass is increased by a relatively small mass of falling meteorites,
and a relatively small mass of substances leaves the upper layers
of the atmosphere and dissipates into outer space); on the other
4. HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 43

hand, it is an open system with respect to the flows of energy (the
Earth receives energy from the Sun and reflects part of the received
energy into outer space). A characteristic feature of systems is
their capability to react on various influences – feedback, which
can be positive or negative. This feedback or counteraction is auto-
regulative – it stabilises the system, maintains it in a relatively
constant state. The feedback is positive when an impact on the
system results in a further enhancement of the system’s activity.
Table 4.1. Main structural elements of the Earth
Chemical elements Aggregative state

Atmosphere N2, O2, H2O, CO2, Ar Gaseous
Hydrosphere H2O (water, ice), substances dissolved Liquid, solid
in water (Na+, Ca+2, Cl–)
Biosphere Organic substances, H2O Liquid, solid
Lithosphere
Crust Silicates, carbonates, sulphides, oxides Solid
Mantle Silicates (olivine, pyroxene) Solid
Core Iron and nickel Fluid (inner core – solid)
Table 4.2. Mass of the Earth’s main components and the turnover period of
substances in them
Mass, kg Turnover period, years

Biosphere 4.2 × 1015 60
Atmosphere 5.2 × 1018 0.2
Hydrosphere 1.4 × 1021 1600
Crust 2.4 × 1022 > 3 × 107
Mantle 4.0 × 10 24
> 108
Core 1.9 × 1024
Permanent
A typical example of negative feedback in an inanimate,

technical system is Watt’s Regulator (Figure 4.2). When the fly-ball
rod rotation speed increases, the centrifugal force makes the system
close the steam valve to the cylinder, thus ensuring that the engine
always runs at the same speed.
Another factor that significantly influences the processes taking
place on the Earth is the global sum of all living organisms – the
biosphere. Life originated about 1.6 billion years after the formation
of the Earth, and since then it has been substantially influencing the
development of our planet. A great number of species of organisms
have developed, flourished and disappeared since the times of the
origination of life. Human beings have evolved during a very short

period of the Earth’s development process, and it is understandable
that from the human perspective it appears as the most significant
period. Hence, an understanding of how we can affect the environ
ment around us is also significant. Nowadays human activities can
influence the processes taking place on the Earth. Life affects the
Earth’s combined mass of water – the hydrosphere – troposphere and
the upper layer of the Earth’s crust.
Figure 4.2. Negative

Centrifugal
feedback principle
Steam engine mechanism exemplified by Watt’s
Regulator.
The more intensely
the steam engine runs,
the higher the rotation
speed of the centrifugal
mechanism; as a
result, the steam valve
Steam valve gradually cuts off the
steam feed. In this way,
the regulation of engine
Steam feed
operation is possible.
Each scientific discipline has its specific object of study. Inas

much as the object of environmental science is complex environ
mental systems, it can be defined as a science studying the systems
of the Earth, their interactions and the influence of human beings on The atmosphere is one
of the three system
them. components (the
atmosphere, hydrosphere
and lithosphere) of the
4.1.2. Atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere Earth, and life exists in all
of them. The atmosphere
The total mass of the atmosphere is 5.2 × 1015 tons or approxi is composed of gaseous
mately one millionth of the Earth’s mass, and it is relatively small substances (O2, N2), the
compared to the masses of the hydrosphere and litho sphere hydrosphere consists of
(Table 4.2). Intensive processes of substance and energy cycling water and substances
take place in the atmosphere, and it is the most mobile compared to dissolved in it, whereas
the structure of the
the other spheres of the Earth. The atmosphere plays a vital role in lithosphere, which makes
climate control, preventing the Earth from becoming too hot or too up a large part of the
cold. The atmosphere diffuses the energy from the Sun, thus main Earth’s mass, is clearly
taining the temperature balance and climate life-friendly. Water heterogeneous.
vapour and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere reflects part of the
heat radiating from the Earth’s surface, helping to keep up tempera
ture on the Earth considerably higher.
The composition of the atmo sphere has changed with the
Earth’s development, and presently it is in a certain state of dynamic

Even if the atmosphere’s equilibrium between the geochemical processes going on in the
mass is relatively small
(0.00009% of the Earth’s
organic nature and the activity of human beings. At the same time,
mass, 0.044% of the the atmo sphere in its present state is a result of long evolution.
mass of the Earth’s crust, After the Earth had been formed, the early atmosphere was
0.6% of the hydrosphere’s composed of methane, ammonia, water vapour and hydrogen. This
mass), its role is tremen‑ atmosphere did not shield the Earth even from short-wavelength
dous. The atmospheric
electromagnetic radiation from outer space, and it was chemically
gases are involved in
an active substance reductive. Therefore, the first living organisms evolved in water,
exchange with the which protected them from the electromagnetic radiation of short
lithosphere, biosphere wavelength and precluded the breakdown of organic substances
and hydrosphere, taking (especially DNA and proteins). The development of photosynthetic
active part in all kinds of
organisms brought about further changes in the atmo sphere’s
migration processes of
substances and elements. composition. These organisms are capable of absorbing carbon
The existence of the dioxide and water, producing carbohydrates and oxygen. Increasing
atmosphere is the pre‑ concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere created the Earth’s ozone
condition of possibility layer, and the composition of the atmosphere became very much like
for life on the Earth, whe‑
it is today. During the atmosphere’s evolution, the concentration of
reas the life processes
themselves substantially hydrogen decreased as it was bound up into chemical compounds
affect the atmosphere’s as well as diffused into outer space. Hence, photosynthesis and the
composition. Human development of living organisms can be deemed as the combination
activities cause changes of factors crucial for the formation of an oxygen-rich atmosphere as
in all systems of the Earth, we know it today.
and it is the atmosphere
which is affected most.
The specific properties of the atmosphere that significantly
affect the processes on the Earth are its mobility and reactivity.
The atmosphere can be regarded as a barrier that protects the life
processes on the Earth, as far as it absorbs charged particles and a
The atmosphere’s high
mobility also supports
large part of high-energy electromagnetic radiation from the Sun,
transport of airborne pol‑ which would otherwise cause damage and destruction of living
lutants from one area of organisms. Radiation with a longer wavelength and weaker energy
the Earth to other regions can reach the Earth’s surface, while short-wavelength radiation
and even their dispersion (ultraviolet light, X-rays, γ-rays) is absorbed in the upper layers of the
on a global scale. To be
atmosphere. The atmosphere has an indispensable role in balancing
sure, a large part of the
processes taking place in the Earth’s temperature. The atmosphere contains carbon dioxide
the biosphere depend on and oxygen. Plants use the former for photosynthesis, while living
the composition of the organisms use the latter for breathing. Furthermore, the atmosphere
air that is used for ma‑ plays a vital role in the global cycling of substances (carbon, sulphur,
intaining life processes,
nitrogen, metals) and in the hydrological (water) cycle. In addition, a
especially in the case of
much more complicated considerable part of meteorite mass coming from outer space burns
organisms. Even out in the atmosphere.
microscopic amounts Temperature and the atmosphere’s chemical composition can also
of toxic substances can be quite different at different heights. The atmosphere has a layered
structure; therefore, depending on the distance from the Earth’s
cause adverse effects on
human health if exposure
takes place for longer surface, many of its characteristics as well as composition are variable
periods of time. (Figure 4.3). The upper layers of the atmosphere have a considerably
different composition than the much denser lower layers, in which

the main mass of the atmosphere’s gases is concentrated (the air mass
within 30 km from the Earth’s surface makes 99% of the total mass
of the atmosphere). The Earth’s atmosphere is in a state of dynamic
equilibrium. The atmo spheric pressure changes evenly depending
on the distance from the Earth and other factors. However, the
temperature decreases within the tropo sphere, then it increases
again in the stratosphere due to the interaction of atmospheric gasses
with solar radiation. High-energy electro magnetic radiation from
outer space initiates ionisation in the upper layers of the atmosphere,
splitting even stable molecules. Gas molecules reach high speeds as
a result of collisions with the quanta of electromagnetic radiation in
the rarefied air of the atmosphere’s upper layers. At the same time,
these processes govern the sorption of electro magnetic radiation,
which is most intense at the top layers of the atmosphere, although it
occurs, to a large extent, at lower layers as well.
120
100 Thermosphere
80
Height (km)
Mesosphere
60
40
Stratosphere
20 Figure 4.3. Variability of
the Earth’s atmosphere
Troposphere
and temperature
0 depending on the
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
distance from the Earth’s
Temperature (°C)
surface
The layer closest to the Earth’s surface is called troposphere.

The troposphere’s height and processes taking place in it depend on
the Earth’s shape, movements of air masses as well as many other
factors, including the anthropogenic ones. Since water vapour
condensates at the upper limit of the troposphere, it does not reach
the atmosphere’s upper layers, where water molecules could be split
in photochemical reactions, and the resultant hydrogen – diffused
into outer space.
In the stratosphere, air temperature rises as the distance from
the Earth increases. The rise in temperature is a consequence of

photochemical reactions in the stratosphere – first of all, the formation
and disintegration of ozone molecules, and also the intensive sorption
of ultraviolet light.
The concentration of gases that form the upper layers of the
atmo sphere is considerably lower. These gases are in an ionised
state, and they are subject to the influence of high-energy electro
magnetic radiation coming from the Sun and outer space. Therefore,
molecules move at much higher speeds in the rarefied air of the
upper atmosphere. Reactions taking place in these parts of the atmo
sphere are rather different from those near the Earth’s surface.
The hydrosphere is the whole of all water on the Earth’s surface
and in the Earth’s crust near the surface. The World Ocean comprises
the largest part of it. The cycling of substances is mostly associated
with the Earth’s hydrological cycle. The presence of water is a
precondition for life on the Earth, and the existing forms of living
organisms are to a great extent determined by water. Moreover,
water is the main substance forming living organisms. Water is not
only the main component of the hydrosphere; it also significantly
affects the processes in the biosphere, atmosphere and – being a
critical factor for many geological processes – the lithosphere. The
role of water in the environment is decisive not only due to its total
volume on the Earth but also due to its substantial properties.
The mass of the hydrosphere is 1.5 × 1018 tons, and its total
area (ocean + glaciers and ice caps + lakes + rivers + swamps +
wetlands) is 383 million square kilometres, which is 75% of the total
area of the Earth’s surface (510 million square kilometres).
Seawater Continental crust

(0–5 km) (20–60 km)
Oceanic crust
(5 km) Lithosphere
(50–200km)
Upper mantle
Asthenosphere
400 km Transition zone or

the middle layer of the mantle
670 km
Lower mantle
2900 km Transition or ‘D’ layer

Outer core
5100 km
Figure 4.4. Inner Inner core

structure of the Earth 6378 km

The hard and rigid outer layer of the Earth – the lithosphere –
is up to 200 km deep, and it comprises the Earth’s crust and the
outer part of the upper mantle. The litho sphere is underlain by
the asthenosphere and the deeper part of the upper mantle made
of magma that can come to the Earth’s surface during volcanic
eruptions. The Earth’s outer core is liquid, and it makes up ~30%
of the Earth’s mass, whereas the inner core is solid and composed
mostly of iron and nickel (Figure 4.4).
4.1.3. Biosphere1
The biosphere is the part of the Earth’s environment in which The total number of
living organisms are found, and it comprises the upper part of the hitherto known species
lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere (troposphere) and the
of animals and plants
reaches almost 3 million;
entire hydrosphere. The biosphere is simultaneously the entirety of all from these, almost
living beings (biomass) and their habitat environment. The biosphere 300 000 are autotrophs,
is the space inhabited by living organisms in different concentrations. i.e. organisms producing
Whereas there are only a few bacteria per cubic meter in the upper the primary biomass. All
layers of the atmosphere, there is not only high biological diversity other organisms are he‑
terotrophs – they are the
but also a huge number of individuals within a specific unit area in consumers of the primary
the tropical rainforests of the equatorial zone. The biosphere is an biomass. Angiosperms
extremely complicated and dynamic system which is affected by a have the largest number
multitude of different external factors, including contingent ones, such of species among plants,
as the tectonic processes in the Earth’s crust, ice covers and natural whereas insects, molluscs
and vertebrates cham‑
disasters. pion among animals.
The total estimated global mass of living biological organisms is Fungi – being neither
the biomass, and it ranges from 2.4 × 1012 tons to 1 × 1013 tons of dry plants nor animals – have
matter, the largest part of which is phytomass (phytoplankton, trees, a special place among
grasses), whereas the amount of zoomass is estimated from 2 to 10 per living organisms. They
also are heterotrophs and
cent of the total biomass. The total of approximately 2.3 × 1011 tons of
have a vast number of
biomass is produced annually. Biomass constitutes 0.01% of the mass species.
of the Earth’s crust, and it would make a 2 cm layer if it were evenly
dispersed over the Earth’s surface. The largest amounts of biomass are
concentrated in tropical rainforests – 65 kg/m3 on average, whereas
in boreal forests (taigas) it is 20‑25 kg/m3, in fertile zone steppes –
1 kg/m3, in deserts – 0.25 kg/m3. The concentration of biomass in the
World Ocean at large is close to that of deserts, while in some places it is
comparable to steppes and savannas. However, marine organisms have
higher rates of reproduction and decomposition because their biological
cycling is more intensive. Plankton is the largest and most significant
community of living organisms on this planet. Although the mass of
living matter is relatively small compared to the mass of the Earth’s
crust, the cycling processes there are much more intense. It is estimated
1
This chapter has been prepared with contribution of prof. V. Melecis.

that the biomass produced by plankton during the entire period of its
existence on the Earth by far exceeds the mass of the Earth’s crust.
Living systems – unlike the non-living ones – actively interchange
with the environment, constantly taking organic and inorganic sub
stances and energy from it and excreting the waste products of life
processes back into the environment. The main categories of living
systems are cell, organism, population and species community. Cells
and organisms are excitable, i.e. they actively react on environmental
changes, grow, develop and reproduce. The cell is the basic structu
ral element of organisms, the organisms of one species make a popu
lation, while the species that are interrelated or have similar demands
from the environment constitute communities of species. A species
commu nity and its non-living environ ment inhabited, used and
transformed by the species together make a system of a yet higher
category – an ecosystem, in which the components of both organic
and inorganic nature are combined. Each species is unique, and it
has specific and distinctive functions in the ecosystem. All species of
organisms living on the Earth can be classified into four kingdoms:
bacteria, fungi, plants and animals (viruses are not included in this
classification). Even if the number of already classified species is
overwhelming, it is deemed that scientists have not yet discovered the
greatest part. It is estimated that the total number of species on the
planet could be at least 13 million.
The living components of an ecosystem are made up of the
organisms of different species that populate the same habitat, usually
interact and make a food chain. The whole of species within an
ecosystem is called a species community. The whole of all components
of non-living nature (rocks, water, air) that host a species community
is called a biotope (Figure 4.5).
Ecosystems can be of different sizes, from micro-ecosystems,
such as a rotting stump or a puddle, to meso-ecosystems and macro-
ecosystems, such as a forest plot, a lake, the island of Madagascar
or the Pacific Ocean. All the ecosystems of the planet constitute
the mega-ecosystem – biosphere (Figure 4.6). Ecosystems are open
systems, which means that they continuously receive and emit
energy and different substances.
Figure 4.5. An
ecosystem is made up
of a whole of elements
of non-living nature
(biotope) and a whole
of living organisms
(species community) Biotope Biotope + species community = ecosystem

Mega-ecosystem
Biosphere
Macro-ecosystem
Biome
Meso-ecosystem
Forest
Micro-ecosystem Figure 4.6. Hierarchy of

Rotting stump ecosystems
Biosphere as the most comprehensive ecosystem is at the top of

the hierarchy. Larger territories with homogeneous natural condi
tions can be singled out of the biosphere – they are called biomes.
Meso-ecosystems, such as separate forest or grassland areas, swamps
and lakes, in turn, can be singled out of the biomes.
The main function of an ecosystem is to maintain life
continually, synthesising organic substances with complex molecular
structure – such as cellulose, sugars, proteins and fats – from
elementary inorganic substances, such as gases, water, salts. When
organisms die off, they decompose back into elementary substances.
Notably, ecosystems cannot be described in spatial terms only,
because there are no exact boundaries between them – unless nature
itself has demarcated such boundaries, for example, the line between
dry land and water. Usually the transition from one ecosystem to
another is gradual, and the transition area is called an ecotone
(Figure 4.7). Therefore, the boundaries drawn on the ecosystem
maps are quite relative – they often do not exist in nature.
Figure 4.7. Boundary

between the forest and
meadow ecosystems
makes a forest edge
ecotone – brushwood,
which contains both
Meadow ecosystem Forest edge ecotone Forest ecosystem forest and meadow
species

Within an ecosystem, there are extremely diverse bonds or
interrelations between different species and elements of inorganic
nature. These bonds are much closer within a single ecosystem
than between different ecosystems. There is no question that the
most important of these relations are food or trophic (from the
Greek trophe, ‘food’) relations, when one species consumes another
species as food. For instance, there are trophic relations between
herbivore species and plant species, between predators and their
prey, between parasites and their host species. However, there are
other forms of relations among species apart from the trophic bonds.
These relations can be, for example, mutually beneficial or symbiotic
(Figure 4.8), or they can be just the opposite – competition among
species for food resources or a habitat.
There also are other types of inter-species relations: when one
Figure 4.8. Lichen is a species subsists on the food leftovers from another species, finds
symbiotic association of habitation at places inhabited or forsaken by another species or just
alga and fungus
accidentally warns another species about imminent danger.
Secondary predators
Primary predators
Herbivores
Green plants
Excrements,
dead plant and animal material
Figure 4.9. Ecological

Saprophages
food chain
The trophic relations among species make the structural basis

of ecological food chains and food webs (Figure 4.9). Energies and
substances flow through ecological food chains. Green plants are
the primary producers that make the first link of the food chain.

Using the energy from the Sun, they produce organic substances
from mineral substances, water and carbon dioxide by means of
photosynthesis. The species within the other links of the food chain
are unable to use solar energy directly; they can only consume the
energy that is already enclosed in the matter of green plants. The
organic substances produced by plants and their accumulated energy
are first of all available to plant-eating insects, birds, mammals and
other animals living on plant food. Plants are basically composed of
cellulose – an organic substance that is hard to digest. Herbivores
are able to digest cellulose with the help of micro-organisms that
inhabit their digestive tracts as symbionts. In this kind of symbiosis,
the animal provides shelter for the micro-organisms in its digestive
tract, while the micro-organisms help the animal digest the swallow
ed plant food. Since cellulose has a low energetic value as food,
herbivores have to eat frequently and in large quantities in order to
acquire the energy they need.
The ecological food chain represents the feeding hierarchy of
organisms in an ecosystem as well as the flow of substances and
energy in it. The ecological food chain ordinarily consists of three to
four trophic levels. The first level comprises autotrophic organisms
that make their body matter by using solar energy and the inorganic
substances taken from soil or water. All green plants are autotrophic,
including the algae growing in waterbodies. The green plants
produce their growth substances by means of photosynthesis. For
this reason, they are called producers. There also are autotrophic
bacteria, though they are less widespread in ecosystems. They
synthesise their cell matter by means of chemical energy. All other
levels of the food chain consist of consumers. The second level
comprises herbivores that consume plants to obtain energy and the
needed substances. The third level comprises the primary predators
and parasites that use herbivores for food. In many ecosystems, the
primary predators are also endangered, for they are eaten by the
secondary predators in turn. The amount of solar energy available
at each subsequent level of the ecological food chain is no more
than 10-15%. This is because most of this energy is used for the
metabolism, growth and reproduction of organisms at each level and
some energy is lost as heat. For this reason, food chains are not long.
A decrease in the amount of energy in the food chain is reflected by
the number and total biomass of the organisms at each level. Usually
there are more plants than herbivores and more prey than predators.
The ecological pyramid of numbers shows this rule graphically
(Figure 4.10).
The food chain also includes decomposers. They obtain the
necessary energy and substances by decomposing the remains and
excrements of organisms accumulated within the entire food chain.

Secondary predators
Primary predators

pyramid of numbers. Herbivores
Energy deficit and losses
in the trophic food chain
causes the situation
when usually within Green
an ecosystem there plants
are more plants than
herbivores and more
prey than predators.
These organisms are called saprotrophs (from the Greek sapros –

‘rotten’, trophos – ‘feeding’). It is worth noting that the ecological
food chain is more of an abstract concept. In reality, many species
use both plants and animals for food, for example, bears. Therefore,
one and the same species can subsist at several trophic levels.
Accordingly, a food web is a better way of representation of actual
trophic relations among species (Figure 4.11). Each node of the food
web denotes a particular species, whereas the links with other nodes
indicate the trophic relations of these species with other species
within the ecosystem. Thus, one can say that ecological food chains
represent not so much relations among species but rather the flow of
energy and substances within an ecosystem in general.
Figure 4.11. Food web.

Species that act at
different levels of the
food chain make the
nodes of the food web,
whereas species that
consume just one type
of food are linked to the
web with a single link.

Ecosystems at different levels of hierarchy are not isolated from
one another; rather, they are interconnected in innumerable ways.
For this reason, processes taking place in a system at a lower level
affect both the neighbouring systems at the same level and all the
ecosystems at higher levels in the ecosystem hierarchy. Thus, the
number of migratory birds of a particular species, for example,
the Black Stork, in some regions of Latvia depends on the survival
success of this species in Africa.
The Amazonian rainforest deforestation causes not just local
climate changes; it also affects climate in the entire region of the
Amazon Basin, South America and the Pacific Ocean, because the
rainforest ecosystems, by means of intensive evaporation of water
and release of specific substances into the atmosphere, determine
the height of rain cloud formation above the region. Ultimately,
these changes affect the global climate as well. Admittedly, today’s
knowledge on causal relationships in ecosystems is still incomplete.
Theoretically it is possible that minor changes in one element of
the system might cause significant changes in the whole system.
This principle is metaphorically denoted as ‘the butterfly effect’,
and it also applies to causal relations in ecosystems, as expressed
by the saying that the flap of a butterfly’s wings in the rainforest
of South America can set off a storm in Europe. A small increase
in the concentration of phosphorus-nitrogen compounds in a lake
under favourable water temperature may cause an avalanche-like
multiplication of algae and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) that has
a substantial effect on the whole ecosystem of the lake.
The hierarchic structure of ecosystems spatially manifests
itself as the diversity of biotopes within a single ecosystem. A large
diversity of biotopes is characteristic of natural landscape ecosystems,
where all kinds of ecosystems alternate: different forest types, dry
and wet meadows, peat bogs and marshlands, dunes, lakes. Landscape
ecosystems with a low diversity of biotopes, in turn, in many cases
are human-made: large tracts of human-planted forest, agricultural
fields and pastures.
Species communities or biological communities represent the
living components of the ecosystem. Biological communities consist
of bacteria, fungi, plants and animals. These organisms depend on
environ mental conditions (temperature, moisture, soil fertility),
at the same time transforming these conditions themselves. For
example, plants with roots and litter as well as animals with digging
and excrements transform non-living rocks into soil. Earthworms
play an outstanding role in this process. The famous British natural
scientist Charles Darwin once compared them with a farmer’s
plough because there are hundreds of earthworms per square meter
of a field, and they continually feed on the soil, so that almost all

of the field’s topsoil passes through their digestive tracts within the
period of one year. Earthworm castings are called coprolites, and
they are chemically stable structural elements of the soil. In fact,
they make the soil fertile by becoming the activity centres of the
microbiological processes taking place in the soil.
A characteristic feature of a biological community is species
diversity measured by the number of species within the community.
The highest species diversity is found in the ecosystems of tropical
rainforests and coral reefs. For example, the entomologist Terry
Erwin has discovered that an average of 1200 species of beetles
inhabit the foliage of one species of tree in the Panamanian rain
forest. Of course, the species diversity is much lower in the forest
ecosystems of the northern and temperate zones, where the environ
mental conditions are more severe. For example, in coniferous
forests, the number of species can be easily counted on the fingers
of one’s hand. Nevertheless, tens of different species of small arthro
pods and worms live in the forest soil.
Ecosystems constantly change and develop. Biological commu
nities transform into different ones, with a different composition of
species. This development process of ecosystems is called ecological
succession. A telling example of ecological succession is a field
overgrown with weeds and grass, transforming into a meadow; then,
the meadow is overgrown with shrubs; and, finally, the shrubbery
transforms into a forest (Figure 4.12).
succession in terrestrial
ecosystems
A field becomes over‑
grown and transforms
into a spruce forest
within a period of ap‑
proximately 80‑100 years.
Several stages can be
distinguished in this pro‑
cess. During each stage,
there is a distinctive bio‑
logical community with
Field Meadow Shrubbery Low deciduous forest Spruce forest
a specific composition of
Time period
plant and animal species.
Ecological successions can be of different durations: from

relatively short-term to very long. There can be short micro-
successions that run for about a few weeks. In contrast, a gradual
overgrowing of a lake and its transformation into a swamp may
take thousands of years (Figure 4.13). The remains of aquatic plants
and animals gradually settle on the lake’s bottom; consequently, it

becomes shallower and shallower. Overgrowing also takes place
from the lake’s shores; consequently, the open water area becomes
smaller and smaller – until it disappears completely.

succession in an aquatic
environment
The main characteristic feature of ecological succession is the

changing composition of species in an ecosystem. The total bio
mass of living plants and animals and its productivity within the
ecosystem change with that. Parallel to that, the mass and product
ivity of organic substances produced in the ecosystem also change.
Thus, another feature of ecological succession is changing amount of
biomass produced within a specific unit of time. There are two main
types of succession: primary and secondary. In the case of primary
succession, the development process of an ecosystem starts on
bare rocks, for example, on volcanic lava, in a sand dune or gravel
pit. Micro-organisms, algae, lichen and moss appear first. When
these organisms die off, organic substances gradually accumulate,
and the soil is formed. After that, plant and animal species start
to propagate, successively replacing one another along with the
development of the ecosystem.
In the case of secondary succession, an ecosystem starts to
develop following the impact of some forceful external factor, for
example, forest fire, hurricane, deforestation, ploughing the soil
and the like. In this case, succession takes place on pre-existing soil

and with more or less developed or reduced biological community.
In accordance with the theory of succession, an ecosystem in the
process of development works its way towards a definite final goal –
an ecological climax. Once the climax is reached, the ecosystem
does not develop any further.
Humans also are part and parcel of an ecosystem – one of the
species of living organisms. However, humans surpass any other
organisms in their ability to influence ecosystems most, to use the
biological production of these ecosystems, to change the composition
of species as they consider necessary. Needless to say, to manage the
ecosystems successfully, a good knowledge of their functioning, the
The elements, substances organisation of species within them are required.
and energy of the Earth With their actions, humans are capable of sustaining or
destroying the ecosystems of the planet. Since the destruction of
are in the process of
continuous cycling,
which is described by the biosphere would bring the very existence of human beings to
the cycles of substances an end, humans should be objectively concerned with sustainable
called biogeochemical development of ecosystems. When there is no sufficient knowledge
cycles – because they on some ecosystem, we should act by observing the precautionary
encompass a variety of
principle. In accordance with this principle, if there is a suspicion
chemical conversions
and geological processes, that certain actions could have harmful consequences, the actions in
and living organisms take question are inadmissible. If an interference with the ecosystem does
an active part in these take place, it should be done step by step, carefully assessing the
cycles. The source of consequences of each step before taking the next one.
elements (for example,
oxygen, sulphur, carbon)
usually is the lithosphere.
From there substances 4.2. Cycling of elements and energy on the earth
can make their way into
the atmosphere and
The cycling of substances and elements is maintained by the
hydrosphere through
volcanic eruptions and flow of energy reaching the Earth from the Sun. The flows of energy
weathering of sedimen‑ govern the physical processes (for example, water evaporation and
tary rocks. Substances condensation and atmospheric circulation that creates wind) as well
and elements also as chemical reactions occurring in the environment. The energy of
enter the atmosphere
the Sun makes the development of living organisms possible. Both
from the hydrosphere.
Moreover, the processes chemical elements (for example, nitrogen, magnesium, sulphur)
related to water cycling and substances (for example, water) are subject to biogeochemical
in nature are crucial. cycling. Many elements that participate in the cycling of substances
Living organisms in the constitute the basic building blocks of living organisms. Carbon
biosphere assimilate
and oxygen make up to 80% of the mass of a human being. Other
substances from the
lithosphere, hydrosphere elements are found in trace amounts in the Earth’s crust and in water;
and atmosphere, and still, they are indispensable for sustaining life processes (for example,
when they die, the phosphorus, boron, copper).
substances return to the Thus, both biological and geological processes govern the
environments related cycling of substances and elements, and, essentially, the concept of
with the biosphere.
matter cycling discloses the nature of geological changes, physical
processes and chemical reactions in the environ ment as well as

transformations of biological systems (living organisms). The
cycling of substances in the geological environ ment includes the
processes that began after the Earth was formed. During the Earth’s
formation process, a solid crust was generated, and it was affected
by periodic eruptions of the Earth’s liquid inner, reaching the Earth’s
Figure 4.14. Layers
surface (Figure 4.14) and creating extrusive magmatic rocks. The of sedimentary rocks
composition of these rocks changed during the process of their (Devon, the UK).
erosion (disintegration), making sedimentary rocks. The latter, in Sedimentary rocks
turn, compacted, creating metamorphic rocks (for example, marble have originated from
originated from the metamorphism of limestone). the transformation
of minerals from the
Almost all the minerals on the Earth have originated in
Earth’s solid crust. They
geological processes. The minerals that have formed in the Earth’s moved with water flows
interior or on its surface can remain almost unchanged for a very and were deposited
long time. If the physical and chemical conditions and composition of in waterbodies. The
the environment undergo significant changes after the minerals have different composition
of layers is evidence
formed, their original properties and composition are transformed:
for environmental
they start weathering, new minerals and their aggregates are condition changes
formed, and these new formations are more stable in the new in the atmosphere,
conditions. These transformations of minerals take place constantly. hydrosphere and
There are minerals that change so slowly that these changes are not biosphere.
commensurable with the human lifespan or even with geological
time. In contrast, there also are minerals that are unstable and can
rapidly change under the influence of sunlight, air or moisture.
Weathering and erosion

Accumulation of sedimentary rocks
in the continents and oceans
Come to the
Earth’s surface
SEDIMENTS
Heat and pressure increases
Sediment litification
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY
Come to the
ROCKS ROCKS
Earth’s surface
Heat and pressure

Heat and pressure
Cooling METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
Melting
MAGMA Figure 4.15. Rock cycle

Accordingly, different minerals have quite different roles in the
formation of the Earth’s crust. Some minerals are enduring and
stable, and they have remained intact throughout the environment,
pressure and temperature changes. Others, in contrast, are dynamic,
have repeatedly changed their mineral form and play an active role
in the transformations of the composition and properties of the
Earth’s crust. This process is called the rock cycle (Figure 4.15), and
for stable minerals it can last for billions of years.
4.2.1. Energy flow and the Earth’s climate

The main source of energy on the Earth is the Sun. The key
factors that determine the extent to which the Sun’s energy reaches
the Earth are the following:
distance covered by radiation;
angle at which solar radiation reaches the Earth’s surface;
composition of the atmosphere and the interaction of solar and
cosmic radiation with gases forming the Earth’s atmosphere.
Earth’s energy balance

Different types of radiation reach the Earth: the Sun’s electro
magnetic radiation and the flow of ionised particles (for example,
oxygen or helium atomic nuclei) and elementary particles, as well
as the flow of particles and radiation from outer space (cosmic
radiation). The Earth’s climate is mostly affected by the flow of
electromagnetic radiation. The radiation from the Sun that reaches
the Earth comprises the full spectrum of electromagnetic radiation:
γ‑rays, X‑rays, ultraviolet radiation as well as the visible light,
infrared radiation and radio waves. The energy of electromagnetic
radiation decreases with the increase in wavelength; therefore,
most of the radiation that reaches the Earth has high energy and a
relatively short wavelength.
A considerable part of solar radiation (γ-rays, X-rays and ultra
violet radiation with short wavelength) does not even reach the
Earth’s surface because it is absorbed already in the upper layers of
the atmosphere or is reflected back into outer space. High energy
solar radiation transformations in the Earth’s atmo sphere are
determined by the interaction of γ-rays, X-rays and short-wavelength
ultraviolet radiation with atmospheric gases.
The visible light (wavelength approx. 0.40-0.70 µm) is essential
for sustaining the life of green plants and most animals, as it carries
the energy necessary for photosynthesis and regulates the animal
reproduction times, migration and many other life processes.
Infrared radiation (thermal radiation) has a much lower energy;

nonetheless, it has a vital role in the Earth’s climate formation,
because it warms the lower layers of the atmosphere and the Earth’s
surface.
The intensity of incoming solar radiation is approximately in
equilibrium with the intensity of energy reflected from the Earth’s
surface (Figure 4.16). The flow of energy that reaches the upper
layers of the Earth’s atmosphere has an intensity of ~1370 W/m2.
Most of this energy is reflected back into space or absorbed as a result
of interaction with gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. The intensity of
the flow of energy that finally reaches the upper layer of the tropo
sphere is just 342 W/m2.
342 W/m2 235 W/m2

107 W/m2 Reflected Radiation
solar radiation emitted Infrared
by the Sun radiation
107 W/m2
emitted
236 W/m2
Absorbed into 165 W/m2

Greenhouse
the atmosphere gases
67 W/m2
Reflected from
the Earth’s
surface
324 W/m2
30 W/m2
Back
350 W/m2 radiation
168 W/m2 390 W/m2

324 W/m2
Absorbed Absorbed Figure 4.16. Earth’s

energy balance
Approximately 30% of solar radiation is reflected back into space.

Part of this energy is reflected by cloud cover and small particles in
the atmosphere. 51% of radiation from the Sun is absorbed by the
Earth’s surface, and this energy is spent for evaporation – as infrared
radiation from the Earth and in convection and advection processes.
The theory that the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere can
affect the intensity of energy received from the Sun and the Earth’s
climate has been around for more than 100 years. Solar radiation
warms the Earth’s surface, and then the Earth reradiates this heat
into the atmosphere. Since the temperature of the Earth’s surface is
by far lower than that of the Sun’s surface, the intensity of energy
emitted by the Earth also is much lower and the wavelength of
this energy – much higher than that of solar radiation. The Earth’s

surface mostly emits infrared radiation that can interact with atmo
spheric gases.
Several of these gases can intensively absorb infrared radiation.
These gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), ozone (O3)
and water vapour, as well as nitrogen(I) oxide (N2O) and the gases
that are released into the atmosphere due to human activity –
chlorofluorocarbons (freons).
Carbon dioxide, methane and also water vapour in the atmo
sphere work like greenhouse glass (Figure 4.17). They let solar
radiation through, but hold up the infrared radiation reradiated
from the Earth’s surface. Due to this effect, these gases are called
greenhouse gases. The higher their concentration in the atmosphere,
the more infrared radiation is retained in the Earth’s atmosphere
and, as a consequence, the higher the temperature of the Earth’s
surface. If the Earth’s atmosphere were composed of nitrogen and
oxygen only, i.e. the gases that do not contribute to the greenhouse
effect, the Earth’s average yearly temperature would be only +6 °C
(now it is approx. +15 °C).
Solar radiation
Infrared
radiation
Figure 4.17. Principle of

solar electromagnetic
radiation absorption in
the Earth’s atmosphere
and in a greenhouse
The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius proposed the hypothesis

regarding the role of greenhouse gases – CO2 in particular – in the
Earth’s climate formation as early as 1896. His calculation that
doubling the CO2 concentration in the atmo sphere would cause
a rise of the Earth’s average temperature by 5-6 °C has been fully
confirmed today.
Even the slightest changes in the concentrations of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere cause temperature changes on the Earth,
causing further changes in the size of glaciers and ice shelves and
caps, in the ocean level, patterns of currents, spatial structures of
habitats and climate.

Impact of greenhouse gases on the earth’s climate1
Each of the greenhouse gases (Table 4.3) has a different capacity
to capture solar radiation and reradiate it back to the Earth. The
intensity of radiation is measured in watts per square metre (W/m2),
and the measurement shows the extent to which each of these gases
affects the amount of energy that reaches the Earth’s surface –
thus also the extent to which it affects the climate. If the radiation
intensity value is positive, the gas in question facilitates the rise in
the Earth’s temperature; if this value is negative – it facilitates the
decrease in temperature. The natural greenhouse effect maintains
the temperature which is just right for creating prime conditions for
life on the Earth. Moreover, the greenhouse effect in not unique on
the Earth. Astronomers think that other planets show the signs of
the greenhouse effect as well. For instance, it is deemed that the
temperature on Venus reaches as high as +450 °C largely owing to
the greenhouse effect.
Table 4.3. Variability of the greenhouse gas concentrations in the

atmosphere and its effect on the Earth’s energy balance
Gas concentration in
the atmosphere, parts Lifetime in the
Emission
Greenhouse gas per trillion atmosphere,
per year
years
1998 1750
Carbon dioxide CO2* 365 278 26.4 GT1
Methane CH4** 1745 700 600 Tg 8.4
Nitrogen(I) oxide N2O** 314 270 16.4 Tg N 120
Perfluorethane C2F6 3 0 ~2 Gg 10 000
Freon 11 CFCl3 268 0 45
Freon 23 CHF3 14 0 ~7 Gg 260
* Concentration expressed in parts per million.
** Concentration expressed in parts per billion.
A characteristic feature of many greenhouse gases is their high

stability with respect to the duration until they are chemically
bound or emitted from the atmosphere (Table 4.3). Water vapour
is removed from the atmosphere relatively quickly in the form of
1
Hereinafter the concentration of greenhouse gases is expressed in number of
parts by volume (part-per notation) – correspondingly: ppm – parts per mil-
lion; ppb – parts per billion; ppt – parts per trillion. This concentration notation
shows the amount of substance per air volume. For example, 300 ppm means
that a million of gas molecules in the air contains 300 molecules of the respec-
tive greenhouse gas or that a million air volume units (for example, cubic centi-
metres) contains 300 cm3 of the respective gas.

Peta (P) – 1015 Tera (T) – 1012 Giga (G) – 109
Milli (m) – 10–3 Micro (µ) – 10–6 Nano (n) – 10–9

atmospheric precipitation. Methane oxidises photochemically
into carbon dioxide and water. Carbon dioxide dissolves in water.
Nitrogen(I) oxide (N2O) is particularly stable. Many substances
released into the atmosphere due to human activity – for example,
freons – are exceptionally stable, and they will influence the atmo
spheric processes for a very long time.
Different greenhouse gases can differently affect the Earth’s
climate in view of both their capacity to reflect infrared radiation
and their concentration in the atmo sphere. If we express the
potential effect of CO2 on the Earth’s climate by 1 unit of measure,
the relative potential of other substances that cause greenhouse
effect to influence the Earth’s temperature balance is significantly
higher: for methane (CH4) it would be 11, for nitrogen(I) oxide
(N2O) – 270 and for freon 11 (CF3Cl) – 3 400. Knowing the amounts
of radiation emitted by greenhouse gases, it is possible to forecast
what kind of changes the increase in their concentrations in the
atmosphere will bring about and what their overall influence will be
(Figure 4.18, Table 4.3).
Solar radiation
Solar radiation intensity (W m-2) intensity value
-2 -1 0 1 2 (W m-2)
CO2 1.66 [1.49 – 1.83]

Stable
Figure 4.18. Mean greenhouse N2 O 0.48 [0.43 – 0.53]
gases Halogenated 0.16 [0.14 – 0.18]
global radiation CH4 hydrocarbons 0.34 [0.31 – 0.37]
intensity for the main -0.05 [-0.15 – 0.05]
factors affecting the Ozone Stratosphere Troposphere
0.35 [0.25 – 0.65]
Earth’s climate system. Water vapour in 0.07 [0.02 – 0.12]
The value of solar the stratosphere
radiation intensity Changes in -0.2 [-0.4 – 0.0]
Surface albedo land use 0.1 [0.0 – 0.2]
(radiation amount) Direct
indicates changes influence -0.5 [-0.9 – -0.1]
in reflected energy Aerosols Cloud
albedo -0.7 [-1.8 – -0.3]
that would occur at
changes
the upper limit of the 0.01 [0.003 – 0.03]
troposphere if the
respective component Solar radiation 0.12 [0.06 – 0.30]
were completely Total
eliminated from the human activity 1.6 [0.6 – 2.4]
atmosphere.
Within the last 10 000 years, especially in the last century, the

concentration of the three major greenhouse gases has significantly
increased in the Earth’s atmo sphere. Consequently, the intensity
of solar radiation reflected back to the Earth’s surface has also
increased (Figure 4.19).

CO2 (ppb) CH4 (ppb) N2O (ppb)
Solar radiation intensity (W m-2)

2000 330
400 400 400
350 350 350

1500 0.4
350 300 300 300 300 0.1
1
1800 1900 2000 1800 1900 2000 1800 1900 2000
year year 0.2 year
1000
300 270 0
0 0
500
250
10000 5000 0 10000 5000 0 10000 5000 0
Time period (before 2005)
Figure 4.19. Changes

in greenhouse gas
The biosphere (of both water and dry land) affects the compo
concentrations and the
sition of the atmosphere, assimilating carbon dioxide on the one effect of these changes
hand and releasing oxygen and water vapour on the other hand. on the intensity of
The biosphere plays a major role in the carbon cycle. Although incoming solar radiation
the components of the climate system have different chemical for the period of the last
10 000 years
compositions and physical properties and their effect on the Earth’s
climate formation is different, there is a constant exchange of matter
and energy going on among them. Any changes in any climate
system component – irrespective of whether they are caused by
natural or by human activity – can affect the other components of
the system and result in climate change. Climate change can occur
as a result of both natural processes and human activity. The latter
first of all affects the composition of the atmosphere as well as the
ways of land use.
4.2.2. Carbon cycle

Carbon is the most important element for living organisms.
With an average concentration of 350 mg/kg, carbon is not so
pervading on the Earth; yet, it has an exceptional role in the cycling
of elements. In the carbon cycle (biogeochemical cycle), one carbon
compound is converted into others, and this process occurs in the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. In the litho
sphere, carbon is stored in carbonate sedimentary rocks (limestone –
CaCO3, dolomite – CaMg(CO3)2 and others), and it also forms fossil
fuel sediments (coal, oil, bituminous shale). Furthermore, large
amounts of carbon compounds (carbon dioxide and methane)
are stored in the permafrost zone, and they also form waterbody
sediments and the decomposition products of organic substances in
the soil.
In the hydrosphere, carbon compounds are present in living
organic matter, carbonate ions and hydrogen carbonate ions in the

form of dissolved carbon dioxide and methane. The atmo sphere
contains approximately 760 billion tons of carbon in the form of
such compounds as carbon (II) oxide (CO), carbon (IV) oxide (CO2)
and methane (CH4). Carbon compounds have different cycling
periods at each stage of the cycle: in the atmosphere it is quite
short – 3 years, in the soil – 25 years, in the oceans – 350 years,
while the cycling period of carbonate rocks is more than hundreds
of millions of years.
The living, photosynthetic organisms of the biosphere that conti
nuously absorb CO2 from the atmo sphere, forming organic com
pounds, have vital functions in the carbon cycle. CO2 goes through
a complete cycle in the atmosphere in a relatively short period of
time – approximately four and a half years.
Not all dead organisms and plants decompose immediately. A
small fraction of them reach the deep parts of inland waterbodies,
seas and oceans and form sediments there. The organic material that
decomposes slowly becomes part of the sedimentary rock formation
process and can return into the atmosphere in a natural way (for
example, in the process of erosion).
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere can enter waterbodies and
dissolve there. In water, algae absorb carbon dioxide in much the
same way as terrestrial plants do. In addition, some aquatic life forms
extract calcium and carbon dioxide from water to build calcium
carbonate shells. When these organisms die off, their shells are
deposited on the bottom of waterbodies, forming limestone. In this
way, part of carbon becomes involved in the sedimentary rock cycle,
which will possibly bring it as limestone up to the Earth’s surface
again in the future. After that, the erosion process and weathering
will decompose this limestone, and dissolved it will return into the
ocean, and then, from the ocean, carbon will be released back into
the atmosphere.
The increase in carbon dioxide and methane emissions can
become a factor that will adversely affect the environmental
processes and carbon cycle. Estimates show that the amount of
anthropogenic emissions of CO2 have been increasing on average for
2.5% per year within the last hundred years (Figure 4.19). Shrinking
of forest areas also affects the concentration of CO2 in the air. The
current amount of CO2 anthropogenic emissions is 9.0 × 0.5 GtC per
year; however, depending on the World’s population growth scenario,
it is estimated that these emissions can increase up to 35.8 GtC per
year by 2100.
Human economic activity changes the carbon cycle and
enhances the release of the carbon compounds accumulated in
the litho sphere into the atmo sphere. Fossil fuel combustion and
deforestation make CO2 pass from the litho sphere and biosphere

into the atmosphere much faster than it would occur in a natural
way. At the same time, the return of CO2 from the atmosphere in a
natural way takes place much slower than when it is aided by human
economic activity. In effect, the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere
irreversibly increases.
Methane plays a substantial role in the carbon cycle. Methane
absorbs infrared radiation more effectively than CO2; therefore, its
increase boosts the greenhouse effect, even if methane’s concentra
tion in the atmosphere is lower than that of CO2. Since the 60s of
the last century, when the atmo spheric methane concentration
measurements began, its total concentration has increased for an
average of 1% per year. Part of methane is generated as a result
of rice and livestock farming, especially from cattle. Historically
methane concentration changes, like those of CO2, have been related
to the climate changes during the ice ages and interglacial periods.
However, in recent years research shows that geological processes
can also be a significant source of methane. For example, such
natural phenomenon as mud volcanoes is deemed to originate almost
10% of the atmospheric methane.
10
8
CO2 emissions (GtC/year)
0 Figure 4.20. Changes in

carbon dioxide emission
1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 amounts over the last
Years centuries
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmo sphere has

increased from 280 parts per million in the pre-industrial period to
385 parts per million in 2008 (Figure 4.20). Probing the composition
of the air trapped in the continental glaciers has proved that the
concentration of CO2 today is significantly higher than it had been
during the last 650 000 years (180-300 ppm). Human activity is the
main factor contributing to the increase of CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere and affecting the whole carbon cycle.

Atmosphere 750
CO2
5.5
0.5
Energy production,
121.3 60 Vegetation 610
1.6 motor transport, industry
4000
60
Soils 92
1580 90 Rivers
50 Ocean surface 1020
Marine biota 3 40 100
91.6
6 Coal, oil,
4 Deep ocean carbonate rocks
Dissolved organic
Figure 4.21. Carbon 38 100
carbon <700 6 0.2
cycle.
Amounts stated in PgC, Sediments 150
flows – in PgC/y.
4.2.3. Nitrogen biogeochemical cycle

Nitrogen makes 76% of the atmosphere’s mass, and it is one
of the most important chemical elements in proteins and DNA;
therefore, it is one of the elements necessary for the existence of
living organisms. At the same time, the concentration of nitrogen
compounds in the lithosphere and hydrosphere is quite low. Unlike
oxygen, nitrogen is inert, and most living organisms cannot utilise it
directly, because the bonds between atoms in nitrogen molecules are
very stable. Processes in the nitrogen cycle ensure the bonding of
atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into such compounds that can be utilised
by living organisms.
In the environment, nitrogen compounds are found as
nitrogen(I) oxide (N2O), nitrogen(II) oxide (NO), nitrogen(IV) oxide
(NO2), nitric acid (HNO3), ammonia (NH3) and ammonia salts.
Other nitrogen compounds either form intermediate products in
various reactions, or are unstable and decompose fast. Nitrogen
compounds are interrelated, and they can be converted into one
another (Figure 4.22). Reactions caused by micro-organisms play an
important part in the nitrogen cycle, for these micro-organisms in
the hydrosphere and lithosphere are involved in the conversion of
most nitrogen compounds. In other words, they catalyse the synthesis
of nitrogen compounds necessary for the existence of the biosphere’s
living organisms. It should be noted that only a small part of nitrogen
compounds become involved in the nitrogen cycle, because nitrogen

N2 + O2 2NO
N2 N2O
Precipitation Decomposition products
Assimilation of living organisms
Denitrification
Organic matter
Ammonification
Nitrates (NO3)
Nitrification NH4+ Figure 4.22. Natural
Nitrogen fixing Nitrification processes of nitrogen
bacteria Leaching Nitrites (NO2) compounds in the
environment
reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere, but these reactions require

high energy that is generated only during the lightning discharges or
is found at the top layers of the atmosphere.
Chemical reactions in the atmosphere and the activity of living
organisms ensure nitrogen fixation (its conversion into chemically
reactive and biologically available compounds).
The main process in the nitrogen cycle is its fixation (assimi
lation) – the reactions through which micro-organisms fix the
atmospheric nitrogen, converting it into ammonium. Bacteria and
blue-green algae are able to fix nitrogen. Micro-organisms produce
1-5 kg N/ha, nitrogen fixing bacteria – 100-300 kg N/ha.
In the process of assimilation, nitrogen organic compounds
are produced. They decompose and, in turn, produce ammonia or
ammonium salts (ammonification). The latter are further converted
into nitrates and nitrites (nitrification). Nitrification can also be
considered to be the oxidation of organic and inorganic nitrogen
compounds.
The final stage of the nitrogen cycle is its return to the atmo
sphere by means of the production of N2 (denitrification). This
process takes place in the soil. N2O can also be produced in the
process of denitrification.
Nitrogen(I) oxide (N2O) is naturally found in the atmosphere as
a product of various biological and photochemical transformations.
The anthropogenic emission amounts of N2O are small; therefore,
nitrogen(I) oxide pollution – also taking into account its low
toxicity – is not hazardous to living organisms. This substance does
not have any odour or taste and is chemically inert. N2O enters
into the atmosphere mostly by means of denitrification processes,
when the nitrogen compounds used in agriculture leach into the

soil and waters, where they are reduced back into inert nitrogen
gas. The amount of N2O emissions is 100 million tons per year,
and its overall amount in the atmosphere is 2000 million tons. The
nitrogen cycle completes in 120 years, but the concentration of N2O
in the atmosphere has been increasing by 0.3% annually within
the last hundred of years. Hence N2O is considered one of the main
greenhouse gases.
As with other key chemical elements, nitrogen cycling is graphi
cally represented by its biogeochemical cycle (Figure 4.23).
N2 in the atmosphere
Fixation of N2
in the atmosphere 125
Industrial fixation of N2
Fixation of N2 fossil fuel combustion 125
in the soil 110
Runoff 20
Soils Conversion of nitrogen
compounds: denitrification 100
Fixation of N2 in the hydrosphere 140
Conversion of nitrogen compounds: denitrification 240

Sedimentary rocks
6 0.2 containing nitrogen
Figure 4.23. Nitrogen
biogeochemical cycle
Flows stated in PgC/year.
In 1914, German chemists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch developed

an industrial method for the manufacture of ammonia from atmo
spheric nitrogen, commencing the development of a large-scale
industrial production of agricultural inorganic fertilisers. Today
the total amount of approximately 100 million tons of nitrogen
fertiliser is produced every year, which roughly corresponds to the
amount of nitrogen fixed by micro-organisms (100-200 million tons
per year) (Figure 4.24). Thus, the amount of nitrogen produced by
human activity is already comparable to the amount nitrogen fixed
in the natural processes of the nitrogen biogeochemical cycle, and
it is estimated that the former will exceed the latter in the near
future.
Considering the large production amounts of nitrogen com
pounds, they can adversely affect not only environmental processes
but also human and animal health.

300
Projected N
fixation
250 amount
200
Tg N/year
Natural N Total
150 fixation
amount
Fertilisers
100
50 Agricultural N fixation
Fossil fuel combustion
0 fixation amounts in
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2050 nature and by human
Year activity on a global scale
Nitrogen compounds are among the basic nutrients needed for

plant growth, and they are used in agriculture for soil fertilisation
in order to promote the growth and yield capacity of cultivable
plants. Unfortunately, a significant part of the nitrogen compounds
used for fertilisation leaches into surface waters and groundwaters
and, along with surface runoff – further into the seas and oceans.
Nitrogen compounds also fall out with atmo spheric precipitation
(Figure 4.25). In effect, both water and soil become oversaturated,
causing eutrophication.
1860 1990 2050

5 25 50 100 250 500 750 1000 2000 5000

In present-day Europe, the emission of nitrogen compounds has compound fallout
(mg N /m2/year)
become one of the most hazardous environmental pollution factors. with atmospheric
It is an urgent problem for the Baltic Sea Region countries, where precipitation – changes
the concentration of nitrogen compounds initiates many harmful in the amounts during
processes, including the pollution in the Baltic Sea. Thus, the issues the last centuries and a
related to the flow of nitrogen compounds, their utilisation amounts forecast
and emission reduction become burning issues on the agenda.

4.2.4. Phosphorus biogeochemical cycle
The environmental processes and the quality of the environ
ment depend not only on macro-elements but also on substances
that occur only in very small amounts in nature. Examples of such
substances include phosphorus, many metals and their compounds
and other elements, such as iodine, bromine, arsenic, selenium
and others. Phosphorus is particularly important for sustaining life
processes in living organisms, as it is a component in the genetic
information carrier molecules – deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA), in many proteins as well as in the molecules
responsible for cellular energy transport – adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). The phosphorus cycle
(Figure 4.26) has a pivotal significance because phosphorus is often
a limiting factor for the development of living organisms, i.e. the
amount of phosphorus available for the development of organisms
determines the intensity of their growth.
Vegetation
Terrestrial living Production of phosphate
organisms Agricultural, fertilisers and compounds
industrial,
household utilisation
Soils Runoff
Rivers
Marine living organisms
Sedimentation
Phosphate
sedimentary rocks
Figure 4.26. Phosphorus

biogeochemical cycle
The phosphorus cycle differs from the cycles of other elements

(carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and others) because it does not contain
substances in gas phase as most phosphate compounds are non-
volatile or solid. The amount of phosphorus compounds in the atmo
sphere is small, and they are usually extracted from the lithosphere’s
sedimentary rocks in the form of various apatites (mostly in the
form of calcium phosphates) that have formed in shallow seas tens
of millions years ago. When herbivores consume plants, phosphates

enter the bodies of these animals. With their excrements or decay
after death phosphates are returned to the soil and waters. Part of
phosphorus compounds are bound as stable chemical compounds
in the soil and marine sediments, forming phosphate sedimentary
rocks. The natural cycling of phosphorus compounds is not intense;
therefore, sedimentary rocks that contain phosphorus are con
centrated in just a few regions of the world, and their weathering
takes place slowly.
Phosphorus compounds are predominantly (~90%) used as in
organic fertilisers in agriculture. The estimated global utilisation
of fertilisers is 15 million tons per year. The second major area of
phosphorus compound utilisation is in detergents. Phosphorus com
pounds are added to detergents as water-softeners. Just like after the
decomposition of living organic matter, virtually all areas of use of
phosphorus compounds end up with their runoff into the hydrosphere
after utilisation, intensifying the processes of eutrophication in
waterbodies. In any case, human activity has cardinally changed the
nature of phosphorus flow in its biogeochemical cycle.
References
Begon M., Townsend C., Harper J. L. (2005) Ecology. From Individuals to
Ecosystems. Boston: Blackwell Pub.
Berner E. K., Berner R. A. (1996) Global Environment. Water, Air and
Geochemical Cycles. N.Y.: Prentice Hall.
Botkin D., Keller E. (2000) Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet.
N.Y.: Wiley and Sons.
Enger E. D., Smith B. F. (2006) Environmental Science: A Study of
Interrelationships (10th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
Geochemical Cycles. (1991) Chapter 23 in Inorganic Geochemistry
(ed. Faure G.). N.Y.: Macmillan Pub.
Lovelock J. (2007) The Revenge of Gaia. London: Penguin Books.
Nebel B. J. (1990) Environmental Science: The Way the World Works. N.Y.:
Prentice Hall.
Rydén L. (ed.) (2003) Environmental Science. Uppsala: Baltic University
Press.
Biogeochemical Cycles. Accessible: www.enviroliteracy.org/subcategory.
php/198.html.
Environmental Microbiology. Accessible: www-micro.msb.le.ac.uk/109/
Environmental.html.
Leopold Education Project. Accessible: www.lep.org/.
World Resources Institute. Accessible: http://materials.wri.org/topic_data_
trends.cfm.

5. GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
5.1. Environmental pollution and environment

quality degradation
Life on the Earth is fragile, and every living being can continue Pollutant is any substance
released into the envi‑
to live only in the environmental conditions optimal for its life. ronment as a result of
Such factors as the rise or fall of temperature above or below the human activity or natural
optimum, intensive flow of electromagnetic radiation (ionising processes that has an
radiation) or the action of chemical substances can annihilate adverse impact on living
living organisms and – in a wider context – life itself. Living
organisms. Environmen‑
tal degradation means
organisms can also perish due to depletion of needed nutrients. that the environment
Likewise, the impact of natural hazards and calamities can create becomes unusable for
unfavourable conditions for living organisms. Many times during its designed purposes
the existence of the Earth, the number of species was reduced even or that the development
of living organisms and
by more than half as a result of various disasters. Moreover, living
their communities in the
beings themselves can cause their living environment changes that environment is impeded.
have no less dramatic consequences. Environmental pollution
The past, present and potential global threat of environmental and degradation can be
pollution and degradation can to a great extent be considered one caused by chemical sub‑
stances, physical factors
of the main factors that has an effect on the formation of society’s or the development of
environmental consciousness. undesirable living orga‑
Environmental pollution is quite often associated with chemi nisms (biological factors).
cal pollution, and we will deal with that in a bit more detailed Different substances or
manner below. Pollution of the environ ment by chemical sub factors have different
effects. Any chemical,
stances can be classified depending on the properties and biological or physical
structure of these substances. Environ mental contamination factor is called toxic if
with metals or their compounds (Cu, Pb, Co, Hg and others) and it causes an adverse
toxic trace elements (F, B, As, Se and others) can be marked out biological reaction. All
first. Organic pollutants, such as pesticides, can have a negative toxic substances are
hazardous, but not all
impact on the natural environment. Organic substances can be hazardous substances are
formed as a result of the decomposition of household products, toxic. Toxic substances
pest control with pesticides and herbicides as well as industrial can be either naturally
pollution. The environ mental pollution threat increases if the occurring, or they
can be human-made
organic substances that have been released into the environment
(xenobiotic) – produced
are persistent (Persistent Organic Pollutants – POP), i.e., if they by means of synthesis
remain there for a long period of time (even several decades in the or as by-products in the
soil). Such substances as pesticide DDT, dioxins, polychlorinated process of production of
other substances.
5. GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 75

All kinds of chemical biphenyls and others belong to POPs. More or less chemically inert
compounds are incre‑
compounds in a state of fine particles can also contaminate the
asingly released into the
environment (Figure 5.1). environment. Particles may form dust and aerosols in the air and
To date, there are suspensions in water.
approximately 10 million Factors that cause environmental degradation can be classified
known chemical sub‑ depending on their nature. The quality of the environment can
stances, and a large part
of them do not exist in
deteriorate due to physical factors, for example electromagnetic
the natural environment. radiation, the influence of which can be quite different depending
There are approximately on the wavelength. Short-wavelength electro magnetic radiation
120 000 industrially (γ‑rays) actively affects living organisms, and its sources are
produced chemical radioactive elements or reactions in atomic nuclei. UV radiation,
compounds that
which has longer wavelength, may have a significant effect, for
are widely used and
example, on the human skin or growth of plankton in surface
10 000 substances
produced in the amounts waters. Noise pollution, i.e. high intensity noise in the living or
exceeding 500 kg per working environment, can be classified among physical environ
year. Moreover, the mental pollution factors. Increased amounts of heat (flow of
number of types of energy) released into the environment may have quite a many-
industrially produced
sided negative impact (thermal pollution). For example, the
substances is increasing
from approximately one discharge of industrial cooling waters or warm water from thermal
to three thousand new power plants into the environ ment has adverse consequences,
ones every year. affecting the growth of aquatic organisms. Last but not least, living
organisms can also cause serious environmental pollution. They
can be infectious agents, parasites as well as the living organisms
whose metabolism or decay products are harmful to humans or
other living organisms.
Figure 5.1. Production
amounts of hazardous 250 CMR substances
chemicals in the Chronically toxic substances
European Union Very toxic substances
Member States. 200 Toxic substances
CMR – carcinogenic Hazardous substances
(causing cancer),
Million tons
mutagenic (causing 150

mutation) and
reprotoxic (toxic to
reproduction). The 100
influence of CMR
substances can increase
the risk of formation 50
of malignant tumours
and mutations as well
as cause reproductive 0
system problems, 1995 1997 1999 2001 2002 2005 2004 2008
affecting the offspring EU-15 EU-25

5.2. Global environmental pollution problems
5.2.1. Earth’s ozone layer and the consequences of its

depletion
Ozone (O3) is one of the oxygen molecule forms composed of
three interconnected oxygen atoms. Ozone is a pale blue gas that
has a higher density than air. Ozone is formed when energy – for
example, electromagnetic radiation – splits the oxygen molecules. As
Figure 5.2. Ozone
a chemical substance, ozone is a powerful oxidant. The presence of molecule is composed
ozone in the atmosphere, its formation and disintegration reactions of three interconnected
are vital for the absorption of the UV radiation from the Sun. oxygen atoms
The ozone concentration near the Earth’s surface is ~0.001% by
volume, whereas in the stratosphere its concentration may be even
more than 100 times higher. Nonetheless, the ozone concentration
in the stratosphere is relatively low because the air in this layer of
the atmosphere mostly consists of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%)
and argon (~1%). The ozone layer (its thickness in the atmosphere
under normal conditions is approximately 2.5 mm if only the
dispersed ozone molecules were gathered together) protects the
biosphere from the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation spectrum.
The ozone concentration in the atmosphere mostly depends on the
latitude, season, solar activity and other factors. The ozone layer is
thickest at the height of 25-30 kilometres in equatorial regions and
15‑20 kilometres around the Earth’s poles (Figure 5.3).
40
UV-B
UV-A
UV-C
35
30
25
Altitude (km)
20
Figure 5.3. Variability of
15 the ozone concentration
10 over the Antarctic
29 July 1998 and the absorption
5 8 October 1997
of UV radiation in the
3 October 1998
atmosphere depending
0
0 5 10 15 20 on the UV radiation
Partial pressure of ozone (mPa) wavelength
In the first stage of ozone molecule synthesis, an oxygen molecule

is excited by absorbing the UV radiation energy (Figure 5.4). The
excited oxygen molecule splits into two oxygen atoms that are free

to react with another oxygen molecule to form an ozone molecule.
The ozone concentration In this way, UV radiation is absorbed during the ozone molecule
in the atmosphere is formation process, and the new ozone molecule also is capable
expressed in gas concen‑
of absorbing it. At the same time, UV radiation that has a shorter
tration units of measure
(mg/m3, µg/m3) or in a wavelength (and higher energy) splits the ozone molecules. As a
special unit of measure consequence, the concentration of ozone is decreasing in the upper
called the Dobson unit layers of the atmosphere. Thus, the Earth’s ozone layer is a region
(DU) in honour of Gordon in the atmosphere where the reactions of ozone molecule synthesis
Miller Bourne Dobson,
and destruction are in a state of a certain equilibrium (destruction
who was one of the first
scientists studying the reactions prevail in other parts of the atmosphere), whereas higher
atmospheric ozone. One concentrations of ozone are present in the stratosphere.
Dobson unit is a 0.01 mm
thick ozone layer under
standard temperature and UV
atmospheric pressure.
O3
O O2
O2 +
O O2
Figure 5.4. Ozone
molecule formation
induced by UV radiation O3
Several factors affect the concentration of ozone: the movement

of air masses, natural, seasonal and other processes. The anthro
pogenic contamination of the atmosphere has a crucial role in the
ozone layer destruction processes. The atmospheric contamination
with halogenated hydrocarbons, produced in relatively large
amounts, is considered to be particularly hazardous to the environ
ment (Table).
Table. Main substances that affect the ozone layer
Lifetime in the
Substance Usage
atmosphere, years
Freons, CFC – 11 CFCl3 In aerosols, refrigerant 55
CFC – 12 CF2Cl2 In aerosols, solvent 116
CFC – 22 CHFCl2 Solvent 400
Chloroform, CHCl3 Solvent, reagent 0.7
Carbon tetrachloride, CCl4 Solvent, in firefighting 4.7
Nitrogen oxides, NOx In industry, energy A couple of days
Methane, CH4 In agriculture, industry 10.5

Halogenated hydrocarbon molecules are composed of carbon,
hydrogen and halogen (F, Cl, Br, I) atoms. Those halogenated
hydrocarbons whose molecules contain one or two carbon atoms and
have their remaining hydrogen atoms replaced by fluorine or chlorine
atoms are called freons. Considering the wide range of industrial
use of these substances, their production in industrial quantities
began in the 30s of the 20th century. Initially freons were used as a
replacement for such hazardous and toxic gases as ammonia (NH3)
and sulphur dioxide (SO2) in refrigerators. Since freons had low
toxicity and were non-combustible, they were found useful in a wide
range of other applications as well. At the end of the 1980s, the total
production amount of freons reached 1.2 million tons per year.
Freons are emitted into the environment as a result of specific
features of technological processes (e.g., refrigeration systems), after
use of products (e.g., aerosols) and in technological processes (e.g.,
microchip cleaning). The lifetime of freons in the atmo sphere is
from 29 to 500 years. After entering the stratosphere, freons interact
with UV radiation, releasing chlorine or fluorine atoms that can
subsequently become involved in ozone degradation reactions.
The reduction of the ozone concentration (the ozone layer
depletion) was observed for the first time over the Antarctic, where
natural processes initiate an especially intensive breakdown of ozone
molecules (Figure 5.5). At the beginning of the 1970s, the size of the
Antarctic ozone hole was a few million square kilometres, while now
it exceeds 25 million square kilometres.
Figure 5.5. Profile of

the ozone hole over
the Antarctic (ozone
concentration in
<150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 >500
Dobson units)

The decrease in the ozone concentration in the stratosphere
increases the intensity of UV radiation reaching the Earth’s surface.
UV radiation is divided into three radiation ranges with different
wavelengths according to its biological effect: UV-C (wavelength
λ <290 nm); UV-B λ= 290-320 nm) and UV-A (λ= 320-400 nm).
UV-A and UV-B radiation reaches the Earth’s surface. Window glass,
for example, absorbs most of this radiation. UV-C and a significant
part of UV-B radiation is absorbed in the stratosphere.
The depletion of the ozone layer by 5% will substantially
increase the intensity of UV-B and UV-C radiation reaching the
Earth’s surface. It is estimated that the mortality rate from malignant
skin diseases will increase by 20%. Increased UV radiation can
affect the immune system, vision, cataract may become pervasive.
The intensity of UV radiation may have an effect on the agricultural
production and on the reproduction of living organisms in the World
Ocean, especially plankton. Reduction in the growth of plankton, in
turn, will affect the fish feed base. Furthermore, the impact on the
Earth’s thermal balance may also be considerable.
The depletion of the ozone layer and increase in the intensity
of UV radiation reaching the Earth’s surface have far-reaching
consequences. Diminishing the negative effects of UV radiation has
Several legislative acts
become one of the central objectives of environmental protection
have been adopted with policy. Suntan has for a long time been regarded as a sign of a
the aim to reduce the healthy lifestyle and good health in general. However, today views
destructive effects of pol‑ about the healthfulness of sunbathing have radically changed. The
lution on the ozone layer. production and use of various sunscreen cosmetic products and
The drafting of legislation
sunglasses that protect the skin and the eyes from UV radiation has
pertaining to the ozone
layer protection began in been increasing.
1985. The most important To a considerable extent, the legislation restricting the ozone
international treaty in this layer depletion had laid the foundations for further development
regard is the Montreal of an effective environmental law system. The environmental
Protocol on Substances
legislative acts drafted for the purpose to restrict the use of
That Deplete the Ozone
Layer (a protocol to the substances that destroy the ozone layer provide for various activities
Vienna Convention of carried out on an international level, such as the ozone layer study
1985 for the Protection and monitoring, phasing out the production of these substances,
of the Ozone Layer) compensations to developing countries for the losses incurred due to
designed to restrict the
the high costs of alternative technologies. The implementation of the
production of these
substances. relevant international laws has been successful – the use of ozone-
depleting substances has been significantly reduced (Figure 5.6), and
alternative solutions have been developed in the sectors where the
use of substances with properties analogous to freons is necessary.
There are reasons to believe that the ozone layer recovery has
already begun (this is also confirmed by recent measurements of the
ozone layer), and the concentrations of ozone-degrading substances
in the atmosphere may noticeably decrease in the future.

80 000
Methyl bromide
Freon substitutes with low ODP
Halons
60 000
Consumption, tons
Freons
40 000
20 000
Figure 5.6. Changes in
the production amounts
of ozone-depleting
0 substances in the EU
1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2007 Member States
5.2.2. Global warming

Climate is the statistical summary of weather and meteorological
phenomena and occurrences over a long period of time, ranging
from a few years or decades to thousands of years. Climate is
expressed in averaged long-term atmospheric physical parameter
values characteristic of the Earth as a whole (global climate) or of
a specific territory (a country or region). Like many other issues
relating to climate change, the extent and character of human
influence on climate are still studied and analysed, but, to say the
least, there is no doubt that human activities do influence climate.
There is conclusive evidence that the consequences of human
activities – such as air, water and soil pollution, overpopulation –
also cause climate change. However, it is quite difficult to distinguish
clearly and unambiguously the climate change processes stimulated
by human activities from those that are part of natural development.
A sharp increase in the concentration of various gases (their source
is human activity) in the atmosphere is indicative of the increase in
anthropogenic influence (Figure 5.7). It is evident from the diagram
that the concentrations of gases were considerably lower in the
period when industrial production was not yet intense, while they
have substantially increased during the last centuries.
The concentration of greenhouse gases has increased just within
the last 300 years – beginning with the Industrial Revolution. There
are reasons to believe that the sharp increase in environ mental
pollution since the beginning of industrialisation has been affecting
climate change. Consequently, the current climate change process

could be untimely and unnatural, and it may also lead to many
global climate problems that we already witness today.
400 2000
1800
CO2 (ppm), N2O (ppm) (CO2)
(CH4) 1600
350 (N2O)
CH4 (ppb)
1400
1200
300
the concentrations of 1000
carbon dioxide (CO2),
nitrogen(I) oxide (N2O) 800
and methane (CH4) in
250 600
the atmosphere during 0 500 1000 1500 2000
the last 2000 years Year
The phrase ‘global warming’ denotes not only the increase in the
Earth’s average temperature (Figure 5.8), usually measured as the
average temperature per year, but also substantial changes in the
entire climate system.
7
Deviation from the mean temperature
6
5
4
(1961–1990) (°C)
Prognosis
3
2
1
Figure 5.8. Temperature 0
changes in the Northern
Hemisphere during the -1 Instrumental
Reconstruction of temperature
last 1000 years and a -2 measurement results
prognosis of possible 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100
changes in the future Year
The climate in the Baltic countries has become warmer over

the last years. Winters have become shorter and the snow cover
thinner. The warm period has become longer, and there are fewer
days with low temperatures. The average temperature on the planet
has increased for approximately 0.7 ± 0.2 °C (Figure 5.9). Long
periods of draught occur in summers. Air warming takes place not
only over the continents but also over the seas and oceans. With the

increase in temperature, the snow cover duration is decreasing. Air
warming is related to the reduction of permafrost areas. Mountain
glaciers recede to higher elevations and become smaller and shorter,
affecting the mountain rivers. As glaciers melt and the snow cover
diminishes, the global sea level is rising.
Mean temperature 14,5

0,5
Temperature (°C)
0,0 14,0
-0,5 13,5
Deviations1961–1990 (mm)
Mean sea level

50,0
-50
-100
-150
Northern Hemisphere snow cover area

Area (million km2)
4
40
0
36

-4
32 the air temperature, sea
level and snow cover
1850 1900 1950 2000 area within the last
Year 150 years
Temperature rise in the Northern Hemisphere and particularly

in the Baltic Sea Region does not occur evenly throughout the year;
for the most part, only the winter months have become warmer
(Figure 5.10).
The effects of global warming are not equally intense in all regions
of the Earth. Global warming has affected the rainfall patterns – they
have recently become more irregular, leaving some regions with
almost no precipitation and causing long drought periods, while
elsewhere rainfalls have become much more frequent than before.
In some regions, such as China, long drought periods alternate with
severe floods, seriously impeding the agricultural production.

January
2.5
December February
2 T, °C
1.5
November March
1
0.5
October 0 April
September May
Figure 5.10. Average
monthly temperature August June
rise in Rīga
(1851-2008 I-XII) July
Precipitation is the source of freshwater which flows into the

seas and oceans, changing the freshwater and saltwater proportion.
These changes, in turn, affect the warm ocean current patterns.
The mean sea level rises due to the increased precipitation and
the melting of glaciers, ice cups and ice sheets. As a consequence,
the habitable dry land areas decrease. Global warming and the
related climate change can also cause serious economic problems.
Climate change can seriously impede the agricultural production.
The mean air temperature increases and unstable winters affect
the plant kingdom. Due to the warm weather, many plants start to
bloom earlier in spring and are destroyed by sudden frosts. Although
late frosts have also occurred before the major climate change, in
present-day warm winters the plants break into leaf well before
spring begins. Many countries of the world that base their economies
mostly on agriculture incur losses and may even face an economic
crisis due to climate change. The irregularity of rainfall also causes
serious damage, since both heavy rains and draught badly affect
crops. The developing countries that have not accumulated sufficient
reserves for emergencies may experience even greater problems with
providing living means to their residents.
Variability of climate systems can be projected with the help
of climate models used when it is impossible to study an object or
phenomenon directly.
All the issues related to the Earth’s climate change are
interrelated – when the air temperature changes, the rainfall and
global sea level will also change, and each of the factors will affect
the others. This principle is underlying climate change modelling.
The increase in global warming largely depends on greenhouse
gas concentrations and emission amounts. Therefore, to forecast the

temperature, we need to forecast the gas emission amounts, which,
in turn, depend on the lifestyle of humans. The United Nations
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has developed several
alternative models for the prospective development of society and
climate change:
Scenario A1 (‘zero’ growth). Greenhouse gas concentration in
the atmosphere remains at the level of 2000; there is no eco
nomic and population growth, and climate change is driven
by the climate system inertia only.
Scenario B1 (sustainable development). Natural growth con
tinues until the middle of the 21st century, then the population
declines; the economic development continues.
Scenario A2 (‘business as usual’). This scenario describes a
differentiated world, in which each nation relies on its own
powers and resources; the population is constantly growing;
economic development is regionally-oriented.
Scenario A1B (technological progress). This scenario de
scribes a world of rapid economic development, population
growth and technological progress that allows to reduce the
consumption of material resources.
The climate change future scenarios predict that the air tempe
rature will rise by 1-8 degrees on average, and the warming rate is
projected to be higher than it was in the 20th century (Figure 5.11).
Global warming will definitely affect the average rainfall on the
2020–2029 2090–2099
Figure 5.11. Modelled

mean air temperature
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 (˚C) on the Earth

Earth (Figure 5.12). Along with the increase in temperature, the
moisture concentration and hence rainfall will also increase.
Precipitation will not be regular, and there will be a risk of drought
periods in many regions of the Earth. Rainfall changes can affect the
Earth’s processes, for example, heavy precipitation in polar regions
may affect the stability of glaciers and ocean currents.
Figure 5.12. Projected

rainfall changes
Mean changes in
(a) precipitation
(mm day–1), (b) soil
moisture content (%),
(c) runoff (mm day–1)
and (d) evaporation
(mm day–1). Changes
are annual means for
the A1B scenario for the
period 2080 to 2099
relative to 1980 to 1999.
Soil moisture and runoff
changes are shown
at land points with
valid data from at least
10 models.
The mean air temperature on the Earth is modelled for the

periods between 2020 and 2029 and between 2090 and 2099 vis-
à-vis the temperature in the period between 1980 and 1999,
depending on the potential society development and climate change
scenarios: B1; A1B; A2 (from top to bottom). The figure shows how
the air temperature on the Earth can change depending on the
society development scenario.
Both rainfall changes and global warming affect the global sea
level. It hardly needs saying that, as the Earth’s temperature rises,
the ice sheets of the polar region begin to melt, and it turns out
that the permafrost boundary is not permanent at all. This melting
causes the water level in oceans to rise. The climate change models
project that, until 2100, the water level in seas and oceans will have
risen by 0.09 to 0.88 metres (Figure 5.13).
This figure shows the actual and possible changes in the water
level in seas and oceans in the period between 2000 and 2100.
The mean water temperature in the oceans and seas will also
increase, which means that the melting of glaciers and ice sheets
and the rise of the sea and ocean levels will continue for hundreds of

years after the stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations. With
that, the inhabitable dry land areas will decrease. With the melting of
polar ice, large amounts of freshwater will flow into the oceans and
seas, affecting the marine fauna, ocean currents and thermal balance.
500 Estimation Observations Prognosis
400
300
Sea level changes (mm)
200
100
-100
-200 Figure 5.13. Confirmed

and projected sea level
1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 changes
It is worth noting that climate change cannot be projected

accurately because there is also a possibility that these processes
occur faster, by leaps, causing global cataclysms.
5.3. Regional environmental pollution effects
5.3.1. Sulphur compounds

Today the main source of sulphur compounds in the atmosphere
is human economic activity. In 2006, it created approximately 65%
of the total amount of sulphur compounds in the atmosphere, and
sulphur dioxide (SO2) made up 90% of this amount.
Sulphur is quite a widespread element on the Earth, and
most of the sulphur compounds are found in the lithosphere and
hydrosphere. The emission of sulphur compounds into the environ
ment has considerably increased since the beginning of intensive
human economic activity associated with the industrial revolution.
The main processes in which sulphur compounds are released from
the lithosphere are ore extraction (several metals are found in the
form of sulphide and sulphate ores), fuel (coal, oil, peat) combustion
and fertiliser production. The main source of sulphur dioxide
emission is energy production, i.e. energy production by combusting

different fuels. Both the combustion process and fuel quality can
significantly affect the intensity of pollution. Coal combustion
releases into the atmosphere about 70% of the total anthropogenic
emissions. In the Baltic states, the main sources of sulphur dioxide
are the so-called stationary emission sources or power plants, of
which the Narva Power Plant (Estonia) complex is the leading one.
Although in the European Union countries the total SO2 emission
levels have considerably decreased in recent decades, they are still
comparatively high (Figure 5.14).
8000 Electricity and thermal energy production

Industrial production
Crude oil refining
Emission, thousand tons
6000
4000
2000
the total sulphur dioxide
emissions in the EU
0
Member States 2000 2002 2004 2006
The main anthropogenic source of sulphur dioxide is fossil fuel

combustion (Figure 5.15).
Other sources 18%
Marine transport 2%
Electricity and Private house heating 6%

thermal energy
production
59% Crude oil refining 7%
Figure 5.15. Sulphur
dioxide emissions
according to their
sources in the EU Industrial production 8%
Member States (2007)
Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas with a very strong, pungent

odour. It is easily liquefiable and soluble in water, making a medium-
strong acid – sulphurous acid (H2SO3). Sulphur dioxide oxidises
easily in the atmosphere, reacts with atmospheric water vapour, and

sulphuric acid solution is the end-product of these transformations.
The fallout of compounds formed as a result of sulphur dioxide
oxidation occurs in the forms of rain and snow (wet deposition) as
well as dust (dry deposition).
In high concentrations, sulphur dioxide causes severe respiratory
irritation. Since sulphur dioxide is soluble in water, when breathed
in, it can already be sorbed by the nasal and airway mucosa,
whereas sulphur dioxide penetrates the lungs. This is one of the
factors causing the harmful effects of smog, as it is formed in humid
air and has a high dust content.
When the daily average concentration of sulphur dioxide
reaches 500 µg/m3, it aggravates the condition of people suffering
from asthma and pulmonary diseases, whereas an increase in
hospitalisation rate has been observed at concentrations reaching
750 µg/m3. The sulphur dioxide concentration in the air reached
4000 µg/m3 during the London Great Smog of 1952.
Sulphur dioxide also adversely affects plant growth. High
concentrations of sulphur dioxide can cause necrosis or death of plant
tissue, while chlorosis – pale, yellow or yellow-white leaves because
of insufficient chlorophyll – is characteristic of chronic exposure.
The harmful effects of sulphur dioxide are amplified with increasing
humidity. Sulphur dioxide inhibits the photosynthesis and respiration
process in plants and causes damage to cell membranes. The extent of
plant damage depends on the balance of nutrients and trace elements
and also on the presence of alkaline compounds in the soil in which
the plant is growing. The indirect effects of sulphur dioxide – causing
environ mental acidification because of a drop in the pH level of
precipitation – affect the condition of plants and forests, as well as
aquatic ecosystems and processes taking place there.
5.3.2. Nitrogen compounds Nitrogen makes up

approximately 76% of the
Nitrogen(I) oxide N2O is formed mainly through natural mass of the atmosphere.
processes, and human activity affects its concentration only indirectly. Several nitrogen oxides
This substance is odourless, tasteless and chemically inert. It is used as can also be present in the
atmosphere as air pollu‑
an anaesthetic agent in medicine and as an inert gas in technological tants: nitrogen(I) oxide
processes. No toxic effects of this substance have been found. N2O, nitrogen(II) and (IV)
From the environmental pollution standpoint, special attention oxides NO, NO2 and even
should be given to nitrogen(II) oxide NO and nitrogen(IV) oxide nitric acid HNO3.
NO2. Nitrogen(II) oxide NO is a colourless, odourless and non-
flammable gas. Since it is easily oxidised to NO2 in the air, usually
the combination of these two oxides resulting in NOx or flue gas is
considered. Nitrogen(II) and nitrogen(IV) oxides are highly toxic.
Nitrogen(II) oxide is formed when the gases constituting the atmo
spheric air mutually react at increased temperatures. The rate of this

reaction depends on the temperature, respectively, on the amount of
energy supplied. NO is already forming, for example, when reaching
incandescence. The reaction of NO, N2 and O2 molecules is in a state
of equilibrium at a temperature of 2000 °C. The intensity of the NO
formation process is affected by how soon the created molecule
leaves the reaction zone. In any case, nitrogen oxides are formed in
all processes that take place at high temperatures, e.g. in plasma and
in combustion and explosion processes.
Nitrogen oxides are also formed in the combustion processes
of motor vehicle engines. Intensive release of nitrogen oxides
during the process of electrical welding, especially in confined
premises, is unsafe from the viewpoint of work safety. Emitted in the
stratosphere, nitrogen oxides can participate in the ozone breakdown
cycle. Supersonic aircraft exhaust is a significant source of nitrogen
oxides in the stratosphere.
The oxidation of nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere forms nitric
acid HNO3, fallout of which occurs with precipitation mainly in the
forms of acid and salt. Nitric acid, together with sulphur compounds,
causes the acidification of precipitation and the environment. Since
the transformations of nitrogen oxides and their elimination from
the atmosphere occur quite swiftly, the acidification of precipitation
caused by nitrogen compounds significantly affects the areas near
the contamination sources.
Today the emission of nitrogen oxides as well as another environ
mental pollutant – ammonia – has become, overall, one of the most
hazardous environmental pollution factors in Europe. Although
the emission levels have been notably reduced, they are still high
(Figure 5.16).
The issue concerning the reduction and control of the emission
of nitrogen oxides becomes particularly acute in the Baltic Sea
Region countries, where the concentrations of nitrogen compounds
stimulate many negative processes occurring in the region.
18000 NH3 emissions

16000 NOx emissions
Emission, thousand tons
14000
12000
10000
8000
Figure 5.16. Emission
6000
amounts of nitrogen
oxides and ammonia 4000
and their changes in 2000
the European Union 0
Member States 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006

Motor traffic is considered one of the major sources of nitrogen
oxides which directly affect the air quality in cities (Figure 5.17).
Nitrogen (N2)
Oxygen (O2)
Combustion
Nitrogen oxide (NO)

Oxygen (O2)
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
UV rays Water vapour Hydrocarbons

(H2O)
Nitrogen oxide (NO) Nitrogen oxide (NO) Peroxyacyl nitrates

and and
Oxygen atom (O) Nitric acid (HNO3)
Oxygen (O2)
Figure 5.17. Role of
nitrogen oxides emitted
Ozone (O3) Acid rain
with motor vehicle
Volatile engine exhaust in the
hydrocarbons
reactions of formation
of smog, acid rain and
Various pollutants
ozone
5.3.3. Dust and aerosols

Atmospheric air contains particles of every sort, size and com
position. Their sizes may vary from micron to millimetric parts. The
finer particles (size <10 µm) are called aerosols, whereas the coarser
are called dust. Liquid micro-droplets (haze) are also counted
as aerosols. The main sources of dust and aerosol formation are
various natural processes – soil and its constituent mineral particles
entering the atmosphere with wind, dust storms (Figure 5.18),
volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and evaporation from the sea and
ocean surfaces (forming sea salt aerosols). Admittedly, today human
activity causes the discharge of many aerosols and dust into the
air. The main anthropogenic sources are such processes as the
generation of energy, the production of building materials, mining,
agriculture, air transport and others.

Figure 5.18. Sand storm
in the Sahara
Aerosols can be formed and the composition of particles in the

air can vary as a consequence of different chemical reactions. Sulphur
and nitrogen oxides play a considerable role in these processes.
Since the airborne solid particles form the condensation centres for
water vapour, all these reactions take place in the atmosphere in the
presence of water. Acid rain formation is a typical example.
As aerosols and dust particles have a relatively large surface, they
can sorb atmospheric gases, chemicals, micro-organisms and water
vapour, and this sorption process determines the rather complex
composition of aerosols.
Atmospheric aerosols and dust can significantly affect the Earth’s
climate, as evidenced by long-term climate change analysis and the
increasing effect of dust from volcanic eruptions on the climate.
An important group of aerosols are those of organic composition.
Their source can be both natural processes (plants, forest fires,
organic matter decay) and anthropogenic processes. The presence
of metal compounds (Pb, Hg, Cu, Ni, Be), radioactive isotopes and
organic substances in the composition of aerosols can particularly
adversely affect the human health. The exposure to aerosols is
most hazardous in case of inhaling such particles that are retained
in the lungs (coarser dust particles are captured in the nasal cavity
and upper airways, whereas finer particles can be exhaled). The
aerosols containing such particles are called respirable aerosols.
Their particle sizes are often smaller than 2.5 µm. These aerosols
are designated PM2.5 (PM stands for Particulate Matter). The effects
of these aerosols can be as follows:
1) the substances adsorbed on the surfaces of aerosol particles may
desorb and enter the circulatory and lymphatic systems. Such

an effect is typical of various combustion products. Combustion
product aerosols contain carbon, and on the surface of these
aerosols, usually there is quite a high concentration of different
organic substances originated from incomplete combustion or
in the process of thermosynthesis;
2) ultrafine particles, such as asbestos fibres, can penetrate the
blood or lymphatic system from the lungs;
3) aerosol particles can remain in the lungs and calcify,
causing constant irritation. The aerosol effect of this type is
characteristic of occupational diseases – asbestosis and silicosis,
caused by inhaling the air polluted with mineral particles;
4) micro-organisms, bacteria or fungi residing on the aerosol and
dust particles may cause allergic reactions as well as illness.
The dust of pollen, wood, flour and other organic substances can
be considered a special group of aerosols. Since these substances are
organic, their composition differs significantly from the traditional
dust composition; yet, these aerosols can cause allergies.
Since the effects of aerosols on humans, animals, plants
and buildings can be detrimental, and aerosols and dust can
be considered, by their mass, the largest group of atmo spheric
pollutants, it is crucial to limit their emission in the main sectors
responsible for this kind of pollution, namely the production and
energy industry.
5.4. Indoor air pollutants

Air pollution is usually associated with the quality of outdoor
urban air. However, the health of humans may be much more
affected by air pollution in their living environment – dwelling and
working premises (Figure 5.19).
6 Diseases caused as a result of

indoor air pollution,
Health risk factor, %
5 per cent of the total

Diseases caused as a result of
4 outdoor air pollution,
per cent of the total
3
2 Figure 5.19. Relative

impact of indoor and
1 outdoor air pollution
on the human health in
0 different regions of the
India Africa China Asia Latin Industrial
America countries world

There are several factors that determine indoor air pollution.
First, there is the air pollution in human living environment caused
by the external air inflow. An example of such a situation is an
excessive concentration of lead and polyaromatic hydrocarbons in
dwelling premises near motorways. Second, different local sources –
such as kitchens, stoves, furniture, polymer materials, painted
surfaces, animals – may also cause serious indoor air pollution.
Another factor that affects the indoor air quality is the pro
duc tion of new materials and substances. In this way, increased
quantities of new substances are brought into the human living en
vironment, contaminating it. For example, new insulation materials,
cleaning agents, cosmetic products, solvents, plant protection pro
ducts expose humans to the substances whose toxic properties have
been proved. Pollution of human living environment can cause a
variety of adverse effects, including instant death. Quite often people
die from poisoning with carbon monoxide emitted from stoves,
fireplaces and gas heaters. Even in developed countries indoor
pollution may be fatal, as evidenced by the deaths from legionellosis.
However, long-term effects of living environment pollution on
the human health are considerably more common. These effects
can manifest themselves after longer periods of time, even decades;
hence, it is difficult to prove them using today’s research methods
(such as epidemiological study results). Such effects are characteristic
of such substances as radon, asbestos, formaldehyde and others.
Moreover, today the air pollution in dwelling premises is considered
one of the main causes of certain illnesses, for example, lung cancer.
Formaldehyde
Benzol
Figure 5.20. Comparison
Dust
of typical concentrations
of indoor ( ) and Nitrogen oxides
urban environment Sulphur dioxide
( ) air pollutants and Carbon oxide
the concentration Carbon dioxide
intervals in the indoor Concentration (µg/m3)
air ( ) 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107
Air environmental pollution can be caused by both organic

and inorganic substances as well as micro-organisms. Legionnaires’
disease – a more severe form of the illness known as legionellosis – is
a typical illness caused by the living environment air pollution with
micro-organisms, in this particular case – by the bacteria Legionella
pneumophila, which is one of more than 20 similar bacteria that
cause legionellosis.

Outbreaks of legionellosis have occurred in 1981, 1985, 1988,
1992 in the USA as well as other countries, and, having regard to
the high fatality rate from this disease, it has been studied quite
extensively. Legionellosis is a lung disease caused by environ
mental pollution (it does not spread from person to person) with the
bacteria. These bacteria thrive in water, particularly in closed water
circulation systems, ponds, also in air conditioning systems, and they
can be inhaled in the form of aerosols when water is disseminated,
for example, by showers, garden sprinklers, humidifiers and other
equipment. As aerosols bacteria can be transmitted to relatively
long distances. To prevent legionellosis, it is important to set up and
operate water circulation systems properly. Practically, it means Since people in deve‑
preventing the reproduction and growth possibilities for bacteria. loped countries spend
indoors approximately
Allergic alveolitis can also be caused by micro-organisms in the 70% of their time,
air. Alveolitis in its acute form begins six to eight hours after exposure, the indoor air quality
and it has the symptoms of an acute respiratory illness, such as fever, should be given special
shortness of breath, cough and muscle pain. The sickness may last just attention. The living
a few days if exposure to the provoking antigen ceases. The chronic environment air pollution
with asbestos has been
form of the disease is more common in the presence of a constant low- widely studied, proving
level pollution source, for example, domestic animals. This disease its adverse effects on the
is caused by the fungi, which, for that matter, also cause an allergic human health. However,
reaction to hay, especially if it is mouldy. The same micro-organisms the artificially produced
can also thrive in air-conditioning and ventilation systems. fibrous materials (glass
wool, glass fibre, rock
The presence of fungi, bacteria and other micro-organisms in the
wool), especially when
indoor air can also cause such diseases as asthma, allergic rhinitis they have deteriorated,
and the sick building syndrome. The latter has a number of different may cause similar pollu‑
symptoms that people may experience while they are living or working tion. Air contamination
at particular premises and that cease when they leave these premises. in living rooms with the
chemicals typical of out‑
Typical symptoms of this syndrome are irritated and watering eyes,
door air pollution – such
running nose, headache and sometimes asthma. Air conditioning and as sulphur oxides, heavy
humidification systems can also cause infectious diseases. metals, aerosols – also is a
Air pollution with asbestos typically occurs only in the human matter of great concern.
working and living environment. Asbestos is a generic term for
fibrous silicate minerals. The environment can be contaminated
by using asbestos cement, asbestos fabrics and asbestos as a heat
insulation material. The hazardous effects of exposure to asbestos
are caused by its mechanical action on the living tissue with which
it comes into contact. In the case of inhaling the air contaminated
with asbestos, a relatively large part of its fine fibres is lodged in the
lungs. Prolonged exposure to asbestos dust may cause asbestosis – a
pulmonary fibrosis caused by asbestos inhalation, associated with
pleural calcification and a possibility of developing into lung cancer.
Asbestosis has a very long latency period – 14 to 35 years.
Another pollutant affecting, first of all, indoors and working
environment is radioactive radon (Rn). Radon is a colourless noble

gas, denser than air, formed naturally as an intermediary product in
the decay process of such radioactive elements as uranium (238U) or
thorium (232Th). Condensed radon has a blue glow. As gas radon is
an inert substance, which is not retained in the human body. Radon
is hazardous due to the action of atoms separated in its breakdown
process while the gas is in the lungs. Radon decay products are
reactive metals that form oxides and other compounds that are
deposited in the human body. Since these compounds are unstable
and disintegrate further, in this way the human body becomes
exposed to internal ionising radiation. In most cases, the effect of
this radiation is the development of malignant tumours (primarily
lung cancer). Swedish scientists estimate that in Sweden up to 25%
of death occurrences from lung cancer are caused by radon. Indoor
radon contamination is a typical human living environment pollution
problem, because high concentrations of radon can occur only in
confined spaces with limited air circulation. Up to 80% of radon
emission comes from soil and the rock weathering process. Since
radon as gas is very penetrating, it enters into the human living
environment through cracks and openings in building foundations.
Drinking water can also be a major source of radon.
In conclusion, considering the substantial effect of indoor air
quality on the human health, the range of issues associated with air
pollution in human living environment deserves special attention.
References
Baird C., Cann M. (2005) Environmental Chemistry. N.Y.: W. H. Freement
and Company.
Berner E. K., Berner R. A. (1996) Global Environment: Water, Air and
Geochemical Cycles. N.Y.: Prentice-Hall.
Botkin D., Keller E. (2000) Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet.
N. Y.: John Wiley and Sons.
Jacobson M. Z. (2002) Atmospheric Pollution: History, Science and
Regulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O’Hare G., Sweeney J., Wilby R. (2005) Weather, Climate and Climate
Change. London: Pearson Education.
Air Quality in Europe. Accessible: www.airqualitynow.eu/.
Air Quality in the EU. Accessible: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/
index_en.htm.
European Environment Agency. Accessible: www.eea.eu.int.
European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme. Accessible: www.emep.int.
Indoor and Outdoor Air Pollution. Accessible: www.lbl.gov/Education/ELSI/
pollution-main.html.
Ozone Internet Resources. Accessible: www.ciesin.org/TG/OZ/oz-net.html.
United Nations Environment Programme. Accessible: www.unep.org/themes/
ozone/.
US EPA. Accessible: http://www.epa.gov/ozone/strathome.html.
World Health Organisation. Accessible: www.who.int/topics/en.
World Health Organisation. Accessible: www.who.int.

6. ACTION OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES
IN THE ENVIRONMENT –
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ECOTOXICOLOGY
6.1. Concept of ecotoxicology

The existence and development of humankind has become depen
dent on the quantity of chemical substances that are used in various
production processes and households. Substances essential for every
one are polymers, plant protection agents and pharmaceuticals. They
are used in clothing manufacture, construction, agriculture, house
hold, and their use has made it possible to improve the human life
quality and to extend the lifespan significantly. We can argue that
the production of any chemical substance is associated with both the
benefits from its use and the risk that may be caused by its adverse
properties. Human health can be affected not only by the use of che
micals but also by various physical factors, such as electromagne
tic radiation, noise and heat. The electromagnetic radiation of high
energy and short wavelength (γ-radiation) can destroy the structure
of cells, influence the biomolecules which determine reactions taking
place in the body. Therefore, exposure to high doses of this radiation
is lethal to humans. Electromagnetic radiation of longer wavelengths
(200-400 nm) (ultraviolet radiation) can cause skin pigmentation
(tanning), but lasting exposure to this radiation can promote skin Figure 6.1. Laboratory
animals are a common
cancer. Another physical factor of environmental pollution – noise –
test object to evaluate
can cause discomfort, earache or hearing impairment; prolonged toxicity of chemical
exposure can affect a person’s mental health. Living organisms (bio substances
logical environmental pollution) can also affect human health and
ecosystems.
Consequently, an increasingly urgent need arises to assess the
effects of substances and different factors on people who produce and
use them as well as other living organisms and their communities –
ecosystems, and to forecast their content in the natural environment
in the future and to estimate their concentrations.
6. Action of toxic substances in the environment – basic concepts of ecotoxicology 97

6.2. Effects of toxic substances on living
The most important
phases of substances’ organisms
circulation once they
enter the organism are: The effect of substances on a living organism depends on their
absorption; transformation once they have entered the organism. The behaviour
distribution of
substances;
of chemical substances in ecosystems is influenced by migration of the
biotransformation substances in the soil, surface water, air and transfer in food chains.
(metabolism); The toxic effect of substances can manifest itself after the sub
excretion. stances have come into the contact with an organism. The most likely
way to ingest the toxic substances is with water or food through the
Absorption, distribution, digestive tract. However, the effect of substances that can be taken
biotransformation and by inhalation or through the skin is also important. When inhaled,
excretion are intercon‑
nected processes.
depending on their properties, the toxic substances enter the lungs
and desorb from their surface (human’s lung surface is 50-100 m2),
directly entering the circulatory system. In toxicology, the process,
The probability of whereby a substance enters the organism is called absorption. For
substance’s absorption is example, ingested or inhaled substances are considered to be outside
influenced by:
the organism until they pass through cells in respiratory organs or
the mode of intake of
the substance; gastrointestinal tract. Toxic impact on the living organism is exhibited
concentration of only by absorbed substances, although a locally toxic effect, which
substance; can manifest itself, for example, as irritation, may take place before
physical and chemical absorption of the substance.
properties of the
Concentration of the substance in organism and the intake de
substance.
pends on the mode of consumption. In some cases, great amounts of
substances cannot be absorbed, while in other cases even negligible
amounts of a substance can be absorbed easily. For example, the
intake of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) through the skin
is insignificant, however, even small amounts of DDT are effectively
absorbed in gastrointestinal tract. When the substance enters an
organism, it crosses various barriers – cell membranes, which must be
penetrated both to enter the cell and to arrive at the next cell. Thereby
only the substances which can effectively cross the cell membranes
can be considered as toxic. The cell’s metabolism processes proceed
through particular segments in its membrane, which consists from
proteins (Figure 6.2).
An important stage of toxic substances’ intake is their transport
through the membranes of cells. A special transport mechanism of
substances is endocytosis. Through this mechanism, macromolecular
substances and large particles can enter a cell. Endocytosis means
that the substance is encompassed by a fragment of cell’s membrane
(Figure 6.3). The encircled substance and the part of membrane
subsequently separate from the membrane and gets inside of the cell
where, for example, it may be destroyed. Endocytosis is a substantial
process in case of lung and liver cells. This way, for instance,
asbestos particles are absorbed into the lung cells.

Carbohydrates
Channel
proteins
Cholesterol
Proteins
Figure 6.2. The structure

Cytoskeleton Lipid biolayer of cell’s membrane.
Membrane
Figure 6.3. Entry of

substances into the cell
in case of endocytosis.
An important way of substance intake is through gastrointestinal

tract. The environ mental conditions change along the length of
gastrointestinal tract rather significantly, first of all, the pH reaction.
In the oral cavity the environ mental reaction usually is close to
neutral, in stomach it is pH ~2, but in intestinal canal it can be
pH ~6. The large surface of intestinal canal and its connectedness
with circulatory system ensures assimilation of substances in this
segment of gastrointestinal system. The intake of toxic substances
can also take place through skin, trachea, lungs, or, in case of aquatic
animals, through the gills. In undamaged skin the main barrier to
substance’s entry into organism is epidermis. Since epidermis and
other upper layers of skin are formed by lipophilic compounds, in

most cases only lipophilic substances can diffuse through the skin.
Water-repellent insecticides, for example, parathion can diffuse
through skin and it has been proved that they may cause poisoning
of people working with these substances. Even small molecules, for
example, hydrazine may cause poisoning when taken through the
skin. Ingestion of substances through lungs is particularly important
to terrestrial animals, as it is the main pathway for the impact of
atmospheric toxicants in form of gas or aerosol. The surface of human
lungs is as large as 50-100 m2 and an intensive gas exchange takes
place there. At the same time, the barrier between the circulatory
system and the air in alveoli can be only a few layers of cells.
Therefore it can be considered that the absorption of substances
through inhaling is fast and effective. Gases that dissolve well in the
water, as a rule, sorb in the upper part of respiratory tract, interacting
with water in the mucous membranes. The substances that dissolve
in lipids, in gaseous (vapour) form (for example, chloroform) or small
molecules (for example, carbon monoxide) in most cases reach alveoli,
where they desorb and directly enter blood. Sorption of aerosol
particles depends on their dimensions. If coarser aerosols (<20 μm)
mostly are detained in the upper part of respiratory tract, the
smaller aerosols (>10 μm) can penetrate the alveoli and from there
they are eliminated very slowly. The aerosol particles whose size is
less than 1 μm can be assimilated as a result of endocytosis, and
be detained in respiratory system for a long time. Especially small
aerosol particles can get directly in circulatory system. It has been
proven that uranium dioxide particles (<3 μm) or lead aerosols after
inhalation can enter the circulatory system.
When substances enter After the substances have adsorbed, they enter into the general
the organism, a number
circulation system of a bodys. After the absorption of substances,
of different reactions
take place with them, their distribution in the organism takes place. After crossing the
which generally are «barriers» of the organism (skin, lungs or gastrointestinal tract) the
defined as metabolism, substances enter the intercellular fluid, which encompasses the cells
which consists of two and comprises about 15% of the total body weight. Other body fluids
parts: the catabolism and
are the cytoplasm, representing about 40%, and blood plasma –
anabolism.
about 8% of the weight. From the intercellular fluid the substances
Anabolism (assimila‑ can enter the tissues, blood capillaries and the circulatory system,
tion) – formation of as well as the lymphatic system. Substances, which enter the circu
new substances from la
tory system, are quickly dispersed in the organism, unlike the
low molecular weight lymphatic system, in which the speed of movement is significantly
compounds.
slower.
Catabolism (dissimila‑ Metabolism (metabolic) products are called metabolites. Cata
tion) – degradation of bolism is the splitting of larger molecules, mainly as a result of
organic substances and hydrolysis and oxidation reactions, through the release and accumu
the release of energy lation of energy. Anabolism is the synthesis of molecules specific
to organism from low molecular weight fragments, and during this

process the energy is being used. The degradation processes of
xenobiotics are mainly associated with catabolic processes. At the
same time the degradation of xenobiotics takes place according to the
same principles as the metabolism of nutrients and other naturally
consumed substances. The transformations of toxic substances
can lead to formation of metabolites both with a lower toxicity
(detoxification) and a higher toxicity (bioactivation).
As a result of the metabolic transformation the substances with
a wide variety of origins, properties and structure are modified so
that they can be eliminated or accumulated. The discharge of the
toxic substances from the body affects the nature of their effect,
since, if the excretion takes place quickly, even at the high toxicity of
substance the hazard of exposure can be significantly reduced. The
substance excretion speed from the body is described as either the
elimination half-life time τ1/2. Substance elimination half-life from
the body is the time at which half of the substance amount absorbed
by the organism is being excreted from it.
An interesting feature of the toxic substances’ detoxification
system is that, if it is exposed to an influence of a small amount
of toxic substance over a long period, the system can be induced,
respectively – its ability to transform a particular substance may
increase, thereby lowering the overall hazards of that particular Depending on the
toxic substance. However, on the other hand, there is also the nature of the organism’s
possibility that if the system is induced to a non-toxic substance, a
reaction it is possible to
distinguish between four
living organism can become more sensitive to the effects of other types of exposure:
substances. 1. additive effect, in
As a result of metabolism, the toxicity of xenobiotics and adverse which case the total
effects on a living organism usually decrease, but relatively many toxic effect is formed
cases are known when precisely the metabolic transformation of the as the sum of each
substance’s exposure
substances that have entered the organism increases their toxicity. effect («1 + 1 = 2»);
Often, particularly the biological activity of the primary metabolites 2. synergistic effect,
may be higher than that of the initial substance. Transformation in which case the
of many carcinogens (benzo[a]pyrene, aflatoxin, vinyl chloride) effect of the toxic
resulting from the metabolic processes lead to the formation of substances is increased
(«1 + 1 > 2»);
metabolites with a reactivity, which are able to bind to DNA. In 3. potentiation, in which
other words, it is the metabolic processes wherein relatively inert case a non-toxic
molecules turn into their metabolites with a reactivity that cause substance increases
damage to the biomolecules comprising the cells. the toxic substance’s
The metabolism of toxic substances stipulates that the organism effect («1 + 0 > 1»);
4. antagonism, in which
or its tissue sensitivity to the effects of the toxic substance decreases
case the effect of
as a result of exposure to the repeated dose. Such a phenomenon is the combination of
called tolerance. substances is less toxic
The metabolism of the toxic substances significantly affects than the individual
the nature of the organism’s reaction if exposed to more than one effect of each substan‑
ce («1 + 1 < 2»).
substance at the same time.

Toxic substances in the body are localized, depending on
their characteristics. Fat-soluble (lipophilic) substances first of all
accumulate in adipose tissue. Examples of such substances are
polyaromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, phenyl-and
methyl-mercury, DDT. Since these substances usually are also quite
stable, such depositing is particularly dangerous to a living organism.
An important role in binding the toxic substances is played by
proteins, the first to mention here is the blood serum albumin, which
normally binds metabolic products such as fatty acids, bilirubin
and hormones, ensuring their transportation. If a toxic substance
is bound to albumin, it loses its ability to form complexes with
natural metabolites, and this in itself can lead to toxic effects. Of
particular importance is the effect of toxic substances on the nucleic
acids, since it is based on the mutagenic and carcinogenic effects of
substances. Among the known carcinogens which affect the nucleic
acids are such substances as polycyclic hydrocarbons, polycyclic
amines, aminoazobenzene, nitrosamines, aliphatic alkylating agents.
Accumulation of substances in living organisms can take place
directly from air, soil or water, however, a significant proportion
(depend ing on the nature of the substance and the place of the
respective living organism in the food chain) can be taken with food.
When substance is released into the environment, it is subjected to
the impact of various factors, that leads to a possibility of quick and
significant decrease of the substance’s content. However, there are
many substances, whose stability against biological degradation is
high. Among such substances one must mention DDT, all chlorinated
organic compounds, metals, and toxic microelements, organometallic
The sustained high compounds, radioactive elements.
resistance of toxic sub‑ For example, many sea birds that prey on fish are very effective
stances to the influence
bioconcentrators of toxic substances (Figure 6.4). Today, these bird
of various environmental
factors can be explained species therefore are gravely exposed to pollution. Physiologically,
with their bioconcentra‑ it may take the form of bird sterilization and bird eggshell thinning.
tion. Its measure is the For example, the ability of algae Fucus or Laminaria to biocon
bioconcentration factor centrate iodine from sea water allows them to be used for industrial
(BCF). BCF is the ratio
extraction of iodine. Bioconcentration is the process by which the
between the concen‑
tration of a substance organism absorbs the substances necessary for its existence (trace
in the organism and in elements, vitamins, fatty acids) from the environment.
the environment (water, Bioconcentration factor can also be expressed as the ratio
soil). Bioconcentration between the speed of intake of a substance and its elimination speed
ability of a substance is
from the body. In other words, the speed of metabolism or the speed
considered to be low, if
BCF < 500, to be average of specific metabolic processes may greatly influence the character
high, if BCF ≈ 500-1000, of substances’ accumulation. At the same time the bioconcentration
but high if BCF > 1000. phenomenon is typical for substances that are not hydrophobic, in
case if particular systems of organism are capable to assimilate the
BCF = Corganism/Cenvironment
respective element in increased quantities. Particular research has

Concentration, mg/kg
25
0.5
0.04
Figure 6.4.
Bioconcentration of DDT
0.000003 in aquatic food chain
been devoted to the bioconcentration of organochlorine compounds.

At the first trophic level a role of bioconcentrator may be assigned to
phytoplankton and plants, especially if they are either rich in lipids
(nuts, especially peanuts) or carotenoids, terpenes. Of particular
importance is the ability of phytoplankton to concentrate, for
example, organochlorine compounds. Accordingly, in the higher
trophic levels the bioconcentration effect is determined not only
by the consideration that the food base consists of the primary
producers, but also by the fact that, once the living organism
becomes more complex, the organs appear, in which toxicants can
be deposited easier. Of aquatic animals, the molluscs should be
Figure 6.5. Eagles are
mentioned first of all. It should be noted that the fish may ingest especially susceptible in
quite large quantities of toxic substances through the skin directly respect to presence of
from the water. pollutants in their food
An important factor that determines the degree of bio-
concentration is the length of the food chain, which in case of
aquatic living organisms is, on average, longer than for those living
on the land. The DDT transfer and bioconcentration takes place
similarly. Pesticides’ bio-concentration in the terrestrial food chains
is less pronounced.
All these facts prove that pollutants’ dissipation process, as a
result of which they enter the environment, can be considered as
rather conditional. Since pollutants can concentrate at higher stages
of the food chain, which also include the man, it is possible to create
an inverted «pyramid of bioconcentration», by analogy with the
«trophic pyramid».

6.2. Toxicity assesment of substances
The effect of any substance or factor on living organisms
depends on the nature of this effect (toxicity) as well as on the
quantities of substances that enter the body. Most substances are
harmless if the dose affecting the organism is sufficiently low,
whereas even any well-known and widely used domestic substance
in high doses may become hazardous to the human organism. Any
effect on living organisms is dependent not only on the nature of the
exposure, but also the amount of a substance that enters the body.
Figure 6.6. Paracelsus Any substance is harmless if their amount enters body in
1493-1541. mini mal amounts, but, but any in everyday life well-known and
Paracelsus stated that widely used substance in large doses becomes dangerous. The first
the plant or animal this concept demonstrated Paracelsus (Fig. 6.6). His well-known
venoms toxicity
is determined by
statement «All substances are poisons; there is none that is not a
specific chemicals. poison. The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy» is a bsic
He first described the for dose-response relationship.
correlations between The amount of substance that a living organism takes in over a
dose levels and the given period of time is called the dose.
body’s response to them
The assessment of the hazardousness of a substance and risk of
and showed that small
doses of substances can its exposure is based on the correlation between the dose of the sub
be harmless or even stance and the body’s response. The study of this correlation allows to
beneficial, while high evaluate the toxicity of a substance, for the toxic reaction usually de
doses of the poisonous. pends on both the dose of the substance under study and the concentra
tion of the substance in the part of the body affected first. Usually
exposure to a substance is toxic if there is an interaction between the
Several types of doses are compound and a certain receptor in the body. The receptor might be an
distinguished: enzyme whose activity is inhibited. The binding to the receptor can be
contact dose – the both reversible and irreversible; hence, the duration of exposure to the
toxic substance is crucial. Although the concentration of the substance
amount of a substance
taken in from the
environment; in tissue is directly proportional to the dose of the compound, several
absorbed dose – the factors may influence the amount of the substance that actually brings
actual amount of a about the toxic effect. The absorption of the substance, its distribution
substance that enters in the body, metabolic processes and discharge mechanisms can affect
the body;
its concentration when molecules reach the receptor.
total dose – the sum
total of separate doses. In order to assess the body’s reaction to the amount of the sub
stance taken in, other factors and conditions should also be taken into
account. The key factors affecting the action of the substance are the
number of doses, the nature of intake (continuous, in specific doses),
the frequency of intake and the total time of action. Breakdown of
the amount of the substance into separate doses, as a rule, reduces
the toxicity of its action because the substance is transformed or
eliminated from the body as a result of metabolism.
Curves in Figure 6.7. show reactions in the body depending on
the quantity (dose) of the substance taken in.

Death
Permanent damage
Reaction to the substance
Reversible damage
a Figure 6.7. Reactions
in living organisms
Homeostasis
depending on the
quantity of the
substance taken in:
a) the substance is
necessary for the
b
functioning of the body;
0 LD50 Dosage b) the substance is not
necessary for the body
The effect of a substance on a living organism depends on the

properties of the substance, the age and sex of the organism affected
by the substance, the duration of action and recurrence of dose, the
way the substance enters the body and the transformation of the
substance in the environment and the body. For example, the effect
of such a toxic substance as dioxin on different organisms varies
greatly, and the nature of its toxic action depends on the sex of the
organism used for testing purposes.
Table 6.1. Dioxin toxicity for various living organisms
Test organisms LD 50 (µg / kg body weight)

Guinea pig 0.6
Rat (female) 22
Rat (male) 45
Rabbit 115
Dog 30-300
Man (calculated) >100
Hamster 1160
The effects of a substance can vary within quite a broad range in

one substance test group (population) – some individuals may have
Figure 6.8. 2,3,7,8-TCDD
a high resistance against the effects of the substance, whereas this
(dioxin) – One of the
resistance may be low in other individuals. most toxic substances
The understanding of the effects of substances is based on the known to be formed as a
study of the reactions of living organisms in response to changing by-product of a number
doses or concentrations of the substances studied. At the same time, of organic synthesis
processes, burning of
the toxicity of a substance is considered to be one of its properties
organic materials.

determined by its molecular structure (a property similar to the
substance’s molecular weight, volatility or the capacity to adsorb on
solid surfaces). Consequently, the study of correlations between the
toxicity of the substance and its composition can also be used for
toxicity assessment.
The toxic effects are caused by the presence of a substance in
the body. It can be taken in at one time, or its effects may add up.
In the latter case, it may be necessary to assess the doses that can
be taken in over a longer period of time. The simplest criterion of
toxicity evaluation is mortality (lethality) although this indicator
provides little information about the processes that determine the
toxic effects.
One of the most widely used methods for toxicity assessment
consists of the determination of the lethal dose of a toxic substance.
Lethal dose (LD) is the amount of a substance that causes the
organism’s death.
The dose that causes death in a fixed part (usually 50%) of
an animal testing group following the contact with the analysed
substance over a given period (usually 24, 48 or 96 hours) is denoted
as LD50. Lethal dose is expressed in milligrams per kilogram of
live weight (mg/kg). For toxic substances, LD50 is usually less than
15 mg/kg (Table 6.2). The LD50 value may vary depending on the
duration of the action and the nature of the population.
Table 6.2. LD50 value for some substances
LD50
Substance Testing animal
(mg/kg of body mass)
Ethanol Mice 10 000
Sodium chloride Mice 4000
Morphine sulphate Rats 900
Acute toxicity can be Phenobarbital Rats 150
defined as the total
negative effect caused by DDT Rats 100
a toxic substance taken in Strychnine sulphate Rats 2
a single dose. Analogous Nicotine Rats 1
to acute toxicity, chronic
Tetrodotoxin Mice 0.1
toxicity can be defined
as the total negative Dioxin Rats 0.001
effect caused by a toxic Botulinus toxin Rats 0.0001
substance affecting a
living organism over a
longer period of time. The effects of physical or biological factors can be assessed
and studied like the effects of toxic substances, i.e. analysing the
correlations between the doses (action intensity and amount) and
the organism’s responses.

6.3. Effects of pollutants and physical factors Depending on the type
on humans and ecosystems of damage caused to
organisms, the effects of
toxic substances can be
6.3.1. Types of toxic effects categorised as follows:
direct toxic effects:
Although the changes that can be caused by the action of a toxic tissue damage;
substance vary, it is possible to highlight some of the prevailing changes in biochemical
reactions;
forms of toxicity. neurotoxic effects;
The normal functioning of a human body is closely related to immunotoxic effects;
the environment. The prerequisites for life are twofold: a continuous mutagenic effects;
exchange of substances, energy and information between the genotoxic effects;
organism and the environment and the organism’s ability to distance carcinogenic effects;
effects on the
itself from the environment to such an extent that the changes in endocrine regulation
environmental physical and chemical parameters cannot signifi processes.
cantly affect the basic life processes.
Any living organism (including a human being) is an indivisible
unity of cells, tissues and organs.
Regulatory mechanisms provide for the functional unity of
various tissues and organs, and specific defence mechanisms are
responsible for the organism’s relative independence from the effects
of various external environmental factors:
homeostasis – the organism’s ability to maintain the internal
environment and various bodily functions in a stable state in
the changing internal and external environmental conditions.
Homeostasis is regulated by the complex self-regulatory
mechanisms of the organism;
adaptation – the ability of living organisms to adapt to
changing circumstances of existence developed in the evolu
tionary process. The organism’s adaptation processes comprise
various systems of organs, but the regulatory mechanisms of
the nervous and hormonal systems are the most significant.
Although several stages can be distinguished within the
adaptation process, when the environmental conditions drastically
change, bodily function disorders followed by complex adaptation
reactions mostly occur first. The organism is actively looking for
a suitable state to meet the new circumstances. After that (in a
favourable situation), the functions stabilise because the adaptation
has taken place.
If foreign chemical substances enter the body, the adaptation
process reinforces the activity of enzymes – they transform and
destroy the chemical substances.
If the effects of environmental factors exceed the organism’s
adaptive capacity, it is broken down, initiating the exhaustion
phase in which compensatory mechanisms start their action
against the onset and progression of a pathological process. The

effects of adverse environmental factors and pollution depend
mainly on the organism’s health condition, age and sex. Children
and elderly people are much more sensitive to the harmful effects
of pollutants than adults. This also applies to pregnant women
and their unborn children, sick people and people with different
pathological conditions, such as nutritional deficiency diseases and
avitaminosis.
To fight the effects of adverse environmental factors, the body
has developed several defence systems that ensure its ability to resist
these adverse impacts. The skin and mucous membranes, the organs
located on the boundary between the environment and organism
(respiratory and digestive systems, the lymphatic system and urinary
tract) as well as the immune system, mononuclear phagocytic system
and defence reflexes perform the barrier function.
The purpose of immunoprotection is the organism’s defence
against genetically foreign cells and substances. The lymphatic
tissue and organ systems perform the organism’s immunoprotection.
The defence functions of the respiratory system are as follows:
ciliary movement in the bronchial epithelium and excretion of mucus
from the bronchial glands, bronchial muscle contractions, activity of
the pulmonary macrophage system, secretion of immunoglobulins
from the airway mucosa and stability in the pulmonary alveoli
provided by a complex system of self-regulating surfactants.
In the process of evolution, the organism’s defence system has
effectively developed to combat naturally toxic substances and
other adverse factors. However, the environmental pollution also
contaminates the internal environment of the human body. Dust
accumulates in the lungs, metal compounds are deposited in the
bones, soft tissues and organs. Contamination in the human body
initiates changes in the physical and chemical parameters of the
organism’s internal environment. A considerable contamination of
the environment and organism can disturb the functioning of the
organism’s defence system.
If the harmful environ mental conditions are excessively
hazardous or persist for longer periods of time, exceeding the
organism’s adaptability, they become the risk factors for a variety of
pathological conditions, illnesses or even death.
6.3.2. Effects of environmental pollutants and factors on

human beings
Pollutant chemicals and biological factors (living organisms)
might be present in the air, water, soil and food, and they can enter
the body through the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, skin,
eye conjunctiva and placenta. The ways of entry depend on the

aggregative state of substances and physical and chemical properties
of compounds. Whatever the mode of absorption, all chemical
substances enter the bloodstream and, from there, into various
organs and tissues.
Bacteriologically contaminated water is the main cause of
the diseases of the digestive system, skin, eyes and many other.
Approximately 80% of diseases recorded on a global scale and
more than a third of death occurrences in developing countries are
directly related to the use of contaminated water.
The most representative physical pollutants of the environment
are noise, vibration, non-ionising and ionising electro magnetic
radiation.
The action of pollutants mostly affects those organs and systems
that perform the barrier functions on the boundary between the
environ ment and organism, preserving the organism’s internal
environment uncontaminated.
Diseases can develop from the effects of pollutants due to human
susceptibility. Although the pathogenic effect always depends on the
intensity and duration of exposure, persons who are more susceptible
to diseases may fall ill even after a minor contact with a hazardous
factor. Susceptibility depends on the biological factors (age, sex,
heredity, other diseases), lifestyle (dietary regime, smoking, alcohol,
stress), change of the environment if it was different in the previous
place of residence or work.
Differences in susceptibility decrease with increasing exposure –
in extremely hazardous conditions, both more susceptible and less
susceptible persons may become ill. Children and the elderly are
more sensitive to environmental pollutants.
6.3.3. Effects of environmental pollutants on the endocrine

system
The endocrine system is composed of internal secretion glands,
regulating many body functions through the hormones synthesised
in these glands (Figure 6.9). Female organisms produce estrogenic
hormones, whereas male organisms – androgenic hormones. The
endocrine glands of the human body are the thyroid gland, para
thyroid glands, the thymus, gonads, the adrenal gland and pancreas.
The placenta, kidneys, the liver, fat tissue and the endothelium also
have endocrine secretion functions.
Hormones are specific substances that are synthesised in
different tissue cells (endocrine gland cells) and released from
there into the intercellular solution, spreading through (or with)
this solution and regulating target cell functions and processes
throughout the body.

Hypothalamus
Hypophysis
Epiphysis
Parathyroid glands
Thyroid gland
Thymus
Adrenal gland
Ovaries
Prostate
Figure 6.9. Hormone-

producing glands in the
human body
Hormones regulate the body’s development and growth; they

influence behaviour, regulate the reproductive cycle (the menstrual
cycle, onset and progress of pregnancy) and significantly affect the
functioning of the body (the functioning of skeletal, circulatory and
immune systems as well as brain performance). Typical examples of
reproductive hormones are estradiol, estrone and estriol.
There also are many substances whose structure and properties
are similar to those substances that may actively affect the functi
oning of the endocrine system. Such substances may affect orga
nisms in embryonic or foetal development stages as well as the
reproductive system, central nervous system, immune system and
endocrine regulatory processes. A typical characteristic feature of
such substances is that their effects are initiated by low concentra
tions and may become manifest only in future generations. Just as
carcinogenic substances, the substances affecting the endocrine
system do not belong to one particular group of substances; the
effects come about as a result of the action of various structurally
different substances.
The most widely studied group of substances affecting the
endocrine system are environmental estrogens or exoestrogens.

Usually, the intensity of natural reproductive hormone action
Environmental estrogens,
acting on living
is significantly higher than that of environmental estrogen (except organisms,
for diethylstilbestrol and contraceptives). It has been proved that simulate the action of
many structurally different substances have the capacity to affect estrogen synthesised
the endocrine system. Environmental estrogens typically have both in the body. The
synergistic and antagonistic effects. substances affecting
the endocrine
Natural hormones are unstable and disintegrate within a period system are capable
ranging from a few minutes up to several hours after the formation. of producing effects
Unlike naturally occurring substances, environmental estrogens are similar to those caused
persistent and may even accumulate in living tissue. by endogenous
The main difference between the hormones produced in human steroids.
block, eliminate or
or animal organisms and the substances that degrade the endocrine modify the bonding of
system is their origin and possible ways of assimilation. Considering hormones with their
the extensive use of various exoestrogens, their high concentrations receptors, thereby
in the environment have been proven (Table 6.3). The high environ affecting the quantity
mental concentration of substances that degrade the endocrine system of hormones and type
of effect on the cell.
is also attributable to their high persistence as a result of metabolic
Such substances are
transformations and chemical and biological degradation processes. called anti-estrogens or
Many substances that degrade the endocrine system are quite volatile; anti-androgens;
therefore, they may be disseminated with air masses although alter the rate of
usually they are spread by water. Examples of such substances are the production or decay
of naturally formed
pesticide DDT, a substance that is widely used in the production of
hormones;
polymers – bisphenol A, a synthetic estrogen diethylstilbestrol as well affect the structure of
as a variety of substances of a natural origin (Table 6.3). hormone receptors or
their formation in the
Table 6.3. Substances with estrogenic activity and their typical body.
concentrations in the environment
Substance Concentration Environment

Estrone (1.4-76) × 10 g/l Wastewater
–9
Oestradiol (2.7-48) × 10 –9 g/l Wastewater

Nonylphenol (0.15-2.8) × 10 –6 g/l Wastewater
Pthalic acid esters 3.2 × 10 –6 g/l Gull eggs
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 14.1 × 10 –3 g/kg Wastewater
Food may be considered to be the major source of intake of

substances affecting the endocrine system: food products that
contain these substances, food additives and food packaging.
Endocrine system regulation disorders, in turn, can affect
the central nervous and immune system. These disorders may
occur already in the embryonic development stage, and they can
cause sexual behaviour changes, slowdown in the development
of secondary sexual characteristics, prostate disorders, decrease
in sperm production and sexual activity, reproductive function
disorders, male feminisation, formation of malignant tumours.

The thyroid gland is particularly susceptible to the adverse
Environmental estrogens
are
pesticides – the effects of environmental factors. Studies show that elevated
estrogenic activity of concentrations of heavy metals – lead, manganese and mercury – in
many pesticides has the environment cause pathological changes in the thyroid gland.
been proven (DDT, The proven effects of substances that affect the endocrine system
endosulphan, dieldrin,
manifest themselves in the form of reproductive system abnormalities
kepone, dicofol,
toxaphene, chlordane, and development delays. These effects have been proved by both labo
alachlor, atrazine, ratory studies and cases when these substances entered the environ
nitrophen, benomyl, ment, affecting the development of living organisms. It is believed
mancozeb, aldicarb); that these substances contribute to malignant tumour development.
substances used For example, diethylstilboestrol was used as a medication to reduce
in manufacturing
polymers (bisphenol A,
premature birth risk, and a considerable increase in the cancer
phthalates); mortality rate in the daughters of women who used this medication
therapeutic substances was proven only much later. From the ecotoxicological point of view,
(diethylstilboestrol, the impact on wild animal populations has been acknowledged as
cimetidine); particularly substantial. It is believed that the substances that have
chemicals of domestic
an effect on the endocrine system have affected, for example, the
use (surfactant
degradation products – populations of fish and birds of prey in the Great Lakes Region, the
nonylphenol and population of alligators in Lake Apopka (Florida, the USA) and the
octylphenol); population of otters in western Europe.
many environmental
pollutants (polychlori
nated biphenyls, 6.3.4. Genotoxic effects of environmental pollutants and
dioxins, polyaromatic
factors
compounds);
heavy metals and their
According to the mechanism of toxic effects, three groups
compounds (lead,
mercury, cadmium). of substances can be distinguished: mutagens, carcinogens and
teratogens. Their effects are related to cell metabolism processes and
impact the transmission of genetic information (Figure 6.10).
Carcinogenic substances Mutagenic substances Teratogenic substances
Somatic cells Germ cells Embryonic cells
Mutations Recombinations Mutations Transplacentary Embryo development

carcinogenesis disorders
Diseases during Malignant Diseases and defects Malignant Hereditary

lifetime tumours in the next generations tumours diseases
Figure 6.10. Effects of Mutagenic substances or factors cause mutations – heritable

mutagenic, carcinogenic
and teratogenic
changes in the cell genotype. They can be chemical substances or
substances on living physical factors, such as ionising radiation. Mutations that occur in
organisms generative cells are generative mutations, and they result in mutant
organisms. Mutations in somatic cells occur in few body parts.

Mutations can also occur when a substance becomes ‘trapped’
between the chains of a DNA double helix. This situation may either
destroy the conformation of the DNA double helix, or cause an
erroneous reading of information from it.
6.3.5. Carcinogenic effects of environmental pollutants

and factors
A major adverse effects of environmental pollutants is associated
with their role in malignant tumour development. Malignant
tumour is a generic term for more than 200 diseases characterised
by uncontrolled cell division. Malignant tumours that develop in
connective tissues are called sarcomas, whereas those that develop in
epithelium tissue – cancers. Tumours develop not only in humans but
also in animals and plants. Benign tumours grow slowly, moving the
surrounding tissues. They are often encapsulated, do not form meta
stases and do not recur. Usually the forms of tumours are classified
according to the location of the tumour in the body or certain organs,
for example, the circulatory system cancer, lung cancer, brain cancer.
Different forms of cancer have different causes. A range of cancer
risk factors have been definitely proven, for instance, smoking,
radioactive radiation, unhealthy diet. Heredity is considered one of
the main risk factors. There are families that have a significantly
higher risk of developing cancer than others. For example, a woman’s
risk of developing breast cancer increases from 1.5 to 3 times if her
mother or sister had it. Sometimes breast cancer is associated with
specific gene mutations, which are prevalent among certain ethnic
groups or families. The possibility that women with such a gene
mutation will develop breast cancer is significantly higher.
In addition, the effects of physical factors can cause cancer.
These factors include ionising and ultraviolet radiation. Usually
the physical factors cause specific forms of cancer; therefore, by
reducing their harmful impact, it is possible to reduce significantly
the spreading of certain forms of cancer. People working in certain
professions can be exposed to ionising radiation, for example,
operating X-ray equipment or nuclear reactors. Uranium mining
workers have a very high risk of cancer; for those who smoke, the
risk increases several times. The most common diseases caused by
ionising radiation are lung and blood cancer. Lung cancer is caused
by inhaled radioactive dust. This dust accumulates on the lung
surface and, in long time, may cause a malignant transformation
of cells. People who survived the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombing
were at considerably increased risk of developing leukaemia.
Humans are exposed to UV radiation while outdoors. Long
and intensive UV radiation can cause skin cancer. The intensity

Factors that can cause of radiation depends on the geographical location, climate and
cancer are: thickness of the layer of the stratosphere. The UV radiation
inherited susceptibility. exposure is increased in the countries with high proportion of
It is believed that
clear days as well in the territories over which the ozone layer has
only 5% of cancer
incidences in the USA been depleted. Exposure to substantial doses of UV radiation can
are attributable to also take place in specific industries and occupations, for example,
hereditary genetic colour coating and printing, medicine (sterilisation with UV lamps),
mutations in the welding.
Smoking and tobacco use are risk factors that have the second
human genome. In
early childhood genetic
factors determine the highest mortality rate. The incidence of lung cancer in smokers is
development of cancer, 50-20 times higher than in non-smokers. The death rate related
but it is not the main to lung cancer has been growing steadily since the beginning
cause of incidences; of the 20th century and is not expected to fall in the foreseeable
environmental
future. Cigarette smoke contains around 4000 chemicals. There
carcinogens;
inherited susceptibility is evidence that many of them are carcinogenic. Smoking also
heightened by the significantly increases the incidence of mouth, larynx and bladder
effects of substances cancer.
that cause cancer. Unhealthy eating habits also are a very important risk factor for
These factors are the cancer. People who are not on a proper and healthy diet are prone to
main cause of cancer
today, accounting for
the effects of carcinogenic substances. This risk may be reduced by
60-90% of cases; means of a balanced diet and proper food preparation.
unknown factors. Several carcinogens significantly increase the risk of malignant
tumour development by acting on cells, more precisely – directly on
separate segments of the genome.
Of the various causes that affect the mortality rate from
malignant tumours, food and smoking are the dominant ones, and
substances that enter the body through smoking or are ingested with
food are the main sources of carcinogenic effects (Figure 6.11).
Medicine Geophysical factors

Pollution Infectious diseases
Working environment Unknown factors
Reprodutive factors
Food additives
Smoking
Figure 6.11. Effects of

various causal factors on Eating habits
the mortality rate from
malignant tumours Alcohol

The development of malignant tumours is to a large extent
determined not only by genetic factors and the predisposition of an
organism but by the action of substances on particular elements of
the human genome. Arguably, if the action of substances and factors
that promote the development of cancer were prevented, the number
of cancer occurrences would decrease, even though it is not easy to
prove the effects of hazardous factors and substances because there
is often a considerable time span between the action of a substance Malignant tumours can
and tumour development. be caused by
The most common carcinogens are substances of anthropogenic any substances or
origin, but also natural substances. Aflatoxins are an example of factors that cause DNA
damage: chemicals
such a natural substance; they originate from moulds and contribute
(carcinogens), ionising
to liver cancer development. radiation;
However, when the cells stimulated in this way are not subject substances, organisms
to mutation, they do not transform into cancerous cells. or factors that stimulate
Food and substances used for intoxication (e.g., alcohol, tobacco, cell division. For
drugs) can be a source of carcinogens. Tobacco smoke contains
example, hormones
that stimulate cell
many carcinogens. Alcohol and foods with a high fat and low fibre division, viruses (the
content may also increase the risk of developing malignant tumours. papilloma virus,
Mould growing on protein-rich products (e.g., rice, peanuts) may which is a risk factor
contain aflatoxin. Contact with carcinogenic substances and factors for cervical cancer,
such as benzene, tar products and radiation may take place at the hepatitis B and C
viruses, which can
work environment. Furthermore, viruses can be quite an important facilitate cancer
factor contributing to the development of cancer – for example, the development in the
Epstein-Barr virus, which belongs to the Herpesviridae family. liver, herpes viruses).
6.3.6. Teratogenic substances

Teratogenic substances affect the reproductive function of living
organisms. These chemicals cause foetal (embryonic) defects. This
phenomenon occurs both in humans and in animals and plants.
From Greek, the words ‘terat-, teras’ mean ‘monster, monstrosity’.
Hereditary pathology studies have shown that it occurs in
2-3% of newborn children. 25% of the pathologies are genetically
inherited, including mutagenic pathologies, 50-10% are caused by
teratogenic effects, while the remaining 60-65% have unknown
causes – most likely, it is a joint effect of both genetic and environ
mental factors. There are about 25 known chemicals that have
teratogenic effects on humans and up to 800 – on animals. Many of
the latter can also be potential human teratogens.
There are several risk periods in the development process of an
embryo. For a human embryo such a period is the 18th to the 55th day
of pregnancy, when the organs are developing (Figure 6.12). During
this period, the embryo is especially sensitive to chemical factors.
Contact with teratogens can reduce the size and number of cells,

which can lead to the retardation of vital organs or foetal growth in
general. In the 1960s, the sleeping pill thalidomide was the cause of
incompletely formed limbs in neonates (e.g., a shorter arm or no arm
at all). Mothers had been using this drug during the first months of
pregnancy.
Cell differentation
Cell proliteration
Cell migration
Continued growth
Degree of Sensitivity
Implantation
Functional Maturation
Fertilization
Histogenesis
Organogenesis
Birth
Figure 6.12. Main

phases of the 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 280
development of the
human body Embryonic Period Foetal Period
The effects of teratogens were also observed from large doses

of vitamin D and the use of drugs for treating certain malignant
tumours. Tests on animals have shown that even relatively common
environmental pollutants, such as carbon monoxide CO (from car
exhaust and smoking), have teratogenic effects. Carbon monoxide
can diffuse through the placenta and increase the concentration
of carboxymethyl-haemoglobin in the embryo’s blood. Cadmium,
lead and mercury are also teratogenic. The chemical mechanism of
teratogenicity has not been fully researched yet. The most important
groups of substances that have teratogenic effects are summarised in
Table 6.4. Compounds of various classes can be teratogenic, but their
common property is the capacity to diffuse through the placenta.
There is a close relationship between the sub stances with
carcinogenic and mutagenic effects, whereas teratogens cannot be
likened to any of these groups.

Table 6.4. Main substances with teratogenic effects
Substance Effect
Metals and their compounds
Facilitates spontaneous abortion and nervous
Lead
system disorders
Methylmercury Teratogenic effect on the nervous system
Lithium Teratogenic effect on the heart
Aluminium Teratogenic effect on the nervous system
Arsenic Teratogenic effect
Pharmaceuticals
Diethylstilbestrol Adenocarcinoma
Thalidomide Teratogenic effect
Retinoids Teratogenic effect
Chemicals
Ethyl alcohol Intoxication of the foetus
Chloro-organic pesticides Facilitate spontaneous abortion
Polychlorinated biphenyls Teratogenic effect
Ethylene oxide Facilitates spontaneous abortion
Dioxin Teratogenic effect
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Timbrell J. A. (1996) Principles of biochemical toxicology. London: Taylor
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Wexler P. (1998) Encyclopedia of Toxicology. N.Y.: Academic Press.
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Toxicology Source. Accessible: www.toxicologysource.com/.

7. AIR POLLUTION
Protection of air from pollution is a matter of great importance.

Air is one of the essential factors making life on the Earth possible.
Atmospheric air is composed primarily of nitrogen (78%) and
oxygen (21%). While the rest of the components’ share of mass only
about 1%, their role is significant. Environmental pollutants belong
to the atmospheric trace constituents (Figure 7.1).
Argon (Ar) (0.93%)

Neon (Ne) (0.0018%)
Helium (He) (0.0005%)
Hydrogen (H2) (0.0006%)
Nitrogen (N2) Xenon (Xe) (0.000009%)
(78.08%)
Oxygen (O2)
(20.95%) Water (H2O) (0-4%)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) (0.036%)
Methane (C4H) (0.00017%)
Nitrogen (I) oxide (N2O) (0.00003%)
Ozone (O3) (0.000004%) Figure 7.1. Composition
Freon (CFC) (0.00000002%) of air
Depending on the body constitution, a human being consumes

6-13 m3 of air daily or even more in cases of heavy physical loads.
Consequently, trace amounts of harmful substances in the air may
have an adverse effect on the human health.
Pollutants spread rapidly and to far distances in the atmosphere;
therefore, the problem of atmo spheric pollution should be dealt
with on a global scale, and international cooperation is vital in this
regard. Air cleanness in dwelling premises and working environ
ment is a special air pollution problem because today people become
increasingly exposed to hazardous and toxic substances at home or
work. The air pollution problem has been accompanying us already
since the times the ancient people discovered fire. From today’s
perspective, there is no doubt that the ancient people’s health or
even life were endangered by high concentrations of such pollutants
as carbon monoxide (CO) released from incompletely burnt firewood
and other compounds emitted during burning. Furthermore, the
ancient Romans already knew about lead and mercury poisoning in
mines.
7. AIR POLLUTION 119

Air pollution hazard has sharply increased since the develop
ment of Industrial Revolution and the mining industry. Industrial
development in the last century came into view first of all with
smoke tails from factory chimneys (Figure 7.2). Some production
processes, for example soda production, entailed the release of a
large number of aggressive and toxic substances into the environ
ment. The first victims of air pollution were factory workers and
Figure 7.2. Oil refinery
people living near factories. In addition, many workers became
plant (Italy). Crude oil, industrial accident victims. Since labour safety was among the
coal processing and issues actively dealt with concurrently with other workers’ social
petrochemical refinery protection issues, a certain progress was achieved in this field in
plants are among the course of time. Yet the overall industrial development and
the major sources
emission of hazardous substances reached such levels that labour
of environmental air
pollution. protection at workplaces alone could not safeguard them against
health damage. The London Great Smog caused by adverse weather
conditions in 1952 lasted for several weeks and took its toll: about
4000 people had died prematurely and 100 000 more were made
ill due to the smog’s effects. Around this time, photochemical smog
began to occur in the USA (Los Angeles) and Japan. In the 1970s the
attention turned to precipitation pH changes, but at the beginning of
the 1980s – to stratospheric ozone layer changes.
Although a range of air environmental protection measures are
being implemented today, it is estimated that the losses incurred by
the effects of polluted air on the human health – medical expenses,
loss of working capacity – still amount to hundreds of millions of
euros per year just in the European Union countries.
Industrial pollution mostly occurs in the industrially developed
regions of North America, Europe and Asia. The main sources
of anthropogenic pollution that also affect the quality of air are
energy production, heating, transport, industrial production and
agriculture, whereas the main air pollutants are
a) sulphur compounds;
b) nitrogen compounds;
c) carbon compounds;
d) halogenated organic substances;
e) metals and their compounds;
f) aerosols and dust;
g) radioactive elements.
Both industrial processes and heating contributes to air pollu
tion. Incineration of household waste pollutes air significantly. From
traditional fuels, coal is the most polluting. Another considerable
pollution source group is motor transport – as motor exhaust gases
contain various harmful substances. The exhaust gas composition
may differ depending on driving habits, engine operating conditions,
fuel supply and quality. In the process of incomplete combustion

of fuel hydrocarbons, they are transformed into carcinogenic 5% 9%
11%
substances – polyaromatic hydrocarbons. According to the total
emission amount of some pollutants, motor transport has become a
major pollution source in today’s cities. 27% 38%
Many production processes are characterised by the emission of
specific pollutants. Nowadays countless very harmful substances are
used in both industry and housekeeping, and they can enter the air 10%
of a work area or the atmosphere in the form of gas, vapour, aerosols Carbon oxide
or dust. To protect both workers and residents, several criteria Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
(limit value) have been established in order to limit the maximum
Hydrocarbons
permissible concentrations of various harmful substances in the air.
Solid particles
Air quality measurements for air pollution analysis are usually Other
made in ambient air. However, air pollution in the human living
environment – dwelling premises and workplaces – may affect the Figure 7.3. Emissions
human health considerably more. All kinds of local sources – such of pollutants from
as kitchens, stoves, furniture, polymers, painted surfaces, domestic stationary pollution
animals – can cause serious indoor air pollution. Room ventilation sources in Uzbekistan
also affects the air pollution level. Ventilation should be balanced
with the need to maintain the optimum temperature in dwelling
2%
premises. 4%
Pollutants quickly spread over rather long distances in the atmo 13%
sphere, therefore the solution to atmospheric air pollution problem
should be considered internationally. A specific air pollution problem
8%
2%
to be addressed is air quality in residential areas and working
71%
environ ment. These issues relate to the fact that humans are
increasingly faced with harmful and toxic substances both at home
and at workplace. Carbon oxide
Sulfur dioxide
70 Nitrogen oxides
Benzene Hydrocarbons
Ozone
60 Sulphur dioxide Particulates
Nitrogen oxides Other
Concentration, µg/m3
50
40 Figure 7.4. Emissions of

pollutants from mobile
30 pollution sources in
Uzbekistan
20
10
0
Figure 7.5. Average
February
March
January
September
April
May
August
October
December
June
July
November
monthly pollutant
concentrations in Riga
air

The discovery of fire led ancient man to be confronted with
The harmful effects
of lead and mercury
deposits were observed air pollution. From today’s perspective there is no doubt that the
already in ancient Rome. ancient humans’ health and even lives were threatened by such
The negative influence of pollutants in the air as high carbon monoxide (CO) content that
soot and dust resulting could be released both as a result of the variety of geothermal
from burning coal
processes, and as incomplete combustion of fuel. Along with the
exposure was noted
already in medieval development of livestock breeding, the elevated ammonia and
London. As early as in amine content in the facilities where the animals were kept became
1273 the King of England a certain factor of danger. A drastic increase in air pollution
Edward the First passed a hazards was caused by the development of the early production and
law aimed at limiting air mining processes.
pollution resulting from
the burning of coal.
The high-tech industry in the 20th century was marked first of all
by the factory chimney smoke «tails». However, some manufacturing
In 1661, John Evelyn processes, such as soda production, were associated with release
described the London of a large amount of highly aggressive and toxic substances into
air: «It is a dirty and thick the environment. The first air pollution victims were the people
fog with a terrible smell
working in their respective factories as well as the people living
that leaves people with
a thousand troubles and nearby. Industrial accidents, too, claimed their share of victims.
poisons not only the Thus, a few thousand people suffered and about 60 people died
lungs, but also the entire of the industrial air pollution in Meuse Valley (Belgium), in 1930.
body, so that in this city In 1984, in Bhopal (India), as a result of poisonous substance –
the pulmonary catarrh, methyl isocyanate – escaping into air, about 20 000 people died.
cough and dizziness
spreads increasingly.»
Since occupational health and safety was one of the issues actively
addressed alongside other social protection issues of the workers,
with time a certain progress in this area was achieved. However,
the overall development of production reached such levels that the
protection of workforce could not provide safety for a person in his
or her living environ ment, since emission of harmful substances
had reached huge dimensions. In 1952, as a result of bad weather,
smog enveloped London and lasted for several weeks. Around 4000
people suffered. A similar situation was registered in 1956. At this
time, formation of photochemical smog in the U.S. (Los Angeles),
and Japan was initially observed. Today, smog is observed in China
(Figure 7.6), Mexico and other countries. In the seventies, the
attention was drawn to changes in pH of precipitation – precipitation
acidification problem. At the beginning of the 80s there came the
Figure 7.6. Smog in awareness of the stratospheric ozone layer structure changes – the
Beijing, 2003 formation of an ozone hole.
In response to new environmental problems and growing of local
pollution manifestations into global ones, methods were developed
to overcome them, both as technological answers to particular
problems and as solutions for public and industrial management
(Figure 7.7).
Industrial and anthropogenic pollution predominantly occurs in
North American, European and Asian industrially developed regions.

Impacts of environmentla pollution
Global
problems
Regional
problems
Local
problems
1950 1970 1990 2010

Sustainable development
Cleaner production
Recycling Figure 7.7.
Environmental pollution
Pollution binding
problems and their
Dilution of pollution solutions
Air pollution is generated both by the industrial processes and

heating. Significant air pollution is caused by burning household
waste. From traditional fuels, the most polluting is coal, which has a
high bituminous matter and sulfur content. The design of a furnace,
stove or a heating system is of great importance, respectively,
optimal temperature and air supply must be provided for combustion
There are four main
of each fuel. Compared to the case of solid fuel, the combustion
anthropogenic sources of
process is significantly easier optimized for gaseous and liquid fuels. pollution affecting the air
In this case, the relevant matter is the presence of sulfur-containing quality:
compounds in the fuel. 1. power industry and
Another major pollution source is transport. This is due to heating;
the fact that the engine exhaust gases contain a range of various
2. transport;
3. industry;
harmful substances. From a practical point of view, it should be 4. agriculture.
noted that the engine exhaust gas composition is highly dependent
Whereas the major
on driving and engine operating conditions, fuel supply and quality.
air pollutants in the
When idling and driving at lower engine speeds, the exhaust gas environment are:
contains a greater amount of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. 1. sulfur compounds;
In the process of incomplete combustion of gasoline, cracking 2. nitrogen compounds;
of hydrocarbons and other transformations occur, leading to 3. carbon compounds;
formation of polyaromatic hydrocarbons, which are generally known 4. halogenated organic
substances;
carcinogens. Modern transport in cities in terms of total emission 5. metals and their
amount of certain pollutants has become a major source of pollution. compounds;
Many production processes are characterized by emission of 6. aerosols and dust;
specific pollutants. 7. radioactive elements.

3%
3% 1% Production intensification and general growth, various modes
of transport, energy industry development and other factors
7%
combine to determine the quality of human life and the level of
33%
comfort. However, in this process, the natural environment that
22% surrounds people becomes increasingly polluted, and at a certain
stage of development can become harmful to humans themselves.
The main mechanisms for control of environmental pollution are
31% legislative and economic levers, as well as introduction of eco-
Power industry friendly manufacturing processes.
Oil and gas industry When creating the environ ment protection mechanism, one
Metalurgy should take into account not only its task of protecting the people
Municipal economy and the natural environment, but also the obvious need to promote
Chemical industry and develop the respective production and technological processes. It
is a fact that at the current stage of scientific and technical develop
Building industry
Other
ment technical implementation of the nature conservation measures
may turn out to be so costly that the respective industry can become
Figure 7.8. Contribution
of industrial production economically unfeasible.
in air pollution There have been many negative effects caused by air pollution,
especially an increased risk of developing heart and lung disease,
as well as the reduction of life span by a year or more for those
people who reside in contaminated areas. Some of these effects can
be observed at very low concentrations – much lower than those
initially considered safe.
Air pollution can lead to a great variety of diseases, from simple
and transient changes in the respiratory tract or lung function
deterioration, to the physical activity constraints, chronic conditions,
hospitalisation and even death. Furthermore, the impact of air
pollution is detected not only on the respiratory system, but also on
the cardiovascular system. Air pollution can affect life expectancy
and its decrease can be caused both by long-term exposure to
polluted air, by being subjected to high pollutants’ concentration
even for a short period of time.
Dust 41.3
Ammonia 32.6
Figure 7.9. Urban 43.6% Phenol 32.6

population in 56.4%
Uzbekistan living Ozone 32.5
in areas where
concentrations Nitrogen oxides 28.2
of air pollutants 0 20 40 60 80 100%
regularly exceed of
Part of inhabitants that lives in cities, where monitoring is done
maximally permissible
concentrations Part of inhabitants that lives in cities, without air quality monitoring

There are several groups of people that are potentially more
sensitive to air pollution than others. Particularly sensitive to air
pollution are infants and young children as well as older people and
those suffering from cardiovascular diseases. Healthy people are less
susceptible than those who already suffer from respiratory diseases
(asthma, chronic bronchitis).
Today, the industry and households generally use a large number
of harmful substances, which in the work process can spread either
in the surrounding area or atmo spheric air in the form of gas,
vapour, aerosol or dust. In order to protect the workforce and the
population, there is a whole range of criteria (concentration limits),
restricting the maximum permissible concentrations of various
harmful substances in the air (Table 7.1).
Table 7.1. Air quality standards for major air environment pollutants
Concentration of
U.S.A. air quality EU air quality
Pollutant substance in the air
limits guidelines
analysis’ duration
Carbon 8-hour average 10 mg/m3 10 mg/m3
monoxide (CO) 1-hour average 40 mg/m 3
-
Nitrogen the average annual 100 μg/m3 40 μg/m3
dioxide (NO2) 1-hour average - 200 μg/m3
8-hour average 157 μg/m 3
120 μg/m3
Ozone (O3)
1-hour average 235 μg/m3 -
the average annual 78 μg/m 3
-
Sulfur dioxide
24-hour average 365 μg/m3 125 μg/m3
(SO2)
1 – hour average - 350 μg/m3
Air pollutants directly affect human health, attacking respira

tory organs, irritating eyes and mucous membrane, affecting blood
components, and generally acting as toxic substances.
The impact of some harmful substances may become apparent
immediately: this is the case, if such substances as phosgene
or chlorine have a direct effect on the respiratory tract. If the
harmful substances enter the human body in small quantities, and
subsequently are spread throughout the body with the blood or
lymph, they usually accumulate in a single organ, such as kidneys,
liver or bones, and the harmful effects may occur after a latent
period, which may be rather long.
Air pollution affects plants significantly more than animals and
humans. It is, first of all, due to the fact that the animal respiratory
process is based on use of oxygen, whose content in the air comprises
21%, but the green plants assimilate the carbon dioxide, which is
available in significantly lower concentration (0.03%). Thus, the

plants come in contact with larger quantities of pollutants found in
the air. At the same time, normal growth and development of plants
depend on a host of other factors (water, light regime, micronutrient
balance), which may encumber an accurate impact assessment of the
harmful substance.
In the analysis of air pollution, the air quality outdoors is
usually examined. At the same time, people’s health can be affected
significantly more by air pollution in the living environment – home
and working environment. This is determined by several factors,
including the air pollution of human living environ ment, caused
by an external air supply. An example of such a situation can be
the heightened lead and polyaromatic hydrocarbon content in the
dwelling houses near highways. Serious indoor air pollution can be
caused by a variety of local sources – kitchens, ovens and furniture,
polymer materials, painted surfaces, pets. The level of environmental
pollution with any substances is also affected by the ventilation, its
intensity must be balanced against the need to maintain an optimum
indoor temperature regime.
Another factor that affects the indoor air quality is manu
facturing of new materials and substances, which results in new
pollutants entering the human living environ ment in increased
quantities, and thereby contaminating it. For example, new insula
tion materials, cleaning products, cosmetics formulations, solvents,
plant protection products cause human contact with chemicals
that can be toxic. The pollution of the environment can cause a
variety of effects, including immediate death. Many people have
perished from poisoning by carbon monoxide gas coming from
stoves and fireplaces. Even in developed countries, indoor pollution
may be lethal, as evidenced by the deaths caused by indoor air
contamination.
7.1. Sulfur compounds in the atmosphere

The most significant source of sulfur and nitrogen compounds
in the atmosphere today is economic activity. In 2006, 65% of the
total sulfur compounds in the atmosphere were released as a result
Figure 7.10. Formula of of human activities, furthermore, 90% of that amount accounted for
sulphur dioxide sulfur dioxide.
Sulphur is a widespread element on the Earth: its average
concentration is 1.8 to 2.9%, but in the atmosphere just 0.6 µg/m3.
Most of the sulfur compounds are found in the litho sphere and
hydrosphere. The occurrence of sulfur compounds in the environ
ment has increased significantly with intensified human economic
activities and, first of all, it must be associated with the start of the

Industrial Revolution. The sulfur compounds have been extracted
from the lithosphere in such processes as mining of ores (many The main source of ant‑
metals are in the form of sulfide and sulfate ores), fuels (coal, oil, hropogenic sulfur dioxide
peat) burning and fertilizer production. is burning of fossil fuels.
All fossil fuels include
Natural sulfur compound sources are evaporation from water sulfur, either as organo‑
reservoirs (potassium, sodium sulphate-containing aerosols are sulfur compounds, or to a
formed), volcanic activity, forest fires. As a result of natural sulfur lesser extent as elemental
emission from biological sources the most widespread substances sulfur and hence, as a
released in the atmosphere are hydrogen sulphide and sulphates. result of fuel combustion,
sulfur(IV) oxide is formed.
Hydrogen sulfide lifetime in the atmosphere is only a few hours.
In contrast, SO2 and sulfates last quite a long time and by the air S + O2 → SO2
masses can be carried over long distances.
Actually, the atmospheric concentration of sulfur compounds SO2, which is released
in the air in Europe almost undoubtedly depends on the proximity into the atmosphere
of pollution sources. The comparatively unpolluted parts of Europe as a result of various
anthropogenic processes,
(12% of the territory) are characterized by SO2 concentration of
oxidizes forming sulfur(VI)
0.35 µg/m3 (converted to elemental sulfur). In a slightly polluted oxide SO3.
environment SO2 concentration is 3.5 to 4 µg/m3. In heavily conta
minated areas SO2 concentration in the air can reach 50 µg/m3. SO2 + O → SO3
700
600 Mobile sources
Stationary sources
Th. tons/year
500
400
300
200
100
Figure 7.11. Sulfur
0 dioxide emissions from
1991 1995 2000 2005 2010 mobile and stationary
Year sources in Uzbekistan
45
NOx
40
SO2
35
Amount, Th. tons
30
25
20 Figure 7.12. Sulfur
15 dioxide and nitrogen
10 oxide emission
5 amount variability in
0 Latvia, 1990–2001 and
emissions forecast until
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2010
2015
2020
2020.

OH’ SO2 The average lifetime of SO2 in the atmosphere is 5 days and it is
HSO3
– accelerated by the presence of nitric oxides, aerosols, hydrocarbons
SO2 (Figure 7.13).
O2 As the substances of alkaline character – metal oxides,
H2O2 H2O2 carbonates, ammonium ions, ammonia – are also released into the
O3
SO3 atmosphere, the reactions take place which result in formation of a
H2SO4
corresponding metal or ammonium salts. In addition, the oxidation
of SO2 in the troposphere takes place also in a liquid phase, that
is, SO2 dissolves in water – water drops; i.e., rather than SO2, in the
Figure 7.13. Sulfur oxidation process participates sulphurous acid H2SO3 or hydrogen
dioxide oxidation
sulfites HSO3. Particularly stable aerosols are formed, if the oxidation
reaction sequence in the
atmosphere processes take place in the liquid phase, SO2 and their oxidation
product transformations are interrelated.
Sulfur trioxide – The compounds formed by oxidation of sulfur dioxide fall
SO3 readily reacts with
both in form of rain and snow (wet deposition), as well as dust
atmospheric water vapor
to form sulfuric acid (dry deposition). An important part of the sulfate-ion containing
solution. substances falls particularly in the form of dust particles.
Since 1990, the annual total sulfur dioxide emissions in Latvia
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 have fallen significantly. If at the beginning of the 1990s it was due
to the slowdown in the economy, then as of 1996, in the years of
economic upturn, an important contribution to the reduction of
air pollutant emissions was brought by application of new environ
mental laws and regulations providing for implementation of
measures to minimize air pollution and improve air quality.
The main sources of sulfur dioxide emissions are the energy
industry, namely, the production of energy by burning different
fuels. The intensity of contamination greatly depends both on the
process of combustion, as well as on the fuel quality. As a result of
coal combustion, about 70% of the total anthropogenic emission
amount is released into the atmo sphere. The sulfur compound
content of coal is between 1.0% and 4%. In oil sulfur content is
between 0.3% and 3%. In industry sulfur dioxide is produced by
burning of sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, as well as by burning of metal
sulfides. Again, these processes are sources of SO2 emission.
Sulfur dioxide is released into the atmosphere also in the coal
and oil refinement process, in the production of sulfuric acid, by
burning household waste. In Latvia the main source of sulfur dioxide
is the so-called stationary sources of emissions – energy facilities. Of
the most important environmental pollutants, SO2 emissions are the
largest.
Fuels, primarily burning fossil fuels, are considered to be a
source of the major formation process of several environ mental
pollutants (Figure 7.14). In the burning process of fossil fuels the
formation of sulfur compounds takes place, and the reaction
between the air-forming gases – nitrogen and oxygen – in high

Fossil fuel
Sulfuric fuel Carbon (C) Nitrogen (N)

Oxygen (O2) Oxygen (O2) Oxygen (O2)
Burning Burning Burning
Sulfuric dioxide Carbon monoxide (CO) Nitrogen (I)

(SO2) carbon dioxide (CO2) oxide (NO)
Oxygen (O ) Oxygen (O2)
Sulfuric trioxide Nitrogen (IV)

(SO3) oxide (NO2)
Water (H2O)
Water (H2O)
Oxygen (O2)
Sulfuric acid Nitric acid

(H2SO4) (HNO3)
Amonium (NH3)
Figure 7.14. Pollutant
Ammonia sulfate formation as a result of
((NH4)2SO4)
fossil fuel combustion
temperatures forms other environmental pollutants, but as a result

of the fuel-forming organic compound transformation carbon
dioxide is formed.
Sulfur dioxide is a colourless gas with a sharp odour. Sulfur
dioxide at high concentrations causes severe respiratory irritation.
Since sulfur dioxide is easily soluble in water, during the inhalation
it sorbs in the mucous membrane of the nose and trachea, whereas
if the sulfur dioxide is in the form of an aerosol, it enters the lungs.
This is precisely one of the factors that determines the harmful
London-type smog exposure, because this type of smog is formed in
humid air and is characterized by high dust content.
When sulphur dioxide reaches the concentration of 500 mg/m3
(daily average), the condition of asthma and pulmonary patients
worsens. The cases of hospitalization are observed to increase, when
sulfur dioxide concentrations reach 750 mg/m3. During the London
smog in 1952 the annual concentration of sulfur dioxide in the air
reached 4000 mg/m3.
Sulfur dioxide negatively affects plant development. High
concentrations of sulfur dioxide exposure can cause leaf necrosis
(withering), but chronic exposure results in typical chlorosis – a
leaf discoloration or yellowing. Sulfur dioxide effect intensifies
with increasing air humidity. Sulfur dioxide causes the inhibition
of photosynthesis and plant respiration process, and cell membrane
damage. The degree of plant damage depends on the nutrient and

microelement balance and the buffering capacity of the soil (that
is, the presence of alkaline rocks), in which the plant develops.
Indirect effect of sulfur dioxide is acidification of environment, when
in the result of precipitation pH decline affects the state of plants
and forests, as well as the processes in water and the condition of
hydro-ecosystems.
Given the hazards of sulfur dioxide, a number of fundamentally
different approaches have been developed to control and restrict
its release into the atmosphere. Preventive methods focus on the
changes in industrial processes and life style so as to prevent the
formation of pollutants. The main source of sulfur dioxide emissions
is burning of fossil fuels for energy purposes, hence, the effective
method of restricting SO2 emissions is the change of the energy
production systems, namely, the transition to energy sources with a
low environmental impact and characterized by an acceptably high
degree of safety.
1000
SO2 AVG NO2 AVG
SO2; NO2 concentration, µg/m3
100
10
Figure 7.15.
Characterisation
of atmospheric air
pollutant concentration 1
changes in the air of
1967
1971
1975
1979
1983
1987
1991
1995
1999
2003
Riga
Smoke
Cyclone
Figure 7.16. Example
of a fuel combustion
plant, whose operation
allows for a significant
reduction in SO2
emissions – a device
Fuel and Heat exchange
for burning fluidized limestone
layer in the presence
of limestone additives,
Boiling
providing exhaust gas
layer Air
decontamination.

Since there are certain industries, which are particularly large
An effective solution
to reduce sulfur oxide
consumers of energy, (glass, chemical, building material production), emissions is fuel
changes in production processes particularly in these areas can combustion process
significantly reduce SO2 emission. Energy conservation also indirectly optimization, such as
contributes to the reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions. All these using the fluidized bed
measures are realized in the framework of national environmental method. In this case, coal
and limestone particles
and industrial policy, balancing the state (population’s) economic crushed to certain sizes
interests, using such instruments as the tax policy and legislative with adjustable air flow
initiatives. A preventative approach is also switching to low-sulfur are maintained at the
fuels (<1% S), gas, nuclear or alternative energy sources. level of fluidized bed and
Clearly, it is possible to lower the sulfur dioxide content in the already in the process of
burning sulfur dioxide
exhaust gases. First of all, it can be achieved by lowering the sulfur is fixed, and gypsum
content of the output fuel – coal, oil. About half of the sulfur content is formed as the end
of coal can be found in the form of pyrites and up to 80% of it can product of the process.
be removed by grinding the coal and removal of iron compounds,
using magnetic separation of iron compounds in a magnetic field – CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
magnetoseparation. Organic substance-related sulfur separation is
2CaO +2 SO2 + O2 → 2
considerably more complex and broaches the need to convert coal in CaSO4
gaseous fuel (coal gasification) or liquid fuel. Oil can be cleaned of
sulfur compounds during its thermal refinement process, however, CaO + SO2 → CaSO3
this approach only allows to reduce the sulfur content. In any case,
fuel desulfurization is an expensive process.
This fuel combustion process is very efficient, easy to control
and it allows to lower not only sulfur dioxide content, but also other
substances in the exhaust gases. In general, this method allows
reducing SO2 and dust content even up to 5% of its initial volume.
It should be noted that there are ways to reduce sulfur dioxide
exposure in the immediate vicinity of its emission source, improving
the dispersion of exhaust gas in the atmosphere.
Table 7.2. Annual average concentration of air pollutants, µg/m3
City SO2 NO2 Dust

The most common indicators in European cities 20-50 40-60 60-70
European guiding value 40-60 30 40-60
Riga 10-30 45-75 100-200
Of other sulfur compounds whose presence in the air can

adversely affect its quality, hydrogen sulfide H2S should be noted.
As a result of natural processes rather large quantities of hydrogen
sulfide are released in the environment. The main sources of its
natural emission are volcanic gases and decomposition of living
organisms. High hydrogen sulfide content is observed in natural gas
(up to 15%, Leke – France, Astrakhan – Russia). In small quantities it
escapes into the atmosphere as a result of processes that take place

in continental shelves, marshes and elsewhere due to decomposition
of organic matter. Hydrogen sulfide concentration in the air on
average equals 6 µg/m3.
In industry, hydrogen sulfide is incorporated into the composi
tion of coke gases and water gas, and as an admixture it may be
generated in oil refining, as well as the manufacturing processes
of artificial silk, cellulose, rubber and dyes. Hydrogen sulfide and
organosulfur compounds are released by purification devices.
Hydrogen sulfide is an unstable compound that readily oxidizes,
reacts with metals. Depending on the oxidizer, the oxidation
processes lead to sulfur or sulfur oxides. Hydrogen sulfide is easily
soluble in water. The toxic effect of hydrogen sulfide is determined by
its ability to block the enzyme activity by binding to the constituent
metal ions in stable sulfides. Hydrogen sulfide sensing threshold is
0.075 to 0.1 mg/m3, and contact with it numbs the sensory organs
rather quickly. In practice, the poisoning of hydrogen sulfide can
take place as a result of contact with sewage systems, as well as in
chemical laboratories and enterprises. Thus, the key issue to protect
people from exposure is proper ventilation and, if necessary, airing
in the rooms where hydrogen sulfide may accumulate.
7.2. Nitrogen compounds in the atmosphere

Nitrogen constitutes 76% of the weight of the atmo sphere,
however, in hydrosphere and lithosphere the amount of nitrogen
compounds is significantly lower. Nitrogen compounds in the atmo
sphere are found in the form of many compounds: N2O, NO, N2O3,
N2O4, N2O5, NH3, ammonium salts. Other nitrogen oxides are either
formed as intermediate products in various reactions or are unstable
and decompose rapidly:
Nitrogen (I) oxide (N2O) is naturally present in the atmosphere
as a product resulting from a variety of biologic transformations.
The amount of anthropogenic emissions of N2O is relatively small
(Table 7.3) and, subsequently, the pollution of nitrogen (I) oxide,
particularly in view of its low toxicity, is not considered to be
hazardous to living organisms. This substance is odourless and
tasteless, chemically inert. In small amounts it is released in nitric
acid production process, it is used as an anaesthetic agent in
medicine, and as an inert gas in technology. Toxic effects have not
been established. N2O is released into the atmosphere mainly as a
result of nitrogen and organic matter decomposition reactions and
its annual emissions amount to 100 million tons a year. The total
amount of N2O in the atmosphere is 2000 million tons. Its life period
is 20 years, and in the last decades N2O content in the atmosphere is

increasing by 0.3% per year. Therefore, the N2O is considered to be Nitrogen oxide (II) NO is a
colourless gas, odourless,
one of the most important greenhouse gases. non-flammable. However,
in the air it easily oxidizes
Table 7.3. Nitrogen (I) oxide sources in the environment to NO2 and therefore
the sum of both oxides
Emission sources Tg N2O-N/per year NOx is usually looked
Natural sources at. Nitrogen (II), as well
as nitrogen (IV) oxide is
Oceans 1.4-2.6
highly toxic. Nitrogen (II)
Tropical soils 2.7-5.7 oxide is mainly formed
Temperate climate sources 0.05-2.0 due to a variety of high
Anthropogenic sources temperature processes,
as a reaction of oxygen
Use of fertilizer 0.03-3.0
with nitrogen.
Biomass incineration 0.2-1.0
Combustion of fuels 0.3-0.9 N2 + O2 → 2NO
Production 0.5-0.9
N2 + 2O2 → 2NO2
From the point of view of environ mental pollution, special
attention should be given to nitrogen (II) oxide NO and nitrogen (IV)
oxide NO2.
The reaction time depends on the temperature, respectively, the
amount of energy input.
At 2000 °C temperature NO, N2 and O2 molecule cross-reaction
is at equilibrium. The intensity of NO formation is also affected by
how quickly the formed molecule is removed from the reaction zone.
Thus, the nitrogen oxides are formed in all processes that occur at
high temperatures: burning, spark discharge, plasma processes, and
explosions.
Nitrogen oxides are formed by working car engines (Figure 7.17).
Fuel-air mixture in the cylinder of the car engine is compressed
(compression), an electric spark ignites it, and the combustion
(explosion) leads to a high temperature (>1000 °C), where as a by-
process a reaction occurs between the air forming gases – nitrogen
and oxygen to form NO. After fuel combustion in the cylinder, the
produced gas mixture is pushed out of the cylinder and it cools down
relatively quickly, retaining the formed NO quantity.
c
Pressure
d
b
a’ a Figure 7.17. The internal

combustion engine
Volume ab bc and cd da’ aa’ work cycle

Once in the atmosphere, From the labour safety point of view a danger may be caused by
nitrogen oxides become increased discharge of nitrogen oxides during the electric welding
processes, especially in confined spaces. Nitrogen oxides are also
involved in various che‑
mical reactions. Nitrogen
oxides, which have en‑ formed in the combustion of nitrogen organic compounds present
tered stratosphere, may in the fuel, and this process can take place at significantly lower
participate in the ozone temperatures than NOx thermal synthesis.
disintegration cycle. A The resulting HNO3 mainly falls down by precipitation in
significant source of
the form of both acid and salts. Of nitrate salts, ammonium
nitrogen oxides in strato‑
sphere are the supersonic nitrate (NH4NO3) is mainly found in the atmo sphere. Since the
aircrafts. At the same photochemical transformations of nitric oxides and also their
time, the nitrogen oxides elimination from the atmo sphere take place rather quickly, the
in the stratosphere can acidification of precipitation as a result of nitrogen presence has a
undergo alterations that significant impact on the regions near to the pollution sources.
result in regeneration of
particles with reactive
Taking into account the significant amounts of nitrogen oxide
capacity that are able produced (total global emissions of 86 million tons / per year), they
to produce ozone. An can adversely affect the on-going processes in the environment, as
important role in the well as human and animal health.
atmosphere is played by Overall, nitrogen oxide emissions in Europe are now among
the processes leading to
the most dangerous contemporary environmental pollution factors.
the formation of nitric
acid, HNO3. These issues are especially topical in the Baltic Sea region countries,
where the nitrogen compound load determines many of the negative
NO2 + HO. → HNO3 processes that take place in this region. Thus, a matter of actual
nitrogen oxide emission control – the restraint – becomes urgent.
Traffic of motor vehicles is considered to be one of the major
sources of nitrogen oxides, which directly affects the air quality in
cities (Figure 7.18) and the growing number of cars in the streets is
increasing the nitrogen oxide concentration.
5000 120
Number of cars
Concentration of nitrogen oxides
100
4000
Concentration, µg/m3
80
Number of cars
3000
60
2000
40
oxide concentrations 1000
20
and changes of traffic
intensity in the streets 0 0
of Riga (Gertrude Street, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
August) Hour
In 2005, the transport in Latvia created already as much as

52% of the total NOx emissions. The relative impact of transport on

NOx emissions has increased, while energy production impact has
been reduced almost by half, which is explained by the significant
increase in the number of vehicles and the fact that natural gas is
used more and more for energy purposes. Since 2000, the increase
in energy production has gradually scaled up the nitrogen oxide
emissions from the combustion plants. The established maximum
allowable nitrogen oxide emission in the air for 2010 was 61 kilotons.
One of the major contemporary sources of NOx emissions is
traffic (Table 7.4). The traffic can be considered a major source of
emissions of nitrogen oxides particularly in the urban environment.
Table 7.4. Nitrogen oxide emissions and major sources of emissions in Latvia,
tons per year
1990 2000 2005

Sector / Year Proportion, Proportion, Proportion,
Emission Emission Emission
% % %
Energy production 1648 24 696 18 635 1544
Fuel use and production 1022 15 341 9 426 1037
Transport 2660 40 1903 50 2150 5228
Commercial, household and other
906 13 520 13 529 1285
incineration unrelated to production
Industrial production processes 346 5 284 7 319 775
Agriculture and forestry 22 0.3 41 1 0.4 1
Total emissions 6604 100 3788 100 4112 100
Nitrogen oxide emissions from traffic are significantly more

difficult to control because the lowering of fuel – air mixture
temperature leads to an increase of CO and hydrocarbons in
the exhaust gases. The applied methodology includes electronic
ignition timing control, recirculation of exhaust gas enriched with
fuel, however, one of the most effective methods is considered to
be the catalytic reduction of nitrogen oxides in the presence of CO
and hydrocarbons with their subsequent oxidation, additionally
supplying air.
Of the other nitrogen compounds that are relevant regarding
the environ mental pollution, the ammonia should be mentioned.
Relatively large quantities of ammonia are released into the environ
ment as a result of different natural processes. The main natural
sources of ammonia emissions are the organic matter decomposition
processes.
Elevated ammonia concentrations can be found in the human
living and working environment, such as cattle, drainage systems,
etc. Ammonia is widely used in various technological processes,
production of fertilizers, agriculture and as a refrigerant.

7.3. Carbon compounds in the atmosphere
Carbon is the most important element forming the living
To denote the air pollu‑ organisms. Carbon in the atmo sphere is in the form of carbon
tant concentrations often monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), and the
their concentrations are
presence of these gases has a significant impact on the atmospheric
expressed in parts of
volume and number: properties (heat balance) and hence the climate on the Earth.
respectively: parts per Therefore, the growing carbon monoxide emissions may become
million – ppm; – parts per a factor that can adversely affect the environmental processes. It
billion; – parts per trillion. is estimated that over the past 100 years, anthropogenic CO2 has
This designation refers
increased by an average of 2.5% per year. CO2 content in the air
to the concentration of
the substance in the total is also affected by deforestation. During the 20th century carbon
air quantity of 300 ppm dioxide emissions have significantly increased, and in the period
means that the million from 2000 to 2005 they had already reached an average of 26.4 GtC
of gas molecules consti‑ CO2 per year. It is estimated that, depending on the population
tuting the air contains growth trend, the volume of carbon dioxide emission can reach up to
300 molecules of the
respective greenhouse
35.8 GtC / per year in 2100.
gas, or a million volume Carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere has risen from
units of air (such as 280 parts per million in the pre-industrial era to 379 parts per
cubic centimetres – cm3) million in 2005. Researching the air enclosed in the continental
contains 300 cm3 of the glacier ice, it has been proved that the concentration of CO2 today
respective gas.
is significantly higher than it was during the last 650 000 years
(180‑300 ppm). Other greenhouse gas concentrations (e.g., methane
CH4, nitrogen (I) oxide N2O) have also gon up significantly.
Carbon monoxide CO (charcoal fumes) can be important in the
context of the human living and working environment pollution.
The total amount of CO in the atmosphere of the Earth is evaluated
at 530 million tons, and it remains in the atmo sphere from 36
to 110 days. The main sources of emission are various natural
processes: decomposition of living organisms (especially green
plant chlorophyll decomposition), metabolic processes of plants and
especially of marine organisms. A serious source of carbon monoxide
is a variety of photochemical processes (especially methane
oxidation), in which CO is released as a by-product.
Anthropogenic carbon monoxide emission sources account for
about 6% of its total quantity. The main sources of anthropogenic
emissions are the internal combustion engines, their exhaust gas, as
well as products of fossil fuel incomplete combustion. Particularly
dangerous in the context of the human living environment pollution
is carbon monoxide. In everyday life the sources of danger can be
gases resulting from incomplete combustion in furnaces, stoves and
other heating systems, automobile exhaust fumes, particularly in
confined spaces.
Carbon monoxide transformation processes are predominantly
mediated by hydroxyl and hydroperoxide radicals via singlet oxygen

or ozone. The prominent role of soil in binding carbon monoxide
should also be noted. It is determined by the activity of soil
microorganisms.
Given the high toxicity of carbon monoxide, especially in the
human living environment, it is essential to reduce the emissions
resulting from various combustion processes. First of all, it can
be achieved by controlling the internal combustion engine gas
composition. CO content declines, when «leaner» (poorer in fuels)
air/fuel mixtures are used and the exhaust gas catalytic oxidation is
carried out.
The toxic effect of carbon monoxide is based on its ability to
replace the oxygen in haemoglobin, forming carboxyhaemoglobin,
which is unable to transport oxygen. Carboxyhaemoglobin formation
reaction is reversible, therefore, in case of poisoning by carbon
monoxide inhalation of air or pure oxygen can restore the ability of
haemoglobin to carry oxygen.
If carboxyhaemoglobin reaches 10-20% of the total haemoglobin
in the blood, the poisoning symptoms include mild headache,
fatigue, discomfort, at 20-30% dizziness can start to appear, loss of
consciousness can occur, but if 60-70% of haemoglobin are converted
into carboxyhaemoglobin, the outcome is lethal (Table 7.5).
Table 7.5. Blood haemoglobin saturation with CO dependence on the CO

concentration in the air (assuming that polluted air is inhaled for
4 hours)
Concentration in the air, % 0.01 0.1 1.0

The amount of haemoglobin saturated with CO, % 17 60 90
It should be emphasized that the toxic effect of CO is highly

dependent on the amount of air inhaled, respectively, the nature of
work that a person performs. The hazard of poisoning with carbon
monoxide is increased by the fact that it is a colourless gas, odourless
and tasteless, which cannot be felt, but even a negligible amount
can affect a person’s ability to act. CO content can be determined by
its reaction with mercuric oxide, CO ability to sorb in the infrared
region of the spectrum (this principle is widely used in automobile
exhaust gas analysis), and gas chromatography.
7.4. Dust and aerosols in the atmosphere

Atmospheric air can contain the particles of most diverse type,
composition and size. Their size can vary from micron to parts of
millimetre. Finer particles (size <10 µm ) are called aerosols, but the

coarser ones are named the dust. The micro drops of solutions (fog)
also belong to the aerosols. Aerosols can be classified according to the
source, which can be land, sea (primary aerosols) or human activities,
as well as the chemical or mechanical formation processes of aerosols
(secondary aerosols). The main sources of aerosol formation are
various natural processes – the soil, entry of its constituent mineral
particles into the atmosphere as a result of wind activity, dust storms,
volcanic eruptions, forest fires, evaporation from the sea and ocean
surface (salt sprays or aerosols are formed). However, modern human
behaviour results in a large amount of aerosols and dust in the air.
The processes such as energy production, construction material
production and mining, agriculture, air transportation and other are
the main anthropogenic sources (Table 7.6).
Table 7.6. Sources of aerosol and dust emission
Sources 106 t/per year

Natural
Sea salts 1000
Soil 200
Volcanoes 4
Forest fires 3
Anthropogenic
Coal combustion 36
Oil combustion 2
Wood incineration 8
Waste incineration 4
Agriculture 10
Manufacture of cement 7
Manufacture of iron / steel 9
Other 16
Aerosols can be formed, and the content of particles in the air

may change due to a variety of chemical reactions. In this context
the first to be mentioned is the important role of sulfur and nitrogen
oxides in these processes. Since the airborne solid matter particles
serve as condensation centres for water vapour, virtually all of these
reactions take place in the aquatic environment or in the presence of
water, and the typical examples of these are related to the formation
of acid rain.
Aerosol formation under the influence of atmospheric air is also
affected by a number of mechanisms and physical processes:
1. Coagulation and sedimentation. The smallest of aerosol particles
can stick together to form larger aggregates. This process affects
the stability of aerosols and dust, and the time it stays in the

atmosphere. Particles with dimensions smaller than 0.01 μm,
are subject to Brownian motion and their fall happens very
slowly, but the particles that are larger than 10 μm fall quickly.
2. Dust and aerosols in the atmosphere (0.1-20 µm) serve as water
vapour condensation centres and thus can be removed from the
air.
3. Larger dust particles can collapse to form smaller size aerosols.
This process is called dispersion.
Since the spray or dust particles have a large specific surface
area, they can sorb atmospheric gases, chemicals, microorganisms
and water vapour. Sorption process thereby determines the rather
complex composition of aerosols. If the sorption results in a
change of aerosols’ chemical composition, the process is called
chemisorption, which occurs, for example, when sulfur, nitrogen
oxides react with iron or aluminium oxide-containing aerosols.
Table 7.7. Number of days when the maximally permissible concentration of

dust in air was exceeded, %
City 2008 2009 2010

Almalik 21 19 14
Bukhara 38 43 44
Gulistan 21 22 26
Navoi 30 8 4
Nukus 71 73 69
Taskhent 22.74 9.32 13.15
Aerosols which enter the atmospheric air can serve as catalysts

for various chemical reactions, such as zinc and iron oxide-
containing aerosols can catalyze the oxidation of sulfur dioxide into
sulfur trioxide.
Overall, the chemical transformations that occur with aerosols
can significantly alter their properties and composition. For example,
cement production dust, when released into the atmo sphere,
significantly reduces the sulfur and nitrogen oxide content, forming
the respective calcium and magnesium salts, and thus affecting pH
of the atmospheric precipitation.
Dust and aerosol particles also are electrically charged. Aerosol
and dust chemical composition can differ quite considerably
depending on their source. Aerosols may consist of water-soluble
ions or particles which are almost water insoluble. At the same
time, the aerosol composition analysis allows to identify the sources
of aerosols. Aerosols of natural origin are mostly composed of
potassium, aluminium, silicon, sodium, iodine, iron, chlorine and

The most probable aero‑ carbon compounds. Heavy metals and complex organic substances
sol constituent elements in the aerosol composition suggest that their formation has occurred
come from the following due to human activity.
sources:
Atmospheric aerosols and dust can significantly affect the Earth’s
Al, Fe, Ca, Si – soil erosion,
C – incomplete combus‑ climate. This is evidenced both by the Earth’s long-term climate
tion of fossil fuels; change analysis and the impact on the climate of dust spillage in the
Na, Cl, SO42– – sea, ocean atmosphere from the eruption of volcanoes.
aerosol, the burning of Dust and aerosol effects on the human body are determined by
the particle size (Figure 7.19). Coarser particles (dust) are mainly
fossil fuels;
Pb – fuel and waste
burning. detained in the nasal cavity and upper respiratory tract, but
especially fine particles (with sizes of less than 10 micrometres)
reach the lung alveoli, and may even fall into the blood
circulatory system. Airborne dust and aerosol inhalation can cause
inflammatory processes in the respiratory system, increase the risks
for the development into respiratory diseases, particularly chronic,
and suppress the immune system.
Removal degree, % Nose
100
80 Trachea
60
Alveoli
40
Figure 7.19. Retention
of the aerosols in the
20
human respiratory
system depending on
the size distribution 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 Particle size, mµ
A significant group of aerosols are those of an organic compo

sition. Their source can be either natural processes (plants, forest
fires, decomposition of organic matter), or anthropogenic processes.
Human health can be particularly negatively affected by metals (Pb,
Hg, Cu, Ni, Be), radioactive isotopes and organic matter present
in the aerosol composition. Aerosol effect most rapidly manifests
itself when the particles are inhaled and held in the lungs (coarser
dust particles are retained in the nasal cavity and upper airways,
while the finer particles may be exhaled). Such aerosols are called
inhalable aerosols. These aerosols have the following effect:
1. When the substances sorbed on aerosol surface desorb and move
into the blood or lymphatic system. This effect is particularly
characteristic of various combustion products. The aerosols
which are products of combustion consist of carbon, and the

aerosol surface usually holds quite high concentrations of
different organic substances, which are created both due to in
complete combustion, as well as thermosynthesis process. Such
aerosols contain the following groups of substances:
aliphatic hydrocarbons. Usually, they are very long-chain
alkanes with carbon atom numbers reaching even 24;
aromatic hydrocarbons. Aerosols of combustion contain not
only low molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene,
toluene), but also the polyaspartic hydrocarbons – benzo[a]
pyrene, chrysene, benzo[a]fluoranthene, benzo[a]anthracene,
naphthalene, anthracene and others. Desorbing and entering
the body, these substances can cause malignant tumors not
only in the lungs but also in other organs;
aldehydes and ketones, as well as carboxylic acids;
polyaromatic and heterocyclic compounds, such as benzacri
dine, dibenzacridine, which also are characterized by highly
carcinogenic effect;
organochlorine compounds.
2. Particularly fine particles can get into the blood or lymphatic
system from the lungs. An example of such particles is asbestos
fibres.
3. Aerosol particles can remain in the lungs, become calcified, thus
causing permanent irritation. This type of aerosol exposure is
inherent to occupational diseases – asbestosis and silicosis,
caused by inhalation of air polluted by mineral particles.
4. Micro-organisms, bacteria or fungi residing on aerosol and dust
particles can cause allergic reactions and cause disease.
Aerosol retention in the human respiratory system depends on
the size distribution of particulate matter.
Pollen, dust of wood, flour and other organic substances can
be viewed as a special group of aerosols. Since these substances are
organic, their composition differs significantly from the composition
of the traditional dust, but among the potential effects on human
health the ability of these aerosols to cause allergies should be noted.
Aerosols and dust may adversely affect the plants, too. This
effect is characterized by the process of photosynthesis inhibition
and effects of toxic substances, as they desorb.
In the Uzbekistan major sources of dust are – loose dusty soils
and surfaces of salinized soils of Karakum, Kizilkum and Aralkum
(dry part of Aral Sea) deserts. Aeolian drift of sand and salt from the
dry bottom of Aral Sea yields 40-45 million tons/year, besides, the
main salt and dust erosion occurs within 300 km of coastal strand.
The amount of dust, which falls out on the soil in Juznoje Priaralje,
is ten times bigger than in the irrigated zone. The composition of
dust from Aral Sea includes sulfate salts up to 25-48%, chlorides –
18-30%, carbonates – 10-20%.

The total capacity of anthropogenic sources of solid particle
emissions into the atmosphere in the Republic is considerably lower
than of the natural ones and is evaluated at 1.311 millions of tons
per year. The share of solid particles in anthropogenic emissions
is not high and contributes 16% for industrial sources, and 2% for
mobile ones. The total amount of solid particles’ emissions in the
Uzbekistan from industry is much higher than from the transport.
The main sources of entry of the industrial dust are companies
of State Joint Stock Companies «Uzbekenergo», «Uzstrojmateriali»,
«Uzchlopkoprom». According to the statistical data for the period
from year 2000 to 2005, the total emissions of solid particles
increased from 88.993 thousand tons to 101.09 thousand tons, but in
year 2006 a notable decrease had been observed.
Index of total dust concentration in the atmo sphere is being
controlled in 18 industrial cities of Uzbekistan. Excessive dust
concentration is observed in large cities, in which lives approximately
41% of urban population. The level of air contamination with dust
is affected by high natural dustiness and industrial emissions. The
city dust characteristically contains soot, which is formed during
the combustion processes. The major mass of soot is being washed
away by precipitation. In exhaust gasses from automobiles, which
contribute in a certain way to dustiness of surface air, small particles
with diameter of 0.02-0.06 µm prevail.
Higher specific dust emissions are observed in cities, where
cement industry and coal-burning powerplants are mostly located.
Dust settling around industrial centres contains various mineral
compounds, metal oxides, silicates, soot, fluorides, arsenic oxides,
antimony and selenium. Among specific admixtures in dust contents
of large industrial cities are metals like cadmium, copper, lead,
nickel, zinc and manganese.
Since the aerosol effects on human, animal, plant and building
condition may be adverse, and according to mass, aerosols and
dusts must be considered the largest group of atmospheric pollutant
compounds, it is important to limit their emission in the main areas
of aerosol formation, namely, industry and energy production.
To clean exhaust fumes from dust and aerosols several
approaches can be used:
1) The simplest method for air cleaning from dust is the
sedimentation of dust. Only coarser dust particles (>100 µm)
fall out sufficiently fast, and that limits the opportunities for
using this method;
2) To clean the air from dust and aerosols, one can take the
advantage of the fact that the particle inertia is larger than
that of the gas molecules. This principle is used in cyclones
and dry centrifuges. In this case, the air to be purified is
introduced into a conical cylinder so as to create an air swirl

movement, where the heavier dust particles are thrown back
to the cylinder wall. Cyclones are the devices for continuous
operation.
3) Filtration of the air to be purified. Aerosols and dust can
be effectively removed by filtration of the air mixture to be
purified through suitable, such as asbestos, fibres, synthetic
material, glass fibre fabric. The filtration efficiency is
dependent on the filter material.
4) Scrubbers. In this case, a liquid is sprayed in the air to be
purified. The liquid gathers (and if accompanied by an
appropriate reagent also reacts with) the dust and aerosol
particles. This method is considered to be one of the best
from the gas cleaning efficiency point of view, while at the
same time it is a costly operation, which results in formation
of liquid waste that need to be disposed of, and the use of
such approach is not always well founded.
5) Electrostatic purification. The exhaust fumes can be purified,
first of all, by charging them during gas flow through the DC
high voltage electrical discharge zone, and then through two
electrodes. Negatively charged dust and aerosol particles are
held up at the positive electrode. This method is effective and
inexpensive, and it can be used continuously.
Purified air
Inlet air
Dust filter
Dust
a b
Removal of
aerosols
Current
source
Electrodes
Spray
Figure 7.20. Polluted
air treatment solutions
from dust and aerosols:
a – cyclone; b – dust
filter; c – scrubber;
c d d – the electrostatic
coagulation

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Sedimentation tank
Cyclone
Scrubber
Dust filter
Electrostatic precipitation
Figure 7.21. Comparison
of different technologies
for dust and aerosol 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
removal. Particle size, µm
The choice of optimal gas treatment methods is determined by

aerosol concentration, their composition, presence of other gases, as
well as economic considerations.
7.5. Halogenated organic compounds in the

atmosphere
Typical air pollutants contained in the atmo spheric air
composition are various halogen compounds. Since the elementary
halogens are very reactive, they are not found in the atmosphere
in a free form. However, production processes involve significant
amounts of various halogen derivatives, therefore both the living
environment and the atmospheric pollution by halogen derivatives
is possible. Given the high toxicity of halogen compounds, environ
mental pollution by halogenated compounds is considered to
be dangerous, as these can be discharged, when many halogen
compounds are released into the environment. For example, many
metal and non-metallic chlorides, which are widely used in the
manufacture, in contact with water or damp air intensively form
hydrogen halides. Examples of such substances are aluminium,
titanium and tin chlorides (AlCl3, TiCl4, SnCl4), as well as silicon and
phosphorus chlorides (SiCl4, PCl3, PCl5, POCl3).
Among the many environmental pollutants the organohalogens
occupy a special place not only for their toxic effect, but also because
of the fact that it is this group of substances, which historically
enabled understanding of the pollution impact in the biosphere.
Production of synthetic halogenated organic compounds,
which started about 50-70 years ago, has now reached significant
dimensions and includes many groups of substances, as well as
a wide scope of application: industrial production, agriculture,

medicine, and the production of substances that are used in
everyday life. Already two examples of this group of substances –
pesticide DDT and polymer polyvinyl chloride compound shows
broad spectrum of features and usability characteristic to
organohalogens. However, to talk about the effects of exposure to
These gaseous or easily
these substances, one must discuss the structure, areas of use and liquefiable substances are
the main characteristics, as well as the main sources of environ mainly used, as follows:
mental pollution with halogenated organic compounds. First of all, 1. as propellants in
halogenated organic compounds can be divided into organofluoride aerosols (freons are
organic, chloro-organic and organobromide compounds.
chemically inert,
non-combustible,
Despite the extensive production, organofluorine compound practically non-toxic);
application range is narrower than that of the chloro-organic 2. as heat carriers in
substances, which is mainly due to their high cost. The most popular cooling devices;
of the organofluorines is dichlofluormethane (Freon). The methane 3. as foaming agents in
derivatives are: Freon 11 (CFCl3, b.t. 23.8 °C); Freon 12 (CF2Cl2, b.t. the manufacture of
porous polymers;
–29.8 °C); Freon 13 (CFCl3, b.t. –81.4 °C) and ethane derivatives 4. in microelectronics;
Forane 114 (CF2ClCF2Cl, b.t. 3.6 °C) and Forane 113 (CFCl2CF2Cl, b.t. 5. in chemical industry.
47.6 °C).
Such a wide scope of use of these substances is determined by
many unique features of freons, among which the first to be noted
is the high chemical stability of these substances (they do not break
down in the aquatic environment, or when exposed to acids, bases
and oxidizers). Freons are also characterized by low acute toxicity:
inhalation of freons F11, 12, 22 and other freon vapour (0.5% vol.)
for 90 days, 6 hours a day does not result in any symptoms of toxic
effects. The maximum permissible concentration in the air for most
of the freons is about 1000 mg/m3, but for liquid freons F11 and
F113LD50 it is above 15 g/kg.
Furthermore, the other characteristics important from the prac
tical point of view determine the extensive production of freon
today. Taking into account the specificity of freon use, most of this
volume is dispersed into the atmosphere, where the freon decom
position is slow. At the same time, in the stratosphere under the
influence of UV radiation, freon molecules decompose, releasing
the halogen radicals, which may subsequently act as catalysts
for ozone decomposition reaction. Given the harmful effects of
organohalogens, degrading the ozone layer (primarily freons), the
production and consumption amount in the European Union Member
States (Figure 7.22) as well as in other countries has significantly
decreased in the last decades.
Chlorine derivatives C1 and C2 belong to low molecular weight
organochlorine. Typically, this group of substances includes methane
chlorine derivatives (carbon tetrachloride CCl4, chloroform CHCl3,
methylene chloride CH2Cl2, methyl chloride CH3Cl), chlorine
derivatives of ethane or ethylene. These substances form a separate

group, taking into account the production of substantial size, and
the similar toxicological spectrum. Halogenated hydrocarbons are
obtained both by the direct chlorination of hydrocarbons, and by
chlorination in the presence of atmospheric oxygen as an oxidizing
agent. Typical lower chlorinated hydrocarbons are liquid substances
(with the exception of methyl and vinyl chloride, which are gases,
and hexachloroethane, which is solid). Annual production of vinyl
chloride (CH2=CHCl) amounts to 10 million tons. 1,2-dichloroethane
is also produced in significant quantities (13 million tons per year)
as well as carbon tetrachloride (1 million tons per year). Large
amounts of trichalomethanes (THMs) are formed as a result of
water chlorination. These substances may be also formed as a result
of various natural processes. It is assumed that burning fossil fuels
and biomass release 5 × 106 tons of methyl chloride per year into
environment, but up to 40 000 tons of methyl chloride are formed in
the ocean and sea algae life processes.
450
Thousand Ozone Depleting Potential Tonnes (ODP Tonnes)*
CFCs
European Community (25)
400
350
300
United
250 States
200
150
Russia
100
50
China
0
Figure 7.22. Global
production of main ozon 1990 1995 2000 2005 2008
depleting substances * Tonnes multiplied by the ozone depleting potential of the considered gas.
Lower halogenated hydrocarbons are widely used as solvents

in the manufacture of polymers (vinyl chloride). The large amounts
and mode of use result in release of significant volumes of these
substances into the environment, and it can affect human health
in the living and working environ ment. Lower molecular mass
chlorinated hydrocarbons, when inhaled, act as anaesthetic
substances, which can easily lead to poisoning, especially affecting
the liver. In some chlorinated hydrocarbons the carcinogenic effects
have been proven.

7.6. Urban air pollution problems
Air quality in urban areas requires particularly careful con
sideration. This is determined not only by the fact that the urban
environment is densely populated, but also because the cities have
large industrial territories and intensive traffic. Thus, the charac
teristic pollution can be observed in the urban environment, due to
the high concentration of pollution sources and in many cases, the
limited options for pollution dispersion.
Figure 7.23. The nature

of dispersion and
circulation of air masses
and pollutants over
urban areas
The pollutant dispersion process in the urban areas is activated

by the movement of air masses due to uneven warming of the Earth
surface. As the city buildings and road surfaces intensely absorb
heat, in these territories the so-called «heat islands» are formed. This
effect maintains the typical air mass circulation models in the cities
The word ‘smog’
that facilitate dispersion of pollutants. In this case, the contaminants
appeared about 70 years
(especially in the form of dust and aerosols) drop at a certain ago to describe a mixture
distance from the city limits creating a heightened pollution zone. of smoke and fog, which
An important role in pollution dispersion is played by a vertical formed above London
scattering process of air masses. Under normal circumstances, at the due to the temperature
higher levels the air mass temperature decreases. However, there
inversion processes.
Later, this term was
may be situations when the air temperature rises as the distance applied to certain
from the surface of the Earth increases. This state of the atmosphere adverse processes in the
is called inversion, and it can be quite stable. In case of inversion the polluted atmosphere.
release of contaminants is hindered, and results in concentration of Today, two types of smog
these substances in the places of discharge. are distinguished:
1. the smog associated
Inversion can be caused by two types of processes: first, with with the presence of
the advance of warm air to the air mass with a higher pressure smoke and soot, and
and lower temperature or at night, as a result of the Earth surface a high SO2 content
losing heat. The first type of inversion processes take place as the (‘London smog’);
air masses descend on areas with increased atmospheric pressure. 2. the smog caused
by a vehicle exhaust
Under these conditions, air pressure and temperature of the air photochemical trans‑
mass, which is subject to the inversion process and is located in the formation reactions
upper boundary, is higher than at the lower limit. If the air mass (‘Los Angeles smog’).

descends slowly, a positive temperature gradient is formed in its
volume and the mass of air that is subject to the inversion process,
forms a shape similar to a huge lid covering the air mass below it.
This type of inversion process may last several days, and there have
been some cases of mass poisoning of population as a result of atmo
sphere pollution directly related to the inversion phenomenon.
Height
Temperature
Inversion
Inversion layer
Height
Figure 7.24. The role of

inversion processes in
limiting the dispersion
of air pollution formed
in urban territories Temperature
For the second type of smog, the prerequisite is a variety of

There are the following
features characterising
photochemical processes in the atmosphere, so it is often called a
the photochemical smog: photochemical smog.
1. it is formed in a clear, The main factor that determines formation of the photochemical
sunny weather at a low smog is air pollution with nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in
air humidity; the presence of intense ultraviolet radiation. The main source of
2. chemically the smog
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in urban air is emissions from the
atmosphere acts as an
oxidizing agent; vehicles. When these emissions enter the air, a series of different
3. it causes the irritation transformations can begin under the impact of intense ultraviolet
of mucous membrane radiation. These chains of transformations determine the rather
and the upper respi‑ characteristic process of changes in the content of pollutants in
the photochemical smog, where the content changes of primary
ratory tract, adversely
affects plants and
animals; pollutants (NO, CO, hydrocarbons) and secondary pollutants (O3,
4. it is seen as a bluish aldehydes) can be observed over the day and night. The character
haze or mist. of these changes allows one to follow the photochemical smog
formation mechanism and to understand what processes determine
the appearance of one or another substance in the air.
Obviously, the crucial role in these processes is played by
hydrocarbons and their transformations. On the other hand,

hydrocarbons emitted with the exhaust of vehicles are the source of Air pollution in
a vast range of organic substances. Under the smog conditions free photochemical smog
radicals, phenols, peroxides, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids conditions may adversely
affect:
and other substances are formed from hydrocarbons, which largely
1. human well-being and
determine the biological effect of the photochemical smog. The health;
free radicals are capable of reacting with nitrogen oxides, forming 2. materials and
nitrates and with ozone forming peroxides and ozonides – the products;
substances whose physiological activity is particularly high. 3. plants and animals;
4. atmospheric composi‑
tion and the processes
therein.
Hydrocarbons
Concentration
NO2
O3
NO
Figure 7.25. Changes

of air pollutant
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 concentrations during
Daynight, h smog event
First of all, the harmful effect of ozone must be noted, which

is determined by the fact that ozone is a powerful oxidizer. Thus, it
causes irritation, can trigger asthma and affect lung function. The
maximum permissible concentration level of ozone set in USA is
0.1 cm3/m3. Ozone is able to accelerate the deterioration processes
Figure 7.26. National
of polymer materials and rubber. The negative effect of increased report on use of natural
ozone concentration on plants has also been proven, for example, in resources in Republis of
California it inflicts a real material damage. Uzbekistan 2008
Another group of substances with the most evident physiological
effect are peroxides and nitrites, especially peroxyacetyl nitrates.
These substances are characterized by high toxicity and irritant
effect (they cause eye watering).
In contrast to the photochemical smog, the London-type smog
is formed in humid air, especially if there is a limited dispersion of
pollutants (inversion conditions) and, above all, it is determined by
sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and aerosol influence. Entering into
the humid air atmosphere, sulfur dioxide dissolves in fog droplets
creating inhalable aerosols, which, unlike sulfur dioxide, are not
absorbed in the upper respiratory tract and mucous membranes of
the nose, but enter the lungs.
In alveoli the sulfur dioxide sorbed in aerosol particles is
desorbed, causing irritation that can lead to impaired lung function,

aggravating the course of chronic diseases. It should be noted that
during the London-type smog the content of nitrogen oxides and
carbon oxides also simultaneously increase in the air, and changes
take place in the composition of airborne aerosols, i.e., the aerosols
formed due to the incomplete combustion of fossil fuel become
dominant. However, not only SO2 but also nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons are sorbed on such sprays. Upon aerosol inhalation
these substances can desorb into the lungs and enter the circulatory
and lymphatic system, affecting the functions of the heart rate and
other organs. During the London smog the growing concentration
Figure 7.27. Air of pollutants in the air can increase human mortality and acute
pollution effects on exacerbation of diseases, as it was recorded in London, in December
human health during 1952 (Figure 7.27).
the London smog
It should be noted however that the occurrence of the London-
in December 1952,
London. type smog in the developed world today is greatly reduced, taking
into account the improved fuel combustion technologies, exhaust gas
treatment and other air pollution control methods.
7.7. Acid precipitations

Sulfur and nitrogen
oxide emission growth
leads to the situation
The increased entry of various acid-forming oxides (NO, NO2,
when, as they oxidize SO2, SO3) into the atmosphere causes an effect that the pH of
in the atmosphere, the precipitation may decrease, but at the same time the composition of
respective acids are atmospheric precipitation can be significantly altered.
formed and the pH of Precipitation acidification is caused by photochemical oxidation
precipitation may drop
of sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the atmo sphere, the subsequent
down even to pH ~2-3.
The term ‘acid rains’ reaction with water vapour present in the atmo sphere to form
appeared as early as in sulfuric acid, nitric acid and sulfurous acid, and the fall with the
1872. precipitation in the form of rain or snow. If rain water contains
acid, its pH is lowered. Acidification of precipitation also causes the
surface water acidification.
A significant volume of gases, which may cause acidification
of atmo spheric precipitation, is generated in the industrialized
countries (Figure 7.28). As such precipitation falls, it may affect the
overground water, soil and vegetation. Pure water has a pH of ~5.7,
determined by atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolution and formation
of weak acid – carbonic acid. Due to the impact on the atmosphere of
sea salt aerosols, as well as the aerosols generated by soil erosion, the
atmospheric precipitation pH may increase even up to a pH value 8.
However, as a result of industrial contamination the acid rain may
be typically formed with a pH of less than 5.6.
Precipitation in the form of rain and snow is created in the upper
layers of the troposphere by condensation of water evaporating from

the continent, ocean and sea surfaces. Initially, the water vapour
reaching the atmosphere condenses to form water droplets or ice
crystals. Condensation takes place around condensation centres,
which typically can be aerosol particles. At the same time, the
substances that exist in the condensation centre affect rain and snow
water content. Another important factor influencing the composition
of atmospheric precipitation is the gases in the atmosphere, which
have the capacity to dissolve in water. As a result of anthropogenic
contamination the composition of atmospheric precipitation changes
considerably. Acidification of precipitation typically manifests itself
not only as a pH decrease, but also as a change of the relation
between the different ions and sulfate content increase. However, the
most typical anthropogenic pollution influence on the composition
of precipitation takes the form of acidification.
5
4.5
4
3.5
Kg/per capita
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5 Figure 7.28. Emission
0 rates of gases
Poland
Germany
Sweden
Bulgaria
Lithuania
Finland
Estonia
Ireland
Netherland
Austria
UK
Denmark
Latvia
causing atmospheric
acidification in the
European countries
(2004)
Tomato Distilled
juice water
Ammonia
Sulfuric water
acid Sea water
Lemon Rain water
juice Milk Boraq
Vinegar Sodium Lime

Acid rain hydrogen water
carbonate
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Alkaline
Neutral Figure 7.29. pH reaction
Acidic
indicators for different
solutions

It should be noted that acidification of precipitation is not
observed in Latvia. In some regions as a result of cement and
building material production significant amounts of alkaline
dust and aerosols are released into the atmosphere, therefore the
precipitation becomes alkaline. The analysed concentrations of
substances and their modules of fall in precipitation elsewhere in
Latvia also do not show significant local pollution sources or the
impact of cross-border pollution.
Today a question of water acidification is still topical, and it is
caused by the changes in atmospheric precipitation pH level.
In natural water reservoirs several stages of acidification can be
distinguished. In the first phase, the inflow of acidic water leaves
the average pH largely unaffected. This is due to some natural water
buffering capacity, which determines the presence of carbonates in
the water. In the first phase of the acidification process the hydrogen
ions neutralize hydrogen carbonate ions.
If water alkalinity goes below 0.1 mol/l, the natural water
buffering capacity is exhausted. In such reservoirs at the period of
intense acidic water inflow (in autumn, but especially in the spring
during snow melt) a rapid pH drop is possible. These processes to
some extent can be offset by the increased dissolution of alkaline
rock. It is necessary to note that even a short-term decrease in the
pH of water leads to serious ecological consequences. Of particular
note is the impact of acidification on benthic organisms, fish eggs
and other aquatic organisms in their early stages of development.
As the acidification processes continue, the water pH is settled
below 5.5. Such a body of water is denoted as moderately acidic. At
this acidification stage of the body of water substantial changes in
its ecosystem take place.
The concluding stage of freshwater acidification is characterized
by formation of a stable pH (pH <4.5), which persists even when
the atmospheric precipitation acidity is lower. This effect can be
explained by the presence of humic substances, magnesium and
aluminium compounds in water. In general, these substances, either
by connecting or separating the protons, stabilize the pH value.
At the reduced water pH the intensity of chemical processes
with aluminium participation increases. Naturally the aluminium
concentrations in water reservoirs are low, but insoluble aluminium
compounds – alumosilicates, which are the main components of clay,
make up a large part of the sediments in water bodies. As the acidity
of the water reservoir increases, the intensive dissolution process
of these compounds takes place, and as a result the aluminium
compounds enter the water. Recently it has been proved that
aluminium is one of the key factors determining the toxic effects of
environmental acidification.

Atmospheric acidification also directly affects various materials
used in building, but primarily those containing carbonates.
Materials containing limestone le in acidic conditions dissolve
(become weathered).
The harmful substances damage plants primarily at the
molecular level, and only after the changes at this level the overall
impact on metabolism process begins, affecting the entire organism.
Sulfur dioxide has an essential influence on plant development.
Sulfur dioxide released into the plante first of all impacts the cells,
which regulate the plant’s gas exchange with the environment. Even
a minor amount stimulates inflow channels in the gas stomata of
leaves and they remain constantly open. Once in the plant cells, the
molecules of sulfur dioxide (in the form of sulfite ion) easily pass
through the cell membrane. Subsequently they affect mitochondria
and chloroplasts. These effects reduce the intensity of photosynthesis
process. In addition, SO2, SO42– and other sulfur dioxide
transformation products interact actively with enzymes within the
cell, affecting such processes as, for example, the ATP synthase in
mitochondria, –S–S– link splitting in enzymes, etc. The following Figure 7.30. Forest
destruction due to acid
visual changes quite often occur in plants due to the activity of the precipitation exposure,
plants’ natural enemies – a variety of micro-organisms. USA, state of Maine
Different plant species have a different sensitivity to pollutants.
The pollution caused by sulfur dioxide particularly impacts lucerne, The air pollution effects
wheat, yews, pines, while apricots, gladiolus, peaches, etc. are on inorganic materials
have long been obser‑
sensitive to the pollution with fluorine compounds. The impact of
ved. The description of
a specific air pollutant cause different symptoms in various plant exposure to the London’s
species. Atmospheric acidification typically results in destruction of atmosphere dates more
coniferous trees (Figure 7.30). If a few decades ago the forest drying than 300 years back:
due to acid precipitation was a major problem in Central Europe and «Contaminated air coats
Scandinavia, today this type of impact is observed in China, India, literally everything with a
thick layer of soot. Causes
and the United States. rusting of crockery and
Given the amount of pollution today, the effects of pollutants corrodes even steel
on inorganic materials are specifically investigated. Atmospheric beams and the most
pollution with sulfur and nitrogen oxides has the most important durable stone.»
impact on inorganic materials. Iron, cast iron and steel corrosion
takes place in parallel with a variety of electrochemical processes,
which are initiated by micro-alloys in the metal products themselves
and also by aerosol and dust particles accumulated on the metal
surface. The main role in the course of this process is played by
sulfuric acid and sulfates resulting from SO2 oxidation.
In case of non-ferrous metals the air pollution by sulfur dioxide
causes direct corrosion of surface layer.
The influence of air pollution on architectural monuments is
Figure 7.31. Weathering
particularly disastrous (Figure 7.31). Extensive research has been of a lion figure (Athens,
conducted in Italy, France and Germany to protect from air pollution Greece) due to acid rain
exposure the sculptures placed in open air. exposure

7.8. Indoor air pollutants
When conducting the analysis of air pollution, the air quality
outdoors is usually analysed. At the same time, people’s health can
be significantly more affected by air pollution on their living and
working premises (Figure 7.32).
6
Indoor air quality
risks, %
5 Outdoor air quality
health risks, %
Health risk factors, %
Figure 7.32. Relative 2

impact of indoor and
outdoor air pollution 1
(the share of risk factors)
on human health in 0
different regions of the India Africa China Asia Latinamerica Industrial
world countries
This is determined by several factors, of which the first to be

mentioned is the air pollution in human living environment, caused
by the external air supply. An example of such a situation can be
the elevated lead and polyaromatic hydrocarbon content in the
dwelling houses near a highway. Serious indoor air pollution can
be caused by a variety of local sources – kitchens, ovens, as well as
furniture, polymeric materials, painted surfaces, animals. The level
of environmental pollution with one or another substance is also
affected by the ventilation of rooms. Its intensity must be balanced
against the need to maintain an optimum temperature regime in
living quarters.
Creation of new materials and substances result in the human
living environment receiving increased quantities of new substances,
and thereby being contaminated. For example, new insulation
materials, cleaning products, cosmetics formulations, solvents, plant
protection products cause human contact with substances having
proven toxic properties. The human environ ment pollution can
cause a variety of consequences, including immediate death. There
are cases of death due to poisoning by carbon monoxide gas from
the stoves and fireplaces. Even in developed countries, the indoor
pollution may be a cause of death, as evidenced by the deaths as a
result of legionellosis.

Significantly more widespread and important is the long-term
effect of living environment pollution on human health.
However, this effect can become evident after a considerable
time, even decades later, and therefore, using modern research
methods (especially results of epidemiological studies) the harmful
effects of substances are difficult to prove. Substances which are
characterized by this type of impact include radon, asbestos,
formaldehyde and others. However, the air pollution in the people’s
homes and workplaces today is considered to be one of the most
important causes of some diseases, such as lung cancer.
A particular emphasis should be placed on the allergic influence
of indoor air pollution, which may result, for example, in asthma.
Air pollution can be caused by both organic and inorganic
materials, as well as micro-organisms (Table 7.8).
Table 7.8. Typical contaminants in the environment of human life
Pollutant Source of substance Typical living organisms,

Particle board (chipboard), smoking, heat which determine biologi‑
Formaldehyde
insulation materials cal contamination, are:
NO2 Natural gas heating microscopic animal,
feather, skin, hair
CO Stoves, car exhaust fumes
particles. Dust and
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons Wood, coal, gasoline combustion other mites as well as
SO2 Combustion of fuels their particles;
Cl2 Bleaches, chlorinated water metabolism products
of living organisms
Evaporable organic substances Paints, household chemicals, polymers
(sweat, fecal matter
Combustion of fuels, food preparation, heat particles);
Dust and aerosols
insulation materials, carpets, smoking fungi, bacteria and
Microorganisms, viruses The development of mould, pets viruses;
Radon Buildings, soil, water pollen.
A significant group of environmental pollutants are living Living organisms that

organisms. They can be a source of air pollution, a cause of determine biological
contamination can cause:
disease, and they can also damage materials used in living environ
allergic reactions;
ment. Pollutants of biological origin and living organisms may be infectious diseases;
transported by air currents, they are invisible and often quite poisoning with toxins.
difficult to determine.
Clearly, in any room inhabited by people some of these
pollutants will be found. Often it is the presence of nutrients and
moisture that triggers the development of biological contamination.
Allergic reactions cause common human health problems and
these can be instigated by animal hair fragments (such as dog and
cat hair), as well as by dust mites, fungi and their spores, and pollen.
According to their consequences, allergic reactions vary from mild
discomfort to life-threatening asthma attacks.
Figure 7.33. Dust mite

A typical infectious disease caused by indoor air pollution by
microorganisms is legionellosis. ‘Legionnaires’ disease’ is caused
by the bacterium Legionella pneumophila, which is one of more
than 20 similar bacteria that cause the disease referred to as
legionellosis. Legionellosis outbreaks have been observed in the
U.S. as well as in other countries, and, given the high lethality of
the disease, it has been studied quite extensively. Legionellosis is a
lung disease caused by environmental pollution (it does not spread
from human to human) with Legionella bacteria. These bacteria can
multiply in water, in closed water circulation systems, ponds, air-
conditioning systems and in water spray (showers, stoves, garden
watering equipment, etc.), and be inhaled in a form of aerosols.
The bacteria as aerosols can be transmitted even to relatively large
distances.
To protect oneself against legionellosis it is important to properly
set up and operate the water circulation systems. In practice,
this means the need to prevent the opportunities for bacterial
multiplication.
Also, the allergic alveolitis can be caused by airborne micro
organisms. The acute form of alveolitis becomes manifest 6-8 hours
after exposure as ‘acute respiratory infection’, fever, shortness of
breath, cough and muscle aches. If the contact with the cause of
illness is interrupted, it may last a few days. The chronic form of the
disease is more common when there is a constant low-level source
of pollution, such as pets. This condition is caused by Micropolyspora
faeoni, Cytophaga allerginae, Aspergillus fumigatus and other fungi,
which, for instance, also cause the allergy to the hay, particularly,
Figure 7.34. Pollen of if the hay is mouldy. The same microorganisms may develop in air
higher vegetation conditioning and ventilation equipment.
Fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms present in the
indoor air can also cause diseases such as asthma, allergic rhinitis
(caused by Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus) and, for example, the
‘sick building syndrome’. The sick building syndrome is expressed
as a host of different symptoms when living or working in certain
rooms and stops on leaving the premises. Typical of this syndrome is
the inflammation and watering of the eyes, runny nose, headache,
irritability, difficult breathing, and sometimes asthma. Air
conditioning and humidification systems can also cause infectious
diseases. The sick building syndrome can be detected both in
newly-built, technically well-equipped buildings as well as old,
worn-out houses. The sick building syndrome may be caused by the
substances resulting from fuel combustion, substances and materials
used in building construction or in the work process, biological air

polluting materials (quite often the effect is increased by inadequate
ventilation).
Toxic substances (toxins) produced by living organisms may be
another cause of health problems. The toxins produced by living
organisms can cause damage to certain organs and tissue, but they
can also affect the immune system and the nervous system.
In the developed countries, people spend indoors up to 70%
of their time, therefore the air quality there should be given
Figure 7.35. Fibres of
special attention. A variety of inorganic materials can contribute asbestos
to the overall pollution level. If NO2 in rural and clean urban air
is 0.01‑0.02 mg/m3, in the living rooms with gas heating in the
kitchen, it may be 0.07 to 0.15 mg/m3, but in the tobacco smoke-
filled rooms up to 1.2 mg/m3. Increased nitrogen oxide content can
affect children’s health, increasing the risk of respiratory diseases.
For example, it has been proved that the raise of NO2 concentration
by 15% indoors increases the number of respiratory disease cases in
children by 40%.
The consequences of urban air pollution by asbestos have
been widely studied and the detrimental effect on human health is
proved. However, the artificially-produced fibrous materials (glass
wool, glass fibre, rock wool) can also lead to similar contamination,
especially when aging. Another topical factor may be the indoor air
pollution with substances that are typical of outdoor air pollution
cases: sulfur oxides, heavy metals, aerosols, etc.
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Air pollutants. Accessible: www.epa.gov/ebtpages/airairpollutants.html.

8. WATER POLLUTION
Natural composition and properties of water vary due to

different geographical, geological, biological and other reasons.
These are natural changes and their significance may be quite The waters are polluted,
substantial, for example, during the floods the river water if substances or physical
composition may differ from the summer low-water period water conditions have changed
quality indicators ten or even more times. Human activity can the water composition
and properties to such
influence water quality significantly more than the natural
an extent that the func‑
causes. For example, the human impact on the natural waters may tioning of its ecosystems
disrupt their hydrological regime (river flow rates, affect the lake is affected, or the water
level), or to change the composition of the waters by pollution. use for specific purposes
Anthropogenic impacts disrupt the water and substance cycles and is restricted. Water pollu‑
affect aquatic ecosystems. Contamination of water with pathogenic tion can also be caused
by such changes in water
(disease-causing) microorganisms, heavy metals, pesticides, and composition, in the result
water eutrophication are considered to be of crucial importance of which the substance
(Figure 8.1). content present in the
Pollution denotes a change of a certain water characteristic or a water substantially differ
set of characteristics, which makes it difficult or even precludes the from that which existed
before. However, is it is
use of water for a specific purpose. From the nature conservation not always possible to
point of view this is not relevant, because the economic usefulness determine this initial
is not an indicator of natural wealth and diversity or of the environ water quality in the areas
ment quality. However, environ ment protection often has to be that have been popula‑
balanced with economic priorities, and therefore the inadequacy of ted for a long time
water quality for certain uses is called water pollution.
1.5
Significance of a factor
Figure 8.1. Rating of

global water pollution
1 (0 – water quality is not
affected; 1 – the waters
are polluted, but using
0.5
appropriate protective
measures, they can be
0 used; 2 – water pollution
Particulate Eutrophication Pesticides Heavy metals Microbial can cause significant risk
matter pollution to human health)
8. WATER POLLUTION 159

According to its source, water can be classified as follows:
Chemical pollution
is caused by entry or
presence of chemicals in surface water (rivers, lakes, seas, oceans);
the waters and, depen‑ underground water, spring water;
ding on the pollutant precipitation water (rain, snow, ice water, dew, fog);
characteristics, one can waste water.
distinguish between
This division is conditional, because the water is in constant
the contamination with
inorganic substances motion during the cycle (hydrologic cycle) and therefore any
(biogenic elements, classification reflects only a certain part of the cycle, in which the
inorganic salts, toxic trace particular amount of water currently happens to be. For example,
elements, radionuclides) the spring water is underground water, but coming to the surface, it
and organic substances becomes surface water. The river water also changes its composition
(biologically readily
degradable substances,
and properties when falling into the seas or oceans, but the ocean
oil products, pesticides, mist is often salty to taste, and its properties are different from the
surfactants and other fog, for example, in tropical forests after the rain.
substances). Physical Water features and content may change not only due to pollution
pollution is caused by but also to cleaning. In nature, water has a self-cleaning ability and
physical effects such as
it is an essential condition, because of which the water can be called
the influence of tempe‑
rature on the water, but a renewable resource.
biological contamination The existing water treatment technologies allow purifying the
is created by the entry of water, rendering it usable for a particular sphere of its use. Depend
living organisms atypical ing on the type of contamination, it can be categorized into the
to the particular type of
chemical, physical and biological contamination.
water, such as viruses,
bacteria. Two types of water pollution sources can be distinguished:
1) point sources of pollution;
2) diffuse pollution sources.
Typical water pollution point sources are:
1) pipes through which either treated or untreated sewage water
of the cities or factories is discharged into water reservoirs,
rivers, lakes and seas;
2) agricultural effluents;
3) oil and petroleum product spill from pipelines.
Diffuse pollution sources are scattered and it is more difficult to
identify and assess them. The main diffuse sources of pollution are:
1) surface runoff from agricultural lands, construction areas,
burned forests;
2) surface runoff from agricultural lands, which are contami
nated with chemical fertilizers, natural fertilizers (biogenic
element runoff), pesticides or saline waters;
3) rainwater runoff from urbanized areas;
4) drainage from abandoned or operational mines, quarries;
5) fall of substances with precipitation (sulfur, nitrogen and
metal compounds, organochlorine compounds);
6) leaks from dumping-grounds and landfills into underground
and surface waters.

Diffuse water pollution is generally more dangerous than point
source pollution. For example, the major part of nitrogen and almost
half the amount of phosphorus compounds contamination in the
Baltic Sea is caused by the diffuse pollution (Figure 8.2).
Total nitrogen Total phosphorus

Industry Industry
3% 6%
Wastewaters Non-point
26% sources
44%
Figure 8.2. The sources

of the pollution
Non-point with nitrogen and
sources Wastewaters phosphorus compounds
71% 50% in the Baltic Sea, 2000
Every type of pollution is characterized by certain specific

features, but largely the borders between the effects of pollutants
converge. Municipal wastewaters are more likely to have an
increased content of various chemicals, but the industrial effluents
bring the ever-increasing quantities of biogenic elements into the
environment. It should be noted that the waste water of specific
industries is characterized by a rather strictly determined spectrum
of specific substances, such as the textile industry, polymer
processing, chemical industry.
Water contamination with organic substances always has a
very complex and intricate character. Organic pollutants are able
to actively interact with a variety of naturally-occurring substance
groups. Another special feature of this group of substances is that
they are actively transformed or destroyed by a variety of living
organisms, primarily bacteria.
Among the groups of substances which have recently been the
focus of particular attention, the following should be noted:
1) plant protection products (herbicides, insecticides);
2) surfactants;
3) petroleum products;
4) phenols;
5) stable organic substances;
6) toxic trace elements and heavy metals;
7) carbohydrates, proteins, aminoacids.
The pollution of natural waters by oil or petroleum products is
particularly dangerous.

Synthetic detergents Today, the question regarding the water environment pollution
contain a variety of sub‑ with synthetic detergents has gained topicality.
stances that may pollute From the environmental point of view, the environment quality
the aquatic environment:
may be most affected by two components of synthetic detergents:
1. surfactants such as
sodium dodecyl 1) surfactants;
sulfate; 2) water softeners.
2. bleaching agents – The substantial contamination of the environment (air, water,
usually various soil, underground environ ment) is the pollution with substances
characterized by high stability. Among these persistent organic
oxidizing agents such
as sodium perborate;
3. enzymes such as lipase; pollutants (POPs) occupy a special place. Due to the in-depth
4. corrosion inhibitors research of these substances and recognition of hazards associated
such as sodium silicate; with them, as well as the amounts of their production and their
5. fragrances; toxicity, the use of several POPs is limited by legal acts, among which
6. inert material (fillers)
the first to be mentioned is the Stockholm Convention, aimed at
such as sodium sulfate;
7. stabilizers, such as protecting human health and the environment from POPs, restricting
magnesium silicate. the use of substances that are characterized by high toxicity and
persistence in the environ ment, providing a safe and permanent
disposal of these substances and reducing uncontrolled emissions of
Surfactants are a group POPs into the environment. According to the source and application,
of water-soluble organic POPs can be divided into 3 groups:
substances that concen‑ a) POP-containing plant protection products (aldrin, DDT,
trate on the surfaces and dieldrin, endrin, hexachlorobenzene, heptachlor, chlordane,
reduce the water surface
tension. mirex, toxaphene);
b) POP – containing chemical products for industrial use
(hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated biphenyls);
c) POP – containing by-products (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-
dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans, polyaromatic hydro
carbons). POPs are characterized by high persistence in the
environment and a high potential for bioaccumulation.
8.1. Water resources and their use

Water is a renewable natural resource and a pre-requisite for life
on the Earth, and it is the most important food product for humans
and many other species. Fresh water is only a small part of the
terrestrial water – about 3%. Much of the fresh water (a little more
than two-thirds) comes from glaciers and snow, while one-third – is
the underground water, because rivers and lakes make up only a
very small part of the fresh water.
The formation of natural water sources is influenced by the
hydrological cycle, which can be divided into five major parts: the
waters of the oceans, atmosphere, glaciers, underground, and fresh
water resources. Hydrological cycle shows the interrelation among

these key water sources and reflects the great role of evaporation
and precipitation fall processes in formation of the water balance.
The major energy factor which determines the participation of water
in the global water cycle is the solar radiation causing the mass of
water on the Earth surface to heat up and evaporate. Water does
not evaporate solely from the surface of the seas and oceans, – the
soil moisture, glaciers and the snow cover of the Earth evaporate,
too. Water circulation time for different elements of the hydrological
cycle is different: for atmospheric water it is 10 days, 12 days for
the water in rivers, in lakes – 7 years, the active exchange zones
of underground water (groundwater) – 200-300 years, the water in
the oceans – 3000 years, artesian groundwater – 5000 years, water
hidden in continental glaciers – 8000 years. These parameters allow
to estimate, how much water participates in a overall cycle per
year – these are only 0.03% of the total amount of water, but all the
water on the Earth makes a complete cycle only in about 3000 years.
Although the fresh water supply is significant, not all the surface
and underground water can be used for human economic activities.
Regarding the number of global population from the perspective
of separate continents, these values can be reflected as available
freshwater amounts per capita (Table 8.1).
Table 8.1. Fresh water available for economic activities, 2005
Available
Available
amount of Available
freshwater
Population, freshwater in underground
Continents in bodies of
millions the form of freshwater km3/
water, km3/per
ice, km3/per per capita
capita
capita
North America 332 271.08 81.33 12 951.81
South America 378 2.38 9.08 7936.51
Europe 732 24.89 3.45 2185.79
Africa 924 0.0002 34.39 5952.38
Asia 3968 15.37 7.72 1965.73
Australia and
34 5.29 6.50 3529.41
Oceania
The World Health Organization in its recommendations indicates

that for a contemporary healthy life style of humans it is necessary
to have access to more than 1700 m3 of fresh water per capita per
year.
Water consumption, as shown in the example of drinking water
in the world today, differs significantly in various parts of the
world. In economically developed countries the average per capita
consumption reaches 500-800 litres per day (300 m3 per year),

while in most developing countries it does not exceed 60-150 litres
per day (20 m3 per year). There are also significant differences
between water consumption in large cities (300-600 litres per capita
per day) and small towns (100-150 litres per capita per day). In the
developing countries of Asia, Africa and South America water supply
in settlements reaches an average of 50-100 litres per capita per
day, but in very large areas only 20-60 litres of water per capita are
available per day.
Israel
Mongolia Lebanon
Afghanistan
Lao PDR
Turkmenistan
Kyrgyzstan
Myanmar
Tajikistan
Syrian Arab Republic
Saudi Arabia Water withdrawal by Industry
Bangladesh
sector in selected Asian countries
Democratic People's Iran
Republic of Korea Milion of cubic metres per year
Singapore
Pakistan 35 000
Chile Uzbekistan
Republic of Thailand 18 000
Korea
Kazakhstan
3 000
Iraq Philip- Malaysia
pines
India Ukraine
Japan
Figure 8.3. Water

withdrawal by industry Indonesia Russian
in Asian countries Federation
(millions of m3/year)
(Riccardo Pravettoni,
GRID-Arendal)
However, already in the 2005 more than 30 countries, whose

inhabitants make up 8% of the world’s population, experienced
chronic fresh water shortage and this process will intensify in
the future. The main water consumption sectors may differ quite
considerably in the countries around the world, depending on the
nature of their economy. There is a reason to believe that in the near
future the water consumption will increase mostly for agricultural
purposes.

The lack of available freshwater causes suffering to the wildlife
in all its different varieties, and to people. Although the cases
where people’s deaths are due to water shortage are very rare and
they are a result of a particular accident, a natural disaster or an
ill-considered action, the inadequate supply of clean water to the
households causes spreading of a large number of diseases. Due
to such characteristic diseases as diarrhoea, malaria and parasite-
caused diseases up to 500 million people suffer annually and more
than 3 million people die, the majority of them being children and
adolescents.
USA India Lithuania

3% 5%
8% 15%
3%
27%
Figure 8.4. The use
of water resources
65% depending on the
82%
92% national economy –
the U.S.A, India and
Domestic Agriculture Industry Lithuania
Although the Baltic States and Latvia in particular are among

the best provided with underground water resources in the world,
nevertheless, also in these countries the conservation and efficient
use of the water resources is just as important as in the rest of the
world.
8.2. Natural water composition and conditions

of formation
The formation of the natural water sources is complex and it
is influenced by a number of factors, among which the conditions
of physical geography and geology are of particular importance
(such as the relief, climate, rock formation and weathering, soil
cover, vegetation). The composition of water also depends on the
environment, in which it is located; it is different in seas and oceans,
rain, underground and on the surface. It should be noted that the
water composition and properties vary depending on the external
conditions and that the natural variability of the water content is
due to the ability of the substances forming the lithosphere and
atmosphere to dissolve in water. Today the composition of water can
be very significantly influenced by the human economic activities.

Site-specific relief indirectly affects the water composition. The
relief primarily affects water change regime – surface and under
ground runoff, distribution of precipitation. The relief of the place
also affects the migration of salts in the soils, their bogging trends,
which in turn affect the water content. The climate influences the
water composition by weather conditions, and the main factors here
are the amount of precipitation, temperature and water evaporation
regime. Since the mineralization of atmo spheric precipitation is
lower than the surface water mineralization, great amounts of pre
cipitation may decrease it. On the other hand, as a result of the
cross-border transfer of air masses, particularly in modern times, the
substances in air masses can affect the composition of precipitation.
The development of ‘acid rain’ takes place in this manner, and
this type of process is largely responsible for the environ mental
contamination with persistent pollutants – mercury, organo-chlorine
substances.
Another set of factors affecting the chemical composition of
water is related to the solubility changes of various salts due to
tem perature changes and other processes which determine the
amount and form of dissolved substances. The regional climate
significantly influences such a factor of water composition formation
as evaporation. Rock weathering also has an important role in the
formation process of water content.
Minerals and rocks are formed and disintegrated (weathered)
as a result of exposure to physical (mechanical), chemical and bio
logical factors. The rock weathering is determined by the fact that
the minerals formed in high-temperature and pressure conditions,
can be unstable in contact with water, especially if it is saturated
Minerals are naturally with carbon dioxide and oxygen. Chemical weathering of rocks is
occurring inorganic caused by the impact of natural waters and carbon dioxide gas,
compounds, which have salts and organic substances dissolved therein. This reaction is
a crystalline structure based on the oxidation or reduction, which occurs with mineral-
and a particular chemical
bound substances, their hydrolysis, dissolution, ion hydration
composition. Rocks are
stable geological bodies and transformation in such particles, which are found in natural
that are composed of waters. Chemical weathering predominantly takes place with active
mineral aggregates. participation of either carbon dioxide (carbonates), sulfates or
The rocks make up the water organic substances. Rock weathering is one of the key factors
Earth’s crust. According
significantly affecting the mineral composition of natural waters.
to the origin, the
rocks are classified as Today, for example, the aluminum content levels in natural waters
magmatic, sedimentary are increased by intense weathering of aluminosilicate under the
or metamorphic. impact of acid rain.
Igneous rocks are formed of magma, as it cools and hardens
in the depths of the Earth (intrusive magmatic rock) or flowing
out to the surface of the Earth in the form of volcanic lava
(effusive rock). Metamorphic rocks are formed from magmatic

rocks and sedimentary rocks, as well as older metamorphic rocks
in metamorphism processes. Metamorphism is a set of geological
and geochemical processes, in which under the exposure of high
temperature, pressure and chemically active solutions and gases,
the changes in rock mineralogical composition and structure take
place. The major sedimentary rocks are clay, conglomerate rocks
(sandstone, breccia, conglomerates) and carbonate rocks. Clayey
rocks predominantly consist of silicates and aluminosilicates, but for
their composition potassium, magnesium and iron compounds are of
great importance.
Carbonate rocks consist of magnesium and calcium carbonates.
Water composition is formed as minerals and rocks dissolve in
aquatic environment, or as a result of their chemical transformation.
The main minerals whose weathering affects the composition of
natural waters are the rock salt (NaCl), gypsum (CaSO4 · 2H2O),
calcite (CaCO3), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2), siderite (FeCO3), goethite
(FeOOH), quartz (SiO2) and aluminosilicates. The composition of
There is a distinction between complete and partial dissolution natural waters, is very
of the rocks. As a result of complete dissolution a mineral is fully significantly affected
dissolved, forming only water-soluble substances. Partial dissolution by the leaching of
results in water-soluble substances and a new mineral. The main
substances from the soil.
This effect can manifest
groups of substances affecting mineral dissolution, are acids itself in two ways:
dissolved in water (carbonic acid, sulfuric acid, hydrogen sulphide, 1. by changing the che‑
organic acids, humic acids), gases. Mineral stability (resistance to mical composition of
weathering) greatly differs. This means that in the soil, which is a water that percolates
mixture of several minerals, some of these will dissolve significantly through the soil;
2. by impacting the
faster than the others. Based on the way they affect the natural groundwater chemical
water content, the most important of mineral weathering processes composition.
is the silicate and carbonate weathering.
The intensity of each of these processes is determined by the
soil type and composition. Soils rich in organic matter (humus),
especially in swampy areas, first of all enrich the waters with humic
substances. Black earth, but especially clay (loam, clay, loess) soils
promote ion composition changes in natural waters. It should be
noted that the interaction of waters with the mineral substances
existing in soil takes place with an active participation of CO2.
The biological factors also influence the formation of
water composition. It is particularly associated with activity of
microorganisms. A set of biological factors determines the biological-
biogenic transformation of natural waters, which, in turn, affects the
microelements and determines the content of organic substances.
Microorganisms are found even in groundwater up to 1000 m
deep, and can grow at temperatures from 0 to 90 °C. The presence
of microorganisms fundamentally affects the gas regime and
determines the synthesis, dissolution and transformation of organic

substances. The presence of microorganisms is the main determinant
in the degradation processes of environmental pollutants and toxic
substances. Water quality and composition is actively influenced by
plants and animals.
The final stage in creating the water quality is completed by
various water mixing processes, which may change the composition
of water, for example, in case of poorly soluble salt formation. When
the waters of various content mix, deposition of the dissolved or
suspended substances is typical.
Since the water solubility of many substances is very high,
the content of different dissolved substances in natural waters can
vary significantly – from a few milligrams per litre up to tens or
hundreds of grams per litre. Depending on the concentration of
dissolved substances and ions, they are classified as dominant,
macro components and microelements (Table 8.2).
Table 8.2. Classification of substances and ions dissolved in water,

depending on their concentration
Concentration levels of substances Characteristic ions and dissolved

dissolved in the water substances
Predominant components HCO3–, Ca2+, Mg2+, Si, Na+, Cl–, SO42–, CO2,
(more than 5 mg/l) O2, organic substances
Macro-components
CO32–, Fe, P, NH4+, NO3–, NO2–, K+, F–, H2S
(concentration from 0.01 to 10 mg/l)
Al, As, Ba, Be, Bi, Br, Cd, Ce, Cr, Co, Cu,
Microelements
Ga, Ge, Au, In, I, La, Pb, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni,
(concentration <0.01 mg/l)
Pt, Ra, Se, Ag, Sn, W, U, Zn
One of the most important characteristics of natural waters is

a substantial variability of different inorganic ion concentration. If
the waters of the seas and oceans are dominated by sulphate ions,
in fresh water higher concentrations of hydrogen carbonate ions
predominate.
8.3. Most significant water pollution problems

As a result of human activities the water is pervaded by
substances different from those formed in natural processes, and
they significantly affect water composition and properties. These
are inorganic substances (biogenic elements, inorganic salts, toxic
microelements, and radionuclides), organic substances (biologically
readily degradable substances, petroleum products, pesticides,
surfactants etc.) as well as physical impacts (Table 8.4).

Table 8.4. Groups of major water pollutants
Inorganic salts
Pesticides
Persistent organic compounds (e.g., polychlorinated biphenyls)
Radionuclides
Oil and its derivatives (such as diesel fuel)
Biogenic elements (e.g., nitrate ions, phosphate ions)
Surfactants
Metal compounds
Gases
Toxic inorganic substances (such as cyanide ions)
The heat (thermal pollution)
Pathogenic microorganisms
A significant source of water pollution is the use of chemical

fertilizers in agriculture (Figure 8.5).
140
Industrially developed countries
120 Development countries
100
Consumption, kg/ha
80
60
40
Figure 8.5. Changes
20 of chemical fertilizer
consumption trends
0 in industrialized and
1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 developing countries
In Uzbekistan pollution of water with biogenic and organic

substances is significant and widespread, while other types and
elements of pollution are characteristic only of the local point
pollution sources.
The term «biogenic elements» denotes the nutrients of living
aquatic organisms – nitrogen compounds (inorganic ions NH4+, Biogenic elements –
NO2–, NO3 – and organic nitrogen compounds), phosphorus com nutrients whose
pounds (inorganic PO43–, HPO42–, H2PO4 –, polyphosphate ions and presence is required
organic compounds) as well as iron and silicon compounds in their for the development of
different oxidation levels and forms, taking into account their great living organisms.
importance in ensuring aquatic life processes.

Ammonia (ammonium ions) is formed in water reservoirs as a
result of decomposition of organic nitrogenous substances. However,
more often its content levels are determined by organic waste
(slurry, sewage, excrements), household and industrial waste inflow
into water bodies where nitrogen can be found in organic substances
(proteins, amino acids, amines, nucleic acids). Decomposition of
organic substances produces intermediates – relatively large quantity
and variety of nitrogen compounds, however, their accumulation in
water does not occur, as their biological stability is low. Depending
on the pH of environment, the ammonia in water exists as NH4+ ion
(if the water pH <7) or non-dissociated NH4OH. If the pH reaction is
alkaline, then the share of water-dissolved ammonia increases in the
balance of this nitrogen compound form. Ammonium ions are toxic,
especially for fish. Binding with organic or suspended substances
reduces the bioavailability of ammonium ions. In natural waters
ammonium ion content depends on the nature of biological processes
therein and thus the concentration of ammonium ions is affected by
the seasonal changes. Typically, in the summer season their intense
assimilation takes place, whereas in winter their concentration in
waters increases.
Nitrite ions (NO2–) are mainly formed as the intermediates
of nitrogen compound transformation – the oxidation of NH4+ or
reduction of NO3 –. In uncontaminated waters the nitrite ions can be
found in trace amounts (>0.001 mg/l NO2–) and the increase in their
concentration is an important indicator of pollution.
Nitrate ions (NO3 –) can be found practically in any waters. The
clean surface water’s nitrate concentration is generally 0.4 to 8 mg/l,
but that of a contaminated water – up to 50 mg/l NO3 –. The nature of
seasonal variability of nitrate ions is similar to that of other biogenic
elements. The character of nitrate seasonal variability is affected
by the differences between their supply and consumption sources.
The main sources of pollution are chemical ferti lizers leaching
from the soil, organic and inorganic chemical transformations and
reactions. Pollution intensity influences the differences in nitrate ion
concentration values in the river waters.
Nitrogen compound forms are interconnected and these
compounds can change into one another. The nitrogen compound
cycle is determined by microorganism activity. The key process
in this cycle is the binding of nitrogen, which takes place in the
course of photosynthesis (assimilation). Assimilation leads to
formation of organic nitrogen compounds. As they decompose, the
ammonia – ammonium salts – are formed (ammonification), which
are subsequently converted into nitrates and nitrites (nitrification).
Nitrification can also be defined as organic and inorganic nitrogen
compound oxidation.

Valency -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5
(NH2)
Ammonification
Biosynthesis
Nitrate assimilation
Nitrification
NH4+ NH2OH HNO2 NO2– NO3–

Figure 8.6. Reactions
of nitrogen compound
N2 fixation Denitrification
transformation in soil
N2 N2O and water
The primary source of nitrogen compounds is atmospheric nitro

gen fixation, which is performed by a few species of bacteria and
in the nitrogen fixation reactions in blue-green algae. It is believed
that the internal waters, depending on the intensity of the biological
processes, the nitrogen fixation may form around 1 g N/m2/year.
Today, the biologically assimilable naturally bound nitrogen amount
is comparable to industrially implemented nitrogen fixation, whose
first stage is the synthesis of ammonia, which in turn is used as
a source of synthesis of nitrogen fertilizers and other nitrogen
compounds. Thus, the nitrogen compound source in waters is atmo
spheric precipitation, direct nitrogen assimilation and surface runoff.
The nitrogen fixation occurs as a result of NO3– ions’ reduction under
the exposure to microorganisms (denitrification), under the formation
of N2, and the binding in the sediment. Nitrogen compound fall with
the atmospheric precipitation determines their total balance.
The role of Phosphorus compounds in the ongoing reactions in
the aquatic environment is determined by their function in hydro
biont metabolism and the fact that only relatively modest amounts
of phosphorus are available in hydrosphere. Compared with the
other elements required to be present for the development of
living organisms (C, H, O, N, Fe, S), phosphorus is considerably
less common and thus its limited availability often restricts the
development of living organisms. In water phosphorus can be found
in the form of many compounds. Increased amounts of phosphate
ions (H2PO4 –, HPO42–, PO43–) enter the waters mostly due to human
economic activity. As a result of anthropogenic contamination

phosphorus also gets into the water in the polyphosphate form. How
ever, often more than 90% of the total amount of phosphorus com
pounds may be organic compounds, or associated with suspended
substance.
The major organic phosphorus compounds, found in waters, are
nucleic acids, proteins, their degradation products, vitamins, ATP,
ADP, carbohydrates, their phosphoric acid esters, phospholipids. The
most important inorganic phosphorus compound found in waters
(particularly in the sediment phase), is hydroxyapatite, and various
phosphorous compounds which have sorbed on particles of clay,
carbonate, iron hydroxide. A significant proportion of phosphorus
compounds can also be found in the waters in the form of colloidal
particles.
Given that phosphorus may be present in waters in a form of
several compounds, whose bioavailability is different, it is important
to determine not only the total phosphorus content, but also the
phosphorus forms.
Phosphorus compounds have a great importance in eutrophi
cation processes of water reservoirs and, if the phosphate content
is >0.05 mg/l, with a sufficient quantity of nitrogen compounds,
an intensive growth and multiplication of algae and other aquatic
plants can begin in the water body under favourable conditions. The
phosphate content of the waste water can reach high values, and
to get rid of that, special technologies are required. When entering
the bodies of water, phosphorus compounds are assimilated in
hydrobionts, but, as they decompose, the phosphorus compounds
largely accumulate in the sediments. As a result of changes in
environmental conditions, the phosphorus accumulated in sediments
may be released, creating the so-called internal pollution load.
Silicates are found in natural waters not only in the form of
silicic acid anion (HSiO3 –, SiO3 –), but mostly as polymer compounds
and colloids. The most significant source of silicates in waters is the
mineral weathering of silicate. Since the silicate weathering intensity
is greatly dependent on the ambient temperature, the watercourses
of warm climates usually have much higher silicon content than
waters in the temperate zone. Silicon is a biogenic element and it is
extensively assimilated by aquatic living organisms, mainly diatoms.
If the silicon content falls below 0.5 mg/l, many diatom species
fail to develop normally, i.e., silicon content in water becomes the
limiting element in the development of algae. The silicon content in
lakes is typically around 5 to 10 mg/l, the sea and ocean waters
contain around 0.5 to 3.0 mg/l, but especially soft waters can have
the content of 50 mg/l SiO3 –. Groundwater silicon content can be as
high as 3000 mg/l. Silicon dioxide (silica) solubility increases with
rising water temperature and decreasing environmental pH.

Iron can be found in natural waters in more than one form –
ionic form (Fe2+, Fe3+), iron hydroxide, oxyhydroxide that both
can create water-suspended particles, and may also be sorbed on
the solid particle surface in the form of colloidal particles, as well
as in the form of humic acid and fulvic acid salts. The fate of iron
compounds in the aquatic environment is affected by the oxidation-
reduction processes and the presence of oxygen.
Eutrophication is a plant primary production intensification due
to rise of nutrient concentration (Table 8.5) in waters.
Table 8.5. Elements required for plant development and their sources in
waters
Element Source of elements Function

Macro-elements:
carbon (CO2) atmosphere, living organisms forms biomass
«Eutrophic» is a deriva‑
hydrogen water forms biomass
tive of the Greek origin
oxygen water, air forms biomass meaning «well fed.»
nitrogen atmosphere, living organisms protein This name represents
mineral weathering, DNA, RNA, ATP the conditions in the
phosphorus water body due to the
living organisms metabolism
increase of biogenic
potassium mineral weathering protein
elements, when the
sulfur mineral weathering, sulfates metabolism biological processes are
calcium mineral weathering metabolism greatly intensified. It is
Microelements: first observed as growth
of algae, accumulation
B, Cl, Co, Cu, Fe, Mo,
Mineral weathering metabolic functions of organic matter, and
Mn, F, V, Zn
eventually leads to a
significant deterioration
Generally, the eutrophication is a natural process and it is of water quality.
considered to be one of the basic stages in the development process
of water body (Figure 8.7) – from the oligotrophic state, as the life
processes develop and biogenic elements are supplied from the
catchment area, entering into eutrophic, and finally to become
overgrown. At the same time, anthropogenic water pollution
can significantly speed up this process and lead to anthropogenic
eutrophication. Eutrophic waters are characterized by high biogenic
element concentrations in water and sediment (water phosphorus
content >20 µg/l), high content of organic substances in the
water, high biological productivity of water, muddy water, oxygen
deficiency in the demersal zone and typically anoxic environment
under the ice in the winter period, the loss of biodiversity while the
total mass of living organisms in the waters increase. Oligotrophic
waters are clear waters with low organic substance content, low
biological productivity, high oxygen content in the water, high
biodiversity in the waters, but a low total mass of living organisms.

a
Figure 8.7. The process

of lake evolution
and overgrowing.
a – oligotrophic c
waters; b – the gradual
accumulation of
organic sediments and
biological productivity
growth; c – coastal
overgrowth formation d
and the conversion
of water body into
eutrophic; d – most
of the water body is
overrun by sediments,
e
the foreshore is
completely overgrown;
e – lake turns into a
swamp.
The process of eutrophication is based on creating optimal

conditions for the development of aquatic organisms, which
normally requires micro-and macro-elements. If the elements such
as carbon, hydrogen, calcium and magnesium are always excessive
in natural waters, in reality the development of living organisms is
decided by biogenic elements: nitrogen compounds, silicon, but first
of all, phosphorus. Consequently, discharge of household sewage and
other wastewater, and also entry of surface runoff from agricultural
areas in watercourses, start off the eutrophication process. The fact
that the eutrophication processes are first of all determined by the
presence of phosphorus compounds is proved by the dependence of
algae growth on the presence of phosphorus compounds in water.
Nitrogen is the limiting element in eutrophication considerably less
frequently and it is typical first of all of the marine waters.
The causes of eutrophication are as follows:
1. lake water level decline during excessive lake exploitation;
2. rapid filling of lakes with sludge containing silt from the soil
erosion in the catchment area (deforestation, agriculture);
3. direct eutrophication as a result of diffuse or point source
nutrient inflow.

Productivity
Biological diversity
Dissolved substances
Desired fish species
Low value fish species
Figure 8.8.
Eutrophication effects in
Oligotrophic Mesotrophic Eutropic the waters
These three main causes lead to the disintegration of the lake

ecosystems and the loss of biodiversity in lakes as living environ
ments, as well as the decline of the biodiversity and productivity.
The interrelation of various organism groups or organisms –
indicators are used for biological determination of the trophic level
in lakes.
To remedy the consequences of eutrophication, different
methods are used, but first of all the inflow of biogenic elements Figure 8.9. Eutrophic
must be curbed, i.e., the change of land use as the determinant of waters with heavy algal
blooms during summer
eutrophication is necessary. Often the biogenic elements must be season
removed from the lake ecosystem. Deepening of the lake, sludge
removal is one of the effective, albeit extensive and expensive
methods, as is the use of biological methods – mowing and removal
of vegetation, change of species composition (especially fish) and
intensive fishing.
The most significant signs and criteria of eutrophication are as
follows:
increased algae production, often more than 10 times;
the color spectrum and turbidity of the water intensifies,
transparency is reduced to 0.5 m and less, a depth of blue-
green algae mass silt and leach reaches more than 2 kg of
green mass per cubic meter of water;
loss of oxygen saturation in the deeper layers, and
disappearance of benthic fauna and cold-water spawning fish
species;

deep-water horizons accumulate hydrogen sulfide, carbon
dioxide, dissolved iron and / or manganese;
as a result of algae sedimentation and decomposition, the
intensive formation of methane takes place, sediment-bound
nitrogen and phosphorus compounds are released in water;
development of undergrowth and filamentous algae;
if the water turbidity is increased, the transparency falls
below 0.3 m, and rapidly (even within one year) underwater
vegetation disappears;
suffocation of fish under the ice or as a result of intense
photosynthesis in summer, which determines the pH increase
The amount of organic and promotes intoxication.
material dissolved in The processes in nature, which are characterized by these
waters is characterized
features, are irreversible.
by determining the
amount of oxygen that Water contamination with organic substances always has a very
is consumed by either complex character. Organic pollutants are able to actively interact
chemical oxidation of with a variety of naturally-occurring substance groups. Another
organic matter (chemical special feature characteristic of this group of substances is that they
oxygen demand – COD), are strongly affected (transformed, destroyed) by a variety of living
or as the aquatic living
organisms consuming
organisms, primarily bacteria, fungi, yeasts.
dissolved substances The complex chemical content of the organic environ mental
as a result of their life pollutants usually makes it difficult to analyse the waste water
processes (biological containing these substances. Typically, such waste water is analysed
oxygen demand – BOD). by looking at the organic substances at a certain aggregate amount,
which is able to consume oxygen, according to COD or BOD values.
On the other hand, the water-dissolved oxygen content might
be considered as a different criterion, whose content values show
the inflow of biodegradable organic substances into the waters.
Figure 8.10. illustrates the general concepts, which characterize
the changes in the composition of waters in case of the waste water
discharge.
BOD
Oxygen saturation
Oxygen
Pollution
source
Figure 8.10. Biological
oxygen demand and
water-dissolved oxygen
content changes in the
river water, in case of River flow
waste water discharge

In case of sewage inlet, the changes in water are characterized
by the increasing demand for biological oxygen, decrease of the
water-dissolved oxygen content, increase of the nitrogen content
(and the nitrogen compounds usually are in the form of ammonium
ions). In the event of water pollution with biologically labile
substances, typical changes include alteration in water biocenosis
(living organism communities) structure, which is primarily related
to a drastic drop in biodiversity, and the increase of overall biomass
of living organisms.
Only at a certain distance from the point of discharge of
pollutants, the water composition is restored to that which is typical
to the environment unaffected by anthropogenic action. River
pollution with organic substances is caused by industrial facilities
on river banks (food and wood processing complexes, paper mills
and textile plants) discharging untreated or poorly treated waste
water. The specific character of river ecosystem response to this
contamination is related to water exchange opportunities provided
by the river currents. Depending on the speed of the current and
the amount of discharged organic substances, the river ecosystems Figure 8.11. Discharge
of untreated
have certain self-cleaning abilities. The term «self-cleaning» denotes wastewaters is a
the capacity of microorganisms, plants and other aquatic organisms common source of river
to break down, consume and mineralize the organic substances water pollution
injected into the river, including those in their biomass or removing
from the ecosystem in the form of minerals and carbon dioxide. The
process takes place in several stages, each of which can be assigned Aerobic environment –
to a certain zone downstream of the pollution intake site. an environment where
Usually there are four distinguishable self-cleaning zones: the oxygen content
1. Degradation zone. In this area of the river water mixes is sufficient to sustain
the life processes of
with pollutants. The water becomes cloudy, inadequate for oxygen-consuming
development of water plants and other organisms. However, organisms. Anaerobic
here species consuming the organic substance particles may environment – oxygen-
reproduce. As the heaviest particles sink to the river bottom, the free environment.
organic sediment layer is formed.
2. Active decomposition zone. Here the concentration of organic
pollutants causes rapid proliferation of water microorganisms,
bacteria and fungi, and they commence the biological
degradation of organic substances. A vital factor in this process
is the oxygen content in the water. All aquatic invertebrates
and fish use the oxygen for respiration. However, in the
active zone it is also in large quantities consumed by aerobic
microorganisms. Therefore the oxygen deficiency is observed
here. It is characterized by the biological oxygen demand. While
oxygen is still sufficient, the organic substances are degraded by
the aerobic microorganisms. As the amount of oxygen decreases,
they are replaced by anaerobic microorganisms. In this zone a

large number of microorganisms and a multiplicity of forms can
be observed, which depend both on the chemical composition
of the waste water and on the quantity of organic particles
suspended therein.
3. Regeneration zone. Here from the active disintegration zone
the minerals – nitrate ions, phosphate ions and various micro
elements – are borne, which are liberated in the decomposition
process of organic substances. Since the active decomposition
of organic substances no longer takes place here, the water is
slowly recovering the oxygen content, and turbidity decreases.
This creates ideal conditions for the development of algae and
aquatic plants. As a result, the algae proliferate abundantly here.
Oil can get into the 4. Purified zone. In this zone the condition of river ecosystem
aquatic environment: approaches the initial one. Nutrients have been assimilated by
as a result of various aquatic plants. As a result of photosynthesis the oxygen levels
accidents;
in the water have returned to normal. Therefore, the fish and
by rainwater runoff
leaching from invertebrates characteristic of clean water again appear in the
urbanized or industrial river. However, it should be emphasized that in case of major
areas. pollution with organic substances the biological self-cleaning
According to the ways never achieves the original condition of the river ecosystem.
of contamination listed Thus, the river self-cleaning process includes logical, sequential
above, the water protec‑ changes of many essential indicators. The river self-cleaning process
tion measures must be described above is portrayed schematically. In a real situation,
undertaken.
its pace is dependent both on the type of waste water and on the
Marine waters can velocity of its current.
become contaminated: Pollution of natural waters with oil is particularly dangerous.
as a result of tanker Like other aquatic environment pollutants, oil is a complex mixture
accident; of various substances, which, depending on the oil extraction source,
with wash and rinse consists of linear hydrocarbons (C6–C25 paraffins), cycloalkanes,
water of tanker ships;
from oil rigs in the sea.
aromatic hydrocarbons (mono and polycyclic) and also contains
aromatic carboxylic acids, organo-sulfur compounds and other
hydrocarbons.
This form of pollution is characterized by leakage of a large
mass of oil into the marine waters and contamination of vast
territories. Upon entry of oil and its products into the aquatic
environ ment, it quickly spreads along the surface of the water,
creating a surface film, for example, 15 tons of mazout leaking for
6-7 days can cover about 20 km2 of water surface. This condition
involves one of the major hazards characteristic to environmental
pollution by oil, namely, it disrupts the air exchange between the
Figure 8.12. Oil
spills from ships is a atmosphere and water, which in turn can lead to fish suffocation and
significant pollution other consequences. Waterfowl landing in the contaminated water,
source become covered in sticky oil.
Another feature of such a surface film is that many other pollutants
are concentrated therein, primarily organochlorine compounds. For

example, the pesticide dieldrin concentration factor in such surface
film increases up to 10 000 times. In addition, such a surface layer can
accumulate heavy metals, particularly mercury compounds.
After entry of oil and its products into the environment, further
transformation processes take place. First of all, the volatile oil
fractions (benzene, xylene, octane, lower paraffins and cyclo
paraffins) evaporate.
Further transformations take place through a variety of micro
organisms. Since the oil composition is very complex, its biodestruc
tion takes place under the influence of several groups of organisms,
each of which has its own specifics. Primary degradation processes
result in a new group of compounds, which themselves may not
be less toxic than the original oil products, and their further
transformations are implemented by different organisms. Of the oil
products the first to be degraded are paraffins, and subsequently
cycloparaffins. The polyaromatic hydrocarbons are most stable.
The total oil oxidation rate depends on the ambient temperature
and oxygen content in the water, and this last factor can be used
as the indicator of the intensity of contamination destruction
processes.
It is estimated that, in order to oxidize 4 liters of crude oil, as
much oxygen is consumed, as is contained in 1 500 000 litres of sea
water saturated with oxygen. It is contained by a 30 cm thick layer Synthetic detergents
of sea water in the area of 500 m2. As a result of the degradation contain a variety of sub‑
process and the mechanical action of waves the homogeneous oil stances that may pollute
film is gradually being destroyed, initially through formation of the the aquatic environment:
bleaches / whitening
oil droplet emulsion in the water, from which, through evaporation agents (various
and adhesion, greasy oil clumps are formed, which then are often oxidizing agents) such
washed ashore. as sodium perborate;
Through the natural oil degradation processes the water enzymes such as lipase;
environment decontamination of the oil pollution is accomplished. corrosion inhibitors
such as sodium silicate;
In the past, water pollution with oil was eliminated either by fragrances;
adding a variety of surfactants to the water, which helped to destroy inert substances
the film on the surface, or carbonized sand, which contributed to (fillers) such as sodium
the sedimentation of the surface film. However, this approach had a sulphate;
disadvantage – it did not fundamentally eradicate the environmental stabilizers, such as
magnesium silicate.
pollution, but simply transferred it to another location or time
postponed?. In addition, the toxic effects of many surfactants were However, from an
even greater than those of oil products. environmental point of
view, the most important
Given the urgency of the matter, recently many techniques are two components of
have been developed to prevent the environment pollution by oil synthetic detergents:
products, among which the preference should be given to the use of 1. surfactants;
selectively operating micro-organisms. 2. water softeners.
Today, the question arises regarding the contamination of water
environment with synthetic detergents.

Surfactants are a group of water-soluble organic substances,
which concentrate on surfaces and reduce the surface tension of
water. The main constituting elements which determine the impact
of a substance on the surface tension of the aqueous solution is an
asymmetric molecular structure: surfactant molecules consist of
two parts – a water-repellent grouping – a hydrophobic part and
a – hydrophilic (water attracting) part. In soaps the hydrophobic
group has a relatively long linear hydrocarbon residue, and the
hydrophilic group is the carboxyl group.
There are the following groups of surface active agents (SAA):
1. Anionactive SAA. The molecules of these surface-active
substances are composed of hydrocarbon residue (hydrophobic
part) and the sulfato-, sulphonato-, phosphate – or carboxy
groups. This is the most important group of surface-active
agents, used in manufacturing both liquid and solid detergents.
This group of surfactants comprises:
soaps, such as sodium stearate CH3(CH2)16COO – Na+;
sulphonated aromatic or linear hydrocarbons, for example,
C12H25(C6H4)SO3 – Na+, C15H31SO3 – Na+;
higher alcohol sulphates such as sodium dodecyl sulphate,
C12H25OSO3 – Na+;
higher alcohol phosphates;
2. Cationic SAA, whose molecules consist of a hydrophobic
Figure 8.13. Structure of
micelle hydrocarbon residue and the grouping bearing ammonium ions.
The application sphere of this surfactant group is relatively
limited, but these substances are used as a disinfectant and
antiseptic components in detergents.
3. Non-ionic SAA, in whose molecules hydrophilic residue is made
up by ethylene glycol residue. This group of surfactants can
be obtained by treating alcohols, fatty acids and phenols with
ethylene oxide or ethylene chlorohydrin.
In addition to synthetic surfactants, there are also many
natural substances that can be used as detergents, such as casein,
saponins, lecithin, lanolin derivatives, and polysaccharides.
Surfactants – synthetic detergents – today are considered one
of the most important groups of substances whose production is
constantly increasing. After the use of these substances, they enter
the treatment facilities.
Under the biological treatment conditions, SAA decompose far
more slowly than the natural detergents – fatty acids and their salts,
and the decomposition process consumes large amounts of oxygen.
In addition, the breakdown products invest the water with an
unpleasant taste and odour, as well as cause foaming. Of the three
types of SAAs the most toxic are the cationic surfactants.

Water softener additives in detergents are needed to reduce the
The sources of substan‑
ces conferring unpleasant
adverse effects of water hardness. These substances bind calcium and taste and odour are
magnesium ions in stable complexes. The water softeners used most different:
often are polyphosphates, sodium tripolyphosphate (Na3H2P3O10), 1. living organic
sodium silicate or organic substances. These substances cause water matter decomposition
eutrophication. products;
2. phenols and lignins,
The compound which often has a significant impact on water which, at water disin‑
quality is hydrogen sulfide H2S. Hydrogen sulfide is formed in fection with chlorine,
anaerobic environ ment, it is easily soluble and one of the few form chlorophenols
compounds whose amount in water is regulated by the water quality with a strong unple‑
standards. Although hydrogen sulfide is toxic, its presence is felt at asant smell;
3. algae and bacteria give
significantly lower concentrations than those, which, when reached, off many metabolites,
begin to cause the toxic effects of hydrogen sulfides. whose presence in
In general, substances that adversely affect the taste and odour water may give it the
of drinking water are not regulated by any standards. There are odour of rot, soil, hay,
several reasons for this. In general, substances which impair taste potatoes etc., as well
as, for example, a bitter
and smell of water are contained in water in microscopic quantities,
taste.
and their effect is not toxic.
Water can be contaminated due to the presence of increased
amounts of many metals and microelements. Pollutants with a
particularly hazardous impact on the aquatic environment are lead,
mercury, copper, zinc, cadmium, chromium and nickel. In the last
century, when tetraethyllead lead was added as antiknock agent to
automotive fuel, 25 000 tons of lead compounds annually entered sea
and ocean waters. All heavy metals are highly toxic to aquatic life.
Particularly high toxicity is characteristic of mercury (Hg). The
exposure to this pollutant was first noted in 1956, in Minamata Bay,
Japan, where more than 100 people died of a massive poisoning and
10 000 more developed serious health disorders. Intoxication was
caused by methylmercury contamination of marine products – fish,
crabs and shellfish – consumed by coastal fishermen. The pollutant
had run into the sea with the sewage of a chemical plant. The
mercury salts were used as a catalyst in the production process of
acetaldehyde. Due to the accumulation of mercury compounds in
the ecological food chain, the content in marine organisms used for
human consumption was 500 000 times higher than in the sea water.
The mercury poisoning consequences for people who regularly ate
seafood included severe central nervous system disorders in the
form of a narrowing of the visual field, hearing impairment, speech
impairment, loss of reason, unsafe walk and seizures. As the disease
causes were not yet cleared, the symptoms were named Minamata
disease. For many people who had apparently ingested smaller
amounts of methylmercury, the symptoms began to appear only after
several years, but the children born in the region were observed to Figure 8.14. Formula of
have different congenital deformities. methylmercury

Furthermore, the illness was observed not only in the people,
but also in those pets who consume fish – cats. These animals were
recorded with behavioral problems – they had lost the aversion to
water inherent to cats.
Minamata disease symptoms appeared at a mercury concentra
tion of 10 mg/kg of edible fish. Numerous studies have found that
dangerously high contamination with methylmercury has also been
registered in other parts of the world, including the northern coast
of the Mediterranean Sea, NE Atlantic and the Baltic Sea. Entry of
mercury compounds in the Baltic Sea mainly takes place with river
water (8-44 t/year) and precipitation (4-29 t/year) they reach the
sea in significantly smaller amounts by the waste water of the cities
and factories located on the coast. Marine organisms accumulate
methylmercury. The biggest concentrations of mercury are found at
the highest stages of marine ecological food chain – the bodies of
seals, and the concentration increases significantly with age.
The human health hazard lies in the increased consumption
of the marine animal products containing growing quantities of
mercury. The organisms of the predatory fish living and feeding in
the Baltic Sea coastal area contain methylmercury concentrations
exceeding 0.5 mg/kg. In the Mediterranean Sea high mercury
content was found in swordfish. Frequent intake of mercury-
contaminated fish may cause health disorders. Particularly sensitive
to contamination are the human foetus and growing child’s body.
One of the indicators that can be used to characterize the
received doses of mercury in the body at different periods of human
life is the content of this metal in hair. Studies in Japan have shown
that the mercury concentration in the hair of the people who
regularly, for several days a week had consumed seafood products,
exceeded that of the people in the control group 5 to 10 times.
However, in accordance with scientific findings, also the people of
the studied control group, although to a much lesser extent, were
exposed to mercury pollution, which was contained in the consumed
agricultural production. Mercury compounds enter the agricultural
products as a result of applying mercury-containing grain fungicide
treatment substances. The chemical composition analysis of hair
carried out on the citizens of European countries, showed that
the mercury concentration there was similar to that found in the
control group of Japan. It indicates that in this region there is
also a heightened background of mercury pollution. Data from
these studies at the end of 1960s prompted a number of European
governments to adopt more stringent regulatory measures for
mercury compound use in industry and agriculture.
Ecologically no less dangerous are the cadmium compounds.
Cadmium is one of the most mobile and biochemically active heavy

metals. It accumulates in the kidney cortex, causing hemorrhages.
When ingested, cadmium binds itself to proteins and accumulates in
the kidneys and liver. In the Baltic Sea cadmium, similar to mercury,
is brought mainly by river water and atmo spheric precipitation.
The concentrations of this metal in fish here range from 2 to
200 µg/kg, and in molluscs – 1300 to 10 800 µg/kg of the body
weight. Cadmium, like many other polluting elements, tends to
accumulate in the ecological food chain. Threat to human health is
posed by increased accumulation of cadmium in those links of food
chain – marine organisms widely used in food. One of these fish
species is herring, in whose body an increase in cadmium content
has recently been observed.
One of the heavy metals of greatest ecological importance and
toxic to living organisms is lead. In the last century large quantities
of lead came into the sea and ocean ecosystem with industrial Figure 8.15. Lead
effluents and emissions of tetraethyllead used in road transport. historically has been
widely used as a source
Due to stricter environ mental legislation, waste water treatment
of pipes for water supply
technology improvements and the introduction of unleaded thus affecting drinking
automotive fuel, since 1980s the lead concentrations in the have water pollution level
been decreasing, as shown by the analysis of fish and molluscs. with lead
Biological pollution of waters is caused by inflow of untreated
municipal or industrial wastewater from industrial plants and
residential areas. Biological pollution consists of pathogens – viruses,
bacteria and microscopic fungi, as well as a variety of organic
substances subject to fermentation processes. Biological pollution
also manifests itself as the appearance of species not characteristic
of specific water bodies – the so-called invasive species. Pathogenic
microorganisms cause public health and hygiene problems in
bathing places. This contamination is evaluated according to the
presence of intestinal bacillus Escherichia coli in the water sample.
In itself, this bacillus is harmless to humans, they live as symbionts
in the human intestinal tract and as a result of their life processes
produce physiologically important substances, including vitamin
B12. However, the presence of Escherichia coli serves as a faecal
contamination indicator, but this contamination may conceal a
number of pathogenic microorganisms, incl. infectious hepatitis,
cholera, typhoid and dysentery agents, as well as staphylococci,
streptococci, and pathogenic fungi. Humans become infested with
these microorganisms while swimming in biologically contaminated
water, so the most popular swimming sites on sea coast, including
seaside, in summer season are regularly monitored regarding
biological contamination and, if Escherichia coli in water sample
exceeds a certain level, vacationers are warned not to go swimming.
Water contamination with pathogenic microorganisms also
makes the produce of mollusc farms – oysters and other edible

molluscs – dangerous for consumers, as it is shown that many
Sources of water pollu‑ species of molluscs in their bodies accumulate significant amounts
tion in Uzbekistan are: of pathogenic viruses. It is believed that in a number of cases
contamination as a
contaminated edible molluscs have caused localized epidemics of
result of agricultural
activity; infectious hepatitis.
contamination as a Of the industrial companies, the largest biological contamination
result of industrial in seas and oceans is created by insufficiently treated waste water
activity; from paper mills, sugar mills, meat processing and other food
contamination with
production companies, containing large amounts of organic sub
household and
municipal waste in stances subject to fermentation processes. In these processes, large
urban and rural regions. amounts of oxygen are consumed, water turbidity increases, and it
has a very negative overall impact on aquatic organisms.
At major rivers water mass contamination is increasing down
stream. Estuarines of Syr Darya and Amu Darya are characterized
by increased index of water contamination over last years, however,
river pollution during last years, is decreasing.
Exceeding the permitted usage of agrochemicals results in a
high level of contamination of agricultural land and water resources.
Industrial production is contaminating water with mainly heavy
metals, phenolics and petroleum products. Industrial, household
and municipal, manifold and drainage waters, discharged in rivers,
contain many pollutants, concentration of which in average is
2-10 times greater than permissible concentrations for household
and drinking needs, and also fishery needs. The volumes of
contaminated waters of household discharged into rivers have been
decreasing over the last years. However, the degree of purification is
not sufficiently high. Low effectiveness of water treatment facilities
(50-70% from set capacities) is a reason for high concentration of
pollutants, discharged in surface waters and drops in the area. After
purification waste waters have elevated concentrations of ammonia
ions and nitrites. A particularly difficult situation is observed
in regions with a deficit of water resources (Karakalpakstan,
Khorezm, Buchara) and in regions with a high concentration of
industrial output (Tashkent, Fergan, Samarkand, Navoji industrial
districts). Approximately 1-5% of the water used in industry is
discharged without purification. Most rivers of the region in their
lower and middle streams have an increased water mineralization:
from 1-1.5 g/l – in the middle stream, up to 2 g/l and more in
lower stream. In the lower reaches of river Amu Darya an excess
in mineralization and water hardness, also in sulfates, chlorides,
phenolics and silica is permanently recorded. Water contamination
with mercury and fluoride is approaching limit values.
The main water arteries of the Uzbekistan became almost unfit
for the drinking water supply due to absence of systematic fresh water
releases and discharges of waste water in river from irrigated soils

with excessive mineralization, polluted with pesticides and mineral
fertilizers. The provision of the population with fresh drinking water
is particularly important. Consequently, in Karakalpakstan fresh
water supply is, on the average, 61.5%, while in Berunijskij region –
36.3%, in Shumanijskij – 32.5%, in Amudarjinskij – 28.7%. In total,
more than a third of population of the country is consuming an
insufficient amount of fresh water according to the state standard.
Bibliography
Freeze R. A., Cherry J. A. (1979) Groundwater. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall Inc.
Kļaviņš M., Rodinovs V., Kokorīte I. (2002) Chemistry of surface waters of
Latvia. Rīga: LU.
Kļaviņš M., Cimdiņš P. (2004) Ūdeņu kvalitāte un tās aizsardzība. Rīga:
LU Akadēmiskais apgāds.
Manahan S. E. (1999) Fundamentals of environmental chemistry.
Boca Raton: Lewis Publ.
Praktiskās hidrobioloģijas rokasgrāmata (1995) Rīga : Vide.
Švarcbahs J., Sudārs R., Jansons V., Kļaviņš U., Dreimanis Ē., Bušmanis P.
(2001) Ekoloģija un Dabas aizsardzība. Jelgava: LLU.
Water use and management (2000) (Ed. L. C. Lundin) Uppsala:
The Baltic University.
Национальный доклад о состоянии окружающей среды и исполь
зовании природных ресурсов в Республике Узбекистан (1988-
2007). Госкомприроды. Ташкент, 2008. – 298 с.
Accessible: www.econews.uz.
Окружающая среда и безопасность в бассейне Амударьи. ЮНЕП,
ПРООН, ЕЭК ООН, ОБСЕ, РЭЦ, НАТО. 2011. – 11 с.
Accessible: www.unep.org.
Большое Аральское море в начале XXI века. Москва: Наука
2012. – 229 с.
Programme World heritage. Accessible: www.iucn.org/.
World Water Council. Accessible: www.worldwatercouncil.org.
Water Pollution Guide. Accessible: www.water-pollution.org.uk/.
Clean Water Act. Accessible: www.epa.gov/.
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Pollution/Water_Pollution/.
From the glaciers to Aral Sea. Water Unites. Accessible: www.waterunites-ca.
org/book.html.

9. POLLUTION OF SOIL
Pollutants quite often penetrate soil, affecting the organisms

that live there. However, the effect of the presence of pollutants in
soil or the lithosphere on both terrestrial animals and ecosystems
is much more considerable as these substances accumulate in food
chains. The main specific feature of the pollution of the lithosphere
and soil is its rather limited dispersal from the sources, determined
by the properties of materials that compose the soil and litho
spheric rocks. At the same time, the mobile component of the soil
environment – water, or, more exactly, the underground water – can
disperse the pollutants quite quickly. Thus, the soil and lithosphere
environmental pollution concentrates at its outlets yet can quickly
dissipate, and it intensively interacts with the soil-forming rocks.
Another significant specific feature of the soil environment is that
the degradation processes of pollutants there take place relatively
slowly because the availability of nutrients, water and oxygen
indispensable to the life of micro-organisms is often quite limited.
The soil environ ment and the litho sphere can be contaminated
by substances that have entered them directly or through atmo
spheric precipitation or water. Sulphur and nitrogen oxides, entering
soil with atmo spheric precipitation, can substantially change its
composition and affect even groundwaters.
Figure 9.1. Cotton field

in Uzbekistan
9. POLLUTION OF SOIL 187

Waste dumping is a significant source of soil degradation, and it
may cause soil contamination not only locally but also on a regional
scale, and even in deep groundwater. Underground disposal of
pollutants – for example, pumping them more than one kilometre
Virtually all groups of
major pollutants – inclu‑
ding organic compounds deep into the ground – may delimit their immediate action; however,
(volatile organic and the consequences may come about in the more distant future.
halogenated organic After the nuclear reactor accident, the fallout of radioactive
compounds, oil products, isotopes (as seen in the 137Cs example) occurred for the most part
easily degradable
in the region of the accident site, whereas a significant part of
organic substances) and
inorganic compounds radioactive elements was carried away with air masses and reached
(radioactive elements, even the Scandinavian countries.
heavy metals, toxic trace The soil contamination caused by human activity can be not only
elements) – cause the local; it may also affect vast territories – as it happened, for example,
soil and lithosphere as a consequence of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster (Figure 9.2),
contamination.
and the radioactive contamination also gradually permeates the
groundwaters.
B a l t ā j ū ra
137
Cs concentration, kBq/m2
1480 185 40 10 2
F IN L A N D
NOR W AY
S W EDEN
ESTONIA
R U S S IA
a
Se
DENMA RK
LATVIA
ic
lt
Ba
LITHUANIA
RUSSIA
Figure 9.2. Soil GERMANY BELARUS

contamination in central POL AND
and northern Europe

Chernobyl NPP
after the Chernobyl C ZEC H
U K R A IN E
nuclear disaster REPUBL I C
Soil environment and the lithosphere can be contaminated by

the substances which have gained access thereto directly as well as
the substances arriving with atmospheric precipitation or waters.
Sulfur and nitrogen oxides, brought by precipitation into the soil
are able to change its composition significantly and even to affect
groundwater.
A significant source of soil and lithosphere pollution is the
dumping of waste, which may lead to localized, but in the event
of pollution dispersion, also regional soil or even quite deep
groundwater pollution. Deposition of pollutants underground, such

as pumping them more than a kilometre in depth may limit the
immediate effect of pollutants, but the consequences of such action
may become manifest in the future.
Significant soil contamination can occur as a result of agricul
tural activities, especially due to the use of incorrect methods. Agri
cultural activities may lead to contamination of the soil with biogenic
elements, residue of crop protection products. This type of exposure
can completely destroy soil fauna.
It is believed that the soils can have quite a significant impact
on human health. Soil composition may affect the plant composition
growing in it, and therefore the human food composition. The soil
content affects the amounts of microelements consumed by humans
with food. The example of such microelements is selenium, whose
deficit or overly high amounts in human nutrition can cause specific
diseases. Similarly, fluorine, arsenic and boron content in the soil
can have a significant impact on the health of animals and humans
living in the respective region. There is evidence that the prevalence
of gastric cancer in certain cases is linked to the characteristics of
soil composition.
The pollution of the very outer layer of Earth’s crust is mainly
due to mining activities as a result of which man removes chemical
elements from the interiar of the Earth in the form of minerals, and
in the course of recycling, incineration or other processes in the form
of pollution returns them into the Earth’s crust. As a result, soil,
ground, groundwater properties and chemical composition change,
which in turn affects the processes in the biosphere, the quality of
drinking water and food.
Phenol Other
1% 5% Hydrocarbons
Cyanides 13%
1%
Heavy Organohalogens
metals 13%
31% Figure 9.3. The most
important groups of
substances, which
Polyaromatic
hydrocarbons are characteristic of
16% pollution of urban and
Oil products industrially used soils in
20%
EU countries
The second most important cause of pollution is the substances

synthesized by humans themselves (such as pesticides) that do not
occur as a result of natural processes under natural conditions.
In most cases they cause much larger problems to human living

environment and nature as a whole than the chemical elements or
Sources of pollution,
depending on the
pollutant dispersion, are their compounds existing within the Earth’s crust under natural
divided into two types: conditions. Most of the pollution that enters into the deeper layers
point source or first of all enter the soil and affect soil processes and fertility.
concentrated pollution; Point source pollution is created, for example, by oil and
diffuse or dissipated
petroleum product leakage from pipelines, landfills, vehicle wash
pollution.
and fuelling stations, and other sources. The main sources of diffuse
pollution are agricultural activities such as treatment of grain
with pesticides, as well as dissemination of various chemicals with
precipitation. Much of the contamination from point source and
diffuse pollution enter into the ground water, which can affect the
quality of drinking water.
The soil is considered to be the central node in terrestrial
ecosystems, because the whole ecosystem substance circulation
and energy flow runs through it. At the same time, the soil is also
an ecosystem component, which accumulates the environ mental
pollution created as a result of human activities. Next, depending
on the circumstances, this pollution can reach groundwater, and be
discharged into rivers and lakes with surface runoff, or remain in
the soil indefinitely, affecting terrestrial plants and animals.
The main sources of soil pollution today are agriculture,
industry and transport. In agriculture, soil contamination results
from fertilizer application in fields – the use of both organic and
mineral fertilizers, pesticide use to fight the weeds and pests of
agricultural crops.
Industrial plants can contaminate the soil with solid production
waste material, as well as with atmospheric emissions – gaseous
substances and dust, which can be transported for long distances
with the air masses and deposited in the soil or leach into the soil
with precipitation water. Unlike factory pollution, which is of a
point source type, vehicles – cars, aircrafts, trains – create gas and
dust pollution, which is diffuse, it spreads in all directions from
the motorways, thus contaminating wide areas and also the places
where there are no industrial enterprises. A particular type of
soil contamination is the radioactive contamination, which has its
origins in the nuclear tests or nuclear power plant accidents.
9.1. Contamination of soil with organic

substances
The importance of the Earth’s upper crust contamination by
oil products must be particularly emphasized. Soil, ground and
groundwater are contaminated with oil and petroleum products due

to misuse of technology or accidents in oil extraction, processing,
The soil may contain oil
and oil products in the
transportation and storage facilities. The most typical sources of following phases:
pollution are oil mining and processing, oil and petroleum product 1. in gaseous phase
pipelines, oil transport, railway territories and locomotive depot among the soil mineral
areas, fuel stations, motor transport depots, fuel storage areas and particles;
abandoned military sites. 2. as a nonaqueous liquid
phase in the soil;
In cases of oil and petroleum product spillage, when they enter 3. as a solution in the soil
the soil, they become subject to a wide variety of transformation water and groundwa‑
processes. First, there are chemical processes: oxidation, reduction, ter;
hydrolysis, photolysis and hydration processes. Secondly, physical 4. adsorbed on soil
and mechanical processes: evaporation, sorption, dissolution, particle surfaces;
viscosity and density change. Thirdly, biological processes:
biodegradation, biotransformation, bioaccumulation and toxicity
changes. First of all the volatile oil fractions (benzene, xylene,
octane, lower paraffins and cycloparaffins) evaporate. Migration Physical adsorption
of oil products is directly dependent on their solubility in water. (sorption without the
The best solubility in water is typical of aromatic hydrocarbons. chemical interaction of
70-90% of the total weight of the aromatic hydrocarbons pass substance to be sorbed
into an aqueous solution, regardless of the fuel type. Heavy oil and the sorbent) should
be distinguished from
product residues due to their physicochemical properties are almost chemical adsorption –
insoluble in water and therefore move very little. Migration of oil chemisorption (the
products in soil is affected by the soil and its composition. Sorption substance to be sorbed
characteristics of the soil and the ground below it are determined by and the sorbent interact
the mineral properties, their structure and amount. Sorption consists chemically).
of adsorption and ion exchange.
The highest sorption capacity is characteristic of clay and the
organic substances present in soil. The organic substances and clay
particles absorb the components of petroleum products very well.
The clay layer may form a geochemical barrier, and as a result the
pollution flow movement is impeded or stopped completely. In turn,
the sand in the ground with good aeration properties and due to
good filtration properties of sediment creates prerequisites that any
contamination on the surface of the Earth causes corresponding
groundwater pollution. In cases of gasoline leak into sand soil, the
petroleum product can reach the depth of more than 5 m within a
few hours’ time or overnight.
When oil products access groundwater, due to their physical
characteristics and the fact that their density is lower than the
density of water, they accumulate in the upper layer of the ground
water (on the surface of the water-bearing layer), and in many cases
a loose (floating) oil layer is formed here.
Natural environment has a selfpurification ability. Selfpurifi
cation of soil and groundwater comprises the entire set of processes
directed toward restoration of the soil, ground and groundwater
to the original composition and properties. In the soil oxidation,

biological processes are of greater importance. In the absence of
oxygen, oil product degradation slows down. The degradation rate
of oil products is influenced by the presence of nutrients (nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium compounds). These substances contribute
to the biochemical degradation of oil products. Biodegradation is
important for soil and ground selfpurification. In nature, there are
many microorganisms that use oil products as nutrients.
Soil microorganisms (bacteria and soil fungi) convert com-
Pesticides (from
Latin pestis – disease and pounds harmful to nature and humans into less toxic compounds.
-cide – to kill) are che‑ The intensity of oil biodegradation process is determined by pollu
mical compounds that tion, the environ ment and the characteristics and properties of
produce toxic effects on the micro organisms therein. In the biodegradation processes the
certain groups of living oil products serve as an energy source for microorganism activity.
organisms, from bacteria,
mould fungi to plants
Micro organisms metabolize the pollution for the maintenance of
and warm-blooded their life processes and reproduction. The end product of micro
animals. biological bio degradation is carbon dioxide, water and biomass.
Generally, the natural biodegradation process occurs more efficiently
in fertile soils with sufficient quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus.
The most important Biodegradation of petroleum products in oxidative conditions de-
groups of pesticides are:
creases in the following direction: normal alkanes → iso-alkanes →
1. insecticides – to
exterminate insects; aromatic compounds → cyclic alkanes → high molecular weight cy-
2. herbicides – weed clic compounds, asphaltenes, resins.
control; Environmental quality can be significantly affected by the
3. fungicides – control of substances used in agriculture – pesticides.
fungi;
Currently there are about 30 000 known kinds of pesticides, which
4. zoocides – destruction
of vertebrates; are divided into categories based on their application requirement.
5. repellents – to repel Pesticides are classified according to their chemical composition
harmful insects; and mode of action. Their main groups are organochlorine com
6. attractants – to attract pounds (DDT, heptachlor, aldrin, dieldrin, etc.), organophosphorus
pests; compounds and pesticides, based on carbamates and chlorophenol
7. defoliants – designed
to promote fall of
acid. The most widely known representative of organochlorine pes-
leaves; ticides is DDT. The largest quantities of pesticides are used to raise
8. desiccants – dry the buckwheat and various oil plants. In some cases, the amount of use
leaves, causes the pesticides reaches 5000 g per hectare.
seeds to mature As a result of using large quantities of pesticides, they are
accumulating in the soil and can affect the quality of agricultural
products and human health. Pesticide distribution and accumulation
in soils is dependent on their stability, which in turn is influenced
by their chemical structure, physical and chemical properties, and
biological stability. Pesticide sorption and migration in the soil
is also significantly affected by the soil characteristics, weather
conditions, including the amount of precipitation. As a consequence
Figure 9.4. DDT. Formula of adsorption processes (resulting from physical, chemical and ion
of 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2- exchange), pesticides accumulate in the surface layer of soil to a
bis(4-chlorophenyl)
depth of 20 cm. The possible contamination of underground waters
ethane (DDT)

by pesticides is determined by their extensive use in agriculture.
One of the main factors contributing to the migration of pesticides in
groundwaters is their solubility. If organochlorine pesticide solubility
is some milligrams per liter, other pesticides may have a solubility
of 100-1000 mg/l. Over the course of time, as pesticides leak into
groundwater, they can be washed into the underground waters – the
source of drinking water.
30
Insecticides
Consumprion, tons/km2
25 Fungicides
20 Herbicides
15
10
5 Figure 9.5. Pesticide

0 amounts in the
Less developed Development OECD countries with different
countries countries countries development paths
140
Industrially developed countries
120 Development countries
Consumption, kg/ha
100
80
60
40
Figure 9.6. Pesticides
20 used in the countries
0 with different
1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2008 development paths
USA
China
Australia
India
Brasil
Canada
Turkey
Ecuador
Figure 9.7. Amounts of
0 50 100 150 200 250 pesticide use in different
Active substances, tons countries of the world

The negative effects of pesticide use on the soil ecosystems are
related to the fact that these chemicals have an impact not only on
pests, for whose destruction they are intended, but also on other
components of the ecosystem. Moreover, many of the pesticides
prove to be substances or a great chemical persistence and may
accumulate in the ecological food chain: soil – plants – herbivores –
carnivores. Pesticides do not remain on the field, where they have
been sprayed. Air currents and winds easily pick up the volatile
substances and carry them into the upper layers of atmosphere and
distribute them all over the planet’s surface. Thus, they end up in
the places that are far away from intensive farming areas – ocean
islands and the Arctic. The ability to accumulate in the ecological
food chain makes the pesticides released into the environ ment
potentially dangerous it even in very small quantities. Due to the
characterstics described above, the pesticides account for the world’s
most serious environmental problems.
The impact of pesticides can be acute and chronic. In case of
an acute impact, as a result of the pesticide exposure the extinction
of the entire species or part of it when in contact with the toxic
substance can be observed. In Europe, the intensive herbicide use in
grain fields to combat weeds resulted in disappearence of flowering
plants such as cornflower, corn cockle, the forking larkspur, field
poppies and other – the species so characteristic of corn fields in
the past have almost completely vanished in very large areas.
Severe ecological consequences were brought by herbicides in the
middle of the last century, during the Vietnam War. U.S. soldiers
sprayed the herbicides from airplanes to achieve jungle defoliation –
tree and shrub foliage thinning. For this purpose 2,4,5‑T
(2,4,5-trichlorophenylacetate) and 2,4-D (dichlorophenyl acetate)
were used. These substances in high concentrations impact the cell
layer at the leaf petiole base, and as a result the leaf is detached
from the branch. Most commonly, after exposure to the herbicide
the tree is able to renew its foliage. However, a particular sensitivity
to these herbicides was manifested by mangrove woods growing in
Vietnam’s low, swampy areas, and in these woods the prevalence of
dominant shrub species declined catastrophically.
It is important to note that in the course of 2,4,5-T production
2,3,6,7-tetrachlorodibenzodioxine is created, which is generally
contained by the herbicide in the form of admixture. Even in tiny
concentrations dioxins cause teratogenic effects in animals and
humans – severe congenital malformations, and resulted in dramatic
effects for many years after the Vietnam War. During 50s of the last
century in the south-eastern states of the United States the combat
was carried out to destroy the introduced red ants. In the course of
three years, from aircrafts, 110 000 km2 were covered with granular

heptachlor and dieldrin, in total spraying 1 km2 with 1.4 to 2.5 kg of
insecticides. As a result, many passerine birds, skylarks and starlings
as well as reptiles were killed; the number of insects living in the
soil decreased by 40%, but the ants was not completely destroyed.
Chronic exposure may result in disturbed reproductive capacity
of the organisms, the birth rates are reduced, or mortality increases.
If the individuals of a population become infertile, or unable to
perform reproductive functions normally, the population is at a risk
of extinction. Such chronic exposure usually becomes manifest, as
different species of organisms accumulate pesticides in the ecological
food chain. It turns out that plants can absorb small amounts of
pesticides from the soil through the roots. Several studies have
shown that further concentration of insecticides in the ecological
food chain is largely dependent on the type of feeding characteristic
to species. A lower insecticide concentration was found in the
organisms of herbivorous birds, the concentration in omnivorous
species is higher, but the greatest concentration is observed in the
organisms of the birds of prey.
One of the sources causing bird poisoning and death is the
mercury-containing fungicides and grain mordants. These are
used as pre-sowing treatment of seed to protect the seed from
pests and the effects of microscopic fungi. Swedish researchers in
1960 concluded that a decline in bird populations in the region is
due to their chronic poisoning with fungicides. Mercury content in
liver and kidneys of dead pigeons reached 8-45 mg/kg, in those of
certain passerine grain-eating birds – 11-136 mg/kg, and in those
of gallinaceous birds – 28-150 mg/kg. Through the ecological food
chain the mercury entered birds of prey, in whose bodies it reached
an average concentration of 100 mg/kg.
The extensive use of DDT in agriculture is the main cause of the
decline in populations of birds of prey in many regions of the world.
Chronic poisoning with this pesticide its chemical transformation
product DDE causes physiological changes in the bodies of birds, as a
result the females become sterile, the start of the oviposition period is
delayed, the number of laid eggs is reduced. In addition, the decrease
in eggshell strength is observed and, consequently, there is an
increase in destruction of juvenile birds already in embryonic stage.
Population of a species may also suffer even if the pesticide
does not affect it directly, i.e., as a result of indirect exposure to
the toxicants. It is possible in cases where the particular species is
trophically related to a species sensitive to the toxic effects. Decline
or disappearance of food resources may prove to be critical for a
given species. For example, the disappearance of field poppies in
large territories of Europe caused population decline of a number
of insect species, which were feeding on this plant. After the use

of herbicides the vegetation does not develop after harvest on the
fields. This reduces the food base and hiding places for a number of
animal species, such as grey partridges. Using the insecticide sevin
to combat locusts in South Europe, it was found that the pesticide
treated areas had 86% reduction in the number of birds. Given that
birds were not hurt by sevin as a chemical, the only explanation was
the extinction of food resources – insects.
The species which are tolerant to pesticide exposure can
reproduce even if as a result of pesticide exposure their competitors
or natural predators are killed. Very often it has been observed
that, as a result of pesticide use along with the targets – harmful
organisms – their natural enemies are also destroyed. Often this
is the reason for a new, even greater multiplication wave of the
parasites after the effect of pesticide has already expired. It has
been proved that in case of pesticide use the worst affected are
the populations of the pests’ natural enemies. They can even be
completely destroyed locally. A similar situation was found regarding
the cotton pest management in the United States and South America.
Systematic use of pesticides totally destroyed the natural enemies of
pests. As a result, the pesticide dose and frequency of treatment had
to be constantly increased until a vicious circle was formed: the pest
population growth required to increase the treatment with pesticides,
but each new treatment led to new multiplying of parasites.
Over the last 10-15 years volume of pesticides and mineral ferti
lizers usage in Uzbekistan reduced 3-4 folds. Despite the significant
cut down in consumption of chemical compounds in agriculture,
the problem of soil contamination with residual amount of toxic
substances is not losing the actuality. Over the period since year
1990 to 2006 a tendency of decrease of average level of irrigated soil
contamination with residual DDT in Uzbekistan has been observed
and the number of cases of exceedances in permissible limits in
samples collected decreased from 39.2% to 21.1%. Increased level of
soil contamination with residual DDT still persists in Andikansk and
Fergansk regions and is 2.4-6.1 of limit values.
9.2. Contamination of soils with inorganic

substances
When growing a variety of agricultural crops and harvesting the
yield, the main plant nutrients – nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
and microelements such as magnesium, iron, boron, etc., which
plants require in lesser quantities, are removed from the field. If
the content of these elements in the soil is not compensated, the soil
degrades and becomes unsuitable for crop production. Therefore, to

maintain soil fertility and increase crop yields, natural and artificial
fertilizers in agriculture are extensively used.
Under intensive farming conditions mineral fertilizers (super
phosphate, potassium chloride, ammonium nitrate and others) are
widely applied, and the goal is to provide the necessary balanced
nutrient quantities for the agricultural crops. Due to economical
reasons, these fertilizers are usually as raw products, therefore
with each dose of fertilizer the soil could be polluted with certain
quantities of toxic metals and their compounds. For example, super
phosphate contains metals such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium,
lead, vanadium, cobalt and others. These elements, along with
pesticide residues, accumulate in the soil over a long period of time
and contaminate it.
Soil pollution also consists of excessive mineral and organic
nitrogen and phosphorus amounts. Some of them are leached
from the soil into groundwater, wells and watercourses. However,
agricultural crops also are subject to the increased intake of nitrates,
for example, spinach, in which their quantity, depending on the
availability of nitrogen compounds in the soil, may vary between 1.4
to 3.5 g/kg. Increased phosphorus and nitrogen discharge into rivers
and lakes causes eutrophication. Furthermore, high concentrations of
nitrates in drinking water and consumable plants can cause disease
in humans. During industrial processing, including conservation and
preservation, as well as consuming nitrate-rich vegetable products
into the human intestinal tract, nitrate ions NO3– turn into nitrite ions
NO2–. In the human body they interact with the haemoglobin in red
blood cells – erythrocytes, which ensure the oxygen transfer in the
organism. As a result, methaemoglobin is formed, which is incapable
to bind oxygen and causes serious illness – methemoglobinemia, a
disorder resulting in the oxygen starvation in the tissues of the body,
despite the fact that breathing is normal. In addition, it has been
established that nitrates in human intestinal tract can also turn into
nitrosamines, which are considered carcinogenic compounds.
A number of heavy metals that accumulate in the soil as a
result of fertilizer over-use are in the form of insoluble compounds,
which at the given conditions can not be consumed by plants and
microorganisms and, therefore, they are not biologically dangerous.
Such a set of sedentary chemical elements are chemical «time
bombs». Due to some changes in the external conditions (such as
human economic activities or climate change, increased soil acidity)
these compounds change into a soluble form and may pass into
ecological food chains with all the ensuing dangerous consequences.
It is to be recognized that one of the major factors of soil fertility
are organic fertilizers, whose misuse can locally cause high levels of
nitrogen pollution. This situation has been observed in many European
countries, including the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany.

A very serious environmental problem today is the use of
sewage sludge as field fertilizer. Wastewater treatment plants in
the world every year accumulate thousands of tons of sludge, which
form huge piles at the treatment plants. Since sewage sludge is rich
in phosphorus and other plant nutrients, it was recommended to
address the sludge problem by using it as a fertilizer for growing
agricultural crops. However, the chemical analysis of sludge shows
that it also contains a lot of harmful chemicals – organic compounds
and heavy metals, which enter the sludge during the factory and
urban waste water treatment process. Thus, the harmful substances
which a man has tried to get rid of in wastewater treatment process,
and which are concentrated in one place, are dispersed again over a
wide area and injected into the soil from where they can be ingested
by plants or leach into groundwater. Many researchers have warned
against the dangers of such practice to environment.
Industrial pollution is caused by a variety of manufacturing
processes associated with processing of substances and materials,
power generation and fuel use in manufacturing processes. The
most important is the industrial pollution, which is ejected into
Of all the industrial the atmo sphere from the factory chimneys. It consists of gases,
enterprise types, the
most important in the
aerosols and dust particles, which in the air masses are carried
context of environmental over long distances, during the precipitation formation processes
pollution are considered: dissolve within the water droplets in the atmosphere and eventually
chemical complexes; settle or fall on vegetation or soil. The chemical composition of
smelting companies; industrial pollution is largely dependent on the substances used in
mining companies;
building complexes;
the production and technological processes. It is as diverse as the
heat-electric industrial production, therefore in each particular case the industrial
generating plants. pollution interaction with the environment is specific.
A very topical problem in the 20th century was sulfur-containing
industrial emission impact. Most industrial plants and heat-electric
generating plants used the coal as fuel, but in its combustion process
great quantities of sulfur dioxide SO2 are released. This gas dissolves
in precipitation water to form acid rain, therefore much attention
was paid to research the ecological effects of soil acidification. It
has been found that the acid rain most of all affects plants and soil
microorganisms.
Since the the end of 1980s the production technology improve-
ment, introduction of filter systems and replacement of coal as a pri-
mary fuel with natural gas, sulfur-containing emissions are reduced
considerably. However, environmental problems caused by acid rain
have not become less acute, because due to the rise in car ownership
and, consequently, the amount of car exhaust, nitrogen oxide emis-
sions in the world have increased significantly, which, dissolving in
atmospheric precipitation water enter the soil in the form of ammo-
nium NH4+ and nitrate ions NO3 –.

Near the mines and smelting plants the soils are profusely
contaminated with heavy metals. Under severe pollution conditions
over a wide area around the metal smelting plants the so-called
industrial deserts develop, where almost no vegetation or animals are
found. An example of such a desert is the surroundings of the non-
ferrous metal production complex «Severonikel» built in the North of
Russia. Forest soil pollution with heavy metals has a negative impact Heavy metals enter the
on soil microorganisms and fauna. lithosphere and mainly its
The persistent pollution, which could not be destroyed collapse upper layer – the soil – as
biologically, is of special significance. The term ‘heavy metals’ a result of:
commonly denotes the metals, whose relative density is greater industrial activities;
agricultural activity,
than 5 g/cm3 and thus about 70, or seven-eighths of all the known during fertilization and
metals are heavy metals. In the environmental protection, according liming of the soil or
to the use of metals in the economy and the severe danger of their irrigating territories;
compounds, more attention is paid only to certain heavy metals waste storage
and non-metals, the effects of which may pose a threat to living (household and
industrial);
organisms, such as arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), burning of fossil fuels;
selenium (Se), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), exploitation of the
lead (Pb), tin (Sn), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), cobalt (Co). motor transport.
Heavy metals enter the atmo sphere as a result of a variety
of pollution sources, and with time as a result of the wet and the
dry deposition they land on the soil. It is estimated that in Europe
annually 130 g/ha of Ni, 500 g/ha of Zn, 20 g/ha of Pb, 75 g/ha
of C, 20 g/ha of Cr and 3.5 g/ha Cd land on the soil. Industrial
activity, energy production and motor transport impact result in
the increased concentrations of heavy metals in the upper soil layer
on a global scale, as the soil has very high metal sorption capacity.
Particularly high soil pollution is detected in cities, in surrounding
areas of large industrial plants and along the highways. Each of the
pollution sources depending on its type of activity, has a particular
compo sition of chemical elements landing around it, formed by
the chemical elements related to a fuel or the raw materials to
be processed. Heavy metals enter the soil also due to agricultural
activity. As the agricultural land is fertilized, limed and treated
with pesticides, heavy metals accumulate in the upper layer of soil.
Subsequently, many agricultural soils have high heavy metal content.
Soil contamination problems are caused by irrigation of
agricultural land. The problem is particularly acute in the areas
where the sewage water is used for watering of farmland. As a
result, the soil is contaminated with Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr, Pb, Cd and Hg.
Heavy metals are brought into the soil also with sewage sludge,
which in many parts of the world is used to fertilize the agricultural
and forest land. Therefore, Latvian and European Union law requires
that before the use of sewage sludge as fertilizer, the soil and sewage
sludge chemical composition analysis must be carried out.

As heavy metals reach the soil, they do not degrade, but slowly,
However, the larger
problem of groundwater
with downward water flows, migrate deeper. The chemical elements
contamination with in the soil participate in various chemical and biochemical reactions,
heavy metals is caused creating new compounds, whose toxicity may increase in the soil.
by point sources of As the soil pollution increases over time, the risk of groundwater
pollution: pollution with heavy metals rises.
waste dumps;
Increased concentration of heavy metals in the soil significantly
chemical product
storage and transfer affects the plants and groundwater quality. Toxic concentration of
sites; microelements in soil and their effect on plants is a very complex
industrial enterprises. issue, because it is influenced by a great number of factors.
Heavy metals at high
concentrations affect
many processes in the 9.3. Soil desertification and salinization
soil:
they inhibit the activity
of microorganisms and Soil degradation is one of the most important problems in the
thereby the circulation complex of problems connected with the processes of desertification.
of nutrients in the soil; Soil degradation means decrease and loss of biological and
they have a toxic effect economical productivity of arable lands and pastures, forests and
on plant roots, resulting
in decreased nutrient
timberlands under the influence of natural and anthropogenic
intake. factors. Natural and anthropogenic factors of soil degradation are
tightly connected with large-scale development of soils in arid
conditions. Processes of fertilization decrease, degradation and
destruction of topsoil count thousands and hundreds of various
local and zonal forms of display. Between them most widespread
are regression grazing and overgrazing, formation of mobile sand
dunes, surface runoff and irrigational soil erosion, contamination
of soil with toxic compounds, technogenic desertification and other.
400 hectares or 10% of irrigated soil are in unsatisfactory condition
(Figure pic. 9.8).
30
25
20
15
10
0
Figure 9.8. Structure of 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
use of agricultural lands all farmland, including: hay meadow and pasture
in Uzbekistan (th. km2) perrenial cropping arable land

Desertification is land degradation in arid and semi-arid
areas resulting from various factors including climatic conditions
and human activity. Deserification affects the living conditions
of rural people, who depend on livestock, crops, limited water
resources and fuel wood. Desertification is the most actual
problem for drylands (arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas). In
drylands desertification risks creates low, infrequent, irregular and
unpredictable precipitation, large variations between day and night-
time temperatures and low amounts of organic matter in soils. When
land degradation happens in the drylands, it often creates desert-
like conditions and can be defined as desertification. Desertification
destroy elemental biogeochemical and biological cycles and have
serious consequences for the environment. Desertification is caused by
human activities, such as overgrazing, over-cultivation, deforestation
and poorly planned irrigation systems as well as extreme climatic
events, such as droughts. Desertification occurs because drylands are
extremely vulnerable to over-exploitation and inappropriate land use,
but the consequences are reduced food production, soil infertility,
reduced water quality, sedimentation in rivers and lakes, and silting
of reservoirs, aggravation of health problems due to wind-blown dust,
including eye infections, respiratory illnesses, allergies, and mental
stress, loss of acceptable living conditions.
Another major environmental problem is soil salinization in
irrigated lands,as far as water from underground reservoirs is often
polluted, but evaporation brings mineral salts to the surface, resulting
in high salinity. Increased soil salinity makes the soil unsuitable for
crops which cannot withstand high salt concentrations. In Uzbekistan
saline soils compose 65.9% of irrigation area, including mild salted –
33.9%, salted – 19.4%, highly saline – 12.6%. At irrigation territory
of Uzbekistan 8% of soil is subjected to irrigational erosion, 2% of
them is in moderate and in severe measure.
In Uzbekistan around 50% of all irrigated soils are considered
saline. Saline soils are widely spread in the Karakalpakstan, in
Buhar, Navoji and Sirdarjensk region. Almost 5% of area of irrigated
soil – 213.1 thousand hectares is noted as strongly saline.
More than a half of the areas located on alluvial plains suffer
from salinity and excessive moisture. Salinity is not only a reason of
irrigation, which is characteristic for all intermountain, alluvial and
proluvial territories of arid zone. Main reasons of soil salinization
is irrigation without drainage, huge water losses due to filtration,
construction of irrigation channels without hydro isolation, excess
of irrigation standards, uncontrollable water flow, irrigation with
mineral water.
So, for example, annual increase of salts in irrigated salts of Ka
rakalpakstan is 10-30 tons per hectare. With increase of salinity of

irrigation water and soil the fertility level of crops is decreasing. So, for
example, fertility of cotton in the last years has decreased in Khorezm
region from 39-41 centner per hectare (c/hect) to 29‑33 c/hect, and
in Karakalpakstan from 30-34 c/hect to 14‑24 c/hect.
Bibliography
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10. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
10.1. Mutual cooperation and development According to the eco‑

nomist R. Norgaard, the
development of a society
The concept of mutual cooperation and development was initi can also be considered
ally used in biology in relation to evolutionary interaction of two mu to be a common deve‑
tually connected species when typical genetic features determine a lopment of the systems
of culture and ecology.
better fitness of one of the species; however, the dominating genetic
He calls it a paradigm
features of this species leave a considerable impact on other species. of common evolution
Explaining the essence of mutual development, it is assumed that and predicts that the
there is an interaction between the essential features or part of the progress and harmony
features which then influence further evolution. Within the systems of the development
of common development the proportions may change unpredictably.
of different cultures in
future will be determined
We can imagine the Baltic Sea Region, its countries forming by the potential of the
a colourful patchwork quilt. The pieces hold well together in the ‘patchwork’ principle.
southern and western parts of the Baltic Sea Region; however, the
stitches appear looser in the direction from the east to the west.
Each particular ‘patch’, e.g. Latvia, develops its culture and economy
in its own way, while common development implies ties with the
neighbouring countries, too. Besides, new ties are being formed with
European Union Member States, and the earlier ties with the former
Eastern block are retained.
Today the more developed countries jointly evolve, using
the achievements of Western science and fossil hydrocarbon fuel
(oil, natural gas and coal). People use the same or similar chemi
cal fertilizers and pesticides for cultivating similar varieties of
corn. However, the idea of common evolution should be based
on the idea of sustainable development. Thus, it would be for the
common benefit of all peoples, even if the development patterns of
individual countries were different. Earlier cultural diversity was
possible because individual cultures had more space; represen ta
tives of different cultures did not meet as frequently as today, and
communities depended on their own resources, labour and techno
logies. The modern world is going through the process of globali
sation: expansion of the market economy and advance of the
developing countries towards the common market, thus facilitating
an increasing uniformity in the world.
10. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 203

The ‘patchwork’
metaphor implies
that the Baltic Sea
coast countries should
engage in a common
development process,
using their local
knowledge accumulated
over the centuries. By
preserving the local
specifics and cultural
diversity in the modern
and dynamic world, the
countries of the Baltic
Sea Region will be able
to ensure sustainable
development
Figure 10.1. ‘Patchwork’
of the Baltic Sea Region
Knowledge, values, However, ever fewer languages are used on intercontinental

technologies and insti‑
flights, mobile telephones and the Internet. If fast-food restaurants
tutional structure – all
of it is connected with a and supermarkets take over the market of corner shops and small
common environment cafés, is this a road to sustainability? Is the road of sustainable
in each particular development secured if we all speak, although some difficulty, one
country. Sustainability language and eat the same food (with minor local differences)?
can be ensured only by
The metaphor of the ‘patchwork quilt’ is based on the idea that
considerate activities in
each particular place. all countries around the Baltic Sea have been historically closely
‘Traditional knowledge inter
connected and their application of the local knowledge has
has local peculiarities that ensured their centuries-long success. They are not afraid or shy to be
have evolved as a result distinctive and different. The preservation of local peculiarities and
of a unique common cultural diversity in a dynamic and unevenly changing world could
development of particu‑
lar social and ecological
be an important feature of sustainable development in the Baltic Sea
systems,’ says D. Orr. Region.
Sustainability should
be based on not only
revival and preservation
of traditional knowledge 10.2. International environmental issues
in each country and in
the ‘patchwork’ countries,
Many environmental issues are of an international character,
but also on exchange of
knowledge on a much at times becoming global in a political sense as they involve larger
larger scale – not only territories than the frontiers of countries mark. This refers to such
within the Baltic Sea major environmental systems like the Earth’s atmosphere and the
Region but also within World Ocean; nevertheless, scientifically speaking, the biosphere,
the European Union and
too, is common for the whole of the world. Although it is divided
worldwide.
into the ecosystems of different countries, the loss of balance within
an individual ecosystem may have a negative impact on other

ecosystems and even entail risks to the existence of the biosphere. It
According to the clas‑
sification of the United
also causes problems in international relations since sovereign states Nations Environmental
are rather biased when defending their independence and caring Programme (UNEP), the
for the quality of their environment and natural resources. Thus, quality of environment
individual countries are guided by their interests in assessment of and its trends of change
international environmental issues and their solutions. can be divided into four
categories:
In some cases – climate change, ozone depletion, trade in endan atmosphere (climate,
gered species – the principles of environmental protection are logical ozone depletion, air
and internationally imperative. In other cases complications arise, pollution – local or
for example, concerning transportation of toxic waste across borders. transboundary),
Since globally the amount of toxic waste is rapidly increasing, it water (inland, coastal
and sea ecosystems),
seems plausible that there are many countries which cannot afford earth (forests,
building safe toxic waste recycling enterprises and landfills, which desertification, use of
is why toxic waste is transported to other countries. However, the land, soil),
UN stand on this issue is unequivocal: the disposal of toxic waste in biological diversity.
developing countries, as practised by developed countries, should be Considering the complex
nature of international
banned.
diplomatic relations,
The most important global environ mental issues concern the attempts are being made
atmosphere, especially climate change and excessive catch in the to distinguish global and
World Ocean. They are truly issues of the whole of humanity since transboundary environ‑
everybody uses the air and resources of the sea. The prospective mental issues, or to seek
solutions for global and
exploitation of the Antarctica also belongs to these issues, as every
transboundary issues
body might benefit from it. separately.
G. Hardin proposed the metaphor of ‘the tragedy of the
commons’ because such world natural resources are very sensitive
to overuse or pollution. Nobody owns these resources – neither
an individual state nor a corporation nor a physical person. This
explains the fact that no restrictions have been imposed: there are
no private property borders or exploitation quotas. Consequently,
everybody can go on exploiting the commons for one’s needs up
to the depletion of the resource or the collapse of the system. Any
country may emit an unlimited amount of greenhouse gasses into
the atmosphere or deplete all the fish in a particular fishing area.
As a result, the common resources are being depleted at an
alarming rate. The tragedy, according to G. Hardin, is inevitable
since the world resource reserves, limited as they are, are being
devastated. He compares the problem to a lifeboat: ‘We cannot have
everybody on board the lifeboat because there are a limited number
of seats.’ To avoid such a tragedy, each individual must support the
implementation of an authoritative management of the common
resources. Hardin proposes to appoint a leader who would see to the
exploitation quotas.
Doubtlessly, the society must take it into consideration and make
provisions for preservation of these common resources. However, it
is a complicated international task for there are too many culprits

as well as victims, and it is difficult to determine their respective
responsibilities and duties. At present the only solution is to reach an
international agreement and adopt international binding multilateral
treaties.
The prospective exploitation of the Antarctica is also considered
a problem of common environmental significance as many might
benefit from it. Territorial claims to the Antarctica are being con
tested although they are not adjudicated because the Antarctic
Treaty of 1959 is still in force. This international treaty obligates the
signatory countries to preserve the Antarctica and the surrounding
seas south of 60° S latitude free for scientific research to any country
of the world. The Treaty established this territory as a demilitarised
zone free of nuclear weapons, also stipulating measures of nature
and environmental protection.
0°
30° 30°
60°
NORW
AY
60°
UK Undefined limit 60°
INA
NT
E
GE
CHIL
AR
AUSTRALIA
90° 90°
Wi aim
tho
cl
ut
70°
120° TR 120°
CE
S
AU
AN
NEW ZEALAND
FR
Figure 10.2. Potential

territorial claims of
the countries to the 150° 150°
Antarctica 180°
While the Antarctic Treaty was still relatively flexible, it was

under considerable pressure since there was an immense interest in
the exploitation of the resources (oil, industrial minerals, shrimp,
fish). This conflicted with the environmental protection demands.
Today increasingly pressing demands are being voiced to modify
the Antarctic Treaty, coming from non-member countries as well (in
fact, these countries are not able to carry out any essential scientific
research on the territory of the Antarctica). Non-governmental
organisations, too, call for UN mediation to transfer the control over
the Antarctica to all countries of the world, not just the member
states of the Treaty. There are certain tendencies that might lead to
the mitigation of the 1988 Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic

Mineral Resources. Up to now the Convention stipulates that the use
of mineral resources might be permissible only upon a very rigid
evaluation of the impact on the environment which is confirmed
by the member states of the Convention. The conflict between the
United Kingdom and Argentina over the Falkland Islands was a clear
warning that the lucrative Antarctic mineral resources may call
forth territorial claims.
As a measure of the World Ocean protection, the 1954 Inter
national Convention on the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by
Oil was adopted to minimise the discharge of oil and oil waste from
tankers and other vessels. To secure the efficiency of the protection
of oceanic waters, it was necessary to adopt restrictions on pollution
of rivers, on wastewater, air pollution since these types of pollution
also lead to the pollution of the ocean.
In 1958, the first conference on the Maritime Law took place, but
in 1959 the UN established the International Maritime Organisation,
which was entrusted with the improvement of security measures at
sea, facilitation of the development of regulations and decreasing of
pollution.
In the early 1970s maritime countries began declaring their
coastal waters part of their jurisdiction on an increasingly larger
scale. First, it was 3 nautical miles, then 12 and now even 200 nau-
tical miles.
However, the 1950 Convention on the Continental Shelf was less
ambitious although with time there was a growing interest in shelf
resources. To tackle these issues, the Third Conference on the Mari-
time Law was held in 1974.
The Regional Seas Subprogramme of the UN Environ ment
Programme brought together maritime countries to discuss the
situation. The conference resulted in a number of regional maritime
agreements that referred to the Mediterranean, the Persian Gulf,
the Western Africa region, South-East of the Pacific, the Red Sea,
seas of Eastern Africa and South Pacific. These agreements laid the
foundation for environmental action plans and cooperation towards
reduction of pollution.
In 1977, the North Sea ceased to exist as an open sea as fishing
and extraction of mineral resources was restricted when the
European Union determined the new zoning of the continental shelf.
Thus, the North Sea as well as the Sea of Japan, the Baltic Sea and
the Mediterranean became subjects of conventions or international
agreements. The UN also set additional demands regarding the
territories of these seas to ensure an effective control of pollution.
The 1982 conference in Jamaica adopted the Convention on the
Maritime Law, stipulating that the Convention refers to the areas up
to the depth of 2500 m from the shore.

In the late 1960s, researchers identified a hazardous and
growing water pollution and reduction of the oxygen concentration
in the Baltic Sea. All the seven Baltic Sea states – Denmark,
Finland, the Democratic Republic of Germany, the Federative
Republic of Germany, Poland, Sweden and the USSR – agreed on
taking immediate measures to reduce the pollution of the sea. The
Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environ ment of the
Baltic Sea Area was adopted in 1974. Within its framework, the
Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) was established to ensure the
implementation, monitoring and development of a programme of
common activities. At the time it was a unique attempt to agree on
Figure 10.3. Shipwreck
cooperation in addressing common environmental problems in East
of the tanker Amoco
Cadiz off the coast of European and West European countries simultaneously. In this way
Brittany (France) on 16 cooperation ties were established for joint efforts towards measures
March 1978 for environmental protection and general security.
In 1984, during the first meeting of the ministers of the Baltic
Sea Region countries, an action plan was adopted concerning four
spheres: reduction of pollution, scientific research, navigation
safety and prevention of oil leakage. The plan could be viewed
as a political support for the development of the scientific and
technological strategy. Solutions for problems of national character
or implementation of projects were not discussed, neither were any
binding documents adopted. In the second meeting of the ministers,
in 1988, 78 projects were endorsed although many important
problems were left unresolved. Much criticism was levelled at no
tangible progress, and demands were made for actual measures and
concrete results.
On the whole, many developing countries wished to see the
World Ocean as a free-for-all territory, like the Antarctica, rather
than have the huge area de facto taken over by the states which had
the most up-to-date technology for exploiting the oceanic resources
at their disposal.
A common tendency can be traced in the conventions adopted
and treaties signed: to allot an increasingly significant place to the
principle of precaution. The countries of the world are called upon
to prevent pollution in case of emergency situations and accidents.
Such policy was caused by the catastrophic accident in Chernobyl,
on the tanker Amoco Cadiz and similar cases.

10.3. Institutions involved in international
The number of
environmental protection institutions and persons
involved in international
In accordance with the principal theoretical concepts concerning environmental protection
is very large; however,
international relations, states undertake international cooperation by an attempt to
only if there is any prospective benefit for their countries otherwise group them, the most
unachievable. In fact, countries desire to reap maximum benefit from significant units are:
international cooperation compared to other countries irrespective states,
of their status in the international convention of countries. On international
environmental
individual occasions states can hope for some indirect benefit, for
organisations,
example, by promoting good international relations with other global environmental
countries. However, a higher level of socialisation and friendliness movements,
are highly appreciated, which makes it possible to claim a larger industry and business,
portion of the common world reserves. Sometimes countries, in the experts,
society at large,
name of their interests, make rather blatant attempts at a profitable
individual talented
bargain, even at the expense of other countries – by asking an personalities.
inflated price for their participation, inadequate compared to the Of all the above-
real potential of the respective state. mentioned, it is only
Different conceptual approaches, national interests, the level governments, or states
of own responsibility and abilities, as well as the efficiency of they represent, that have
the right to take inter
work become essential elements in the development, adoption and nationally binding deci‑
implementation of multilateral international agreements. sions. Only governments
Governments establish various executive institutions, including of sovereign states can
environmental agencies. They are exposed to different kinds of ensure participation
pressure from the local entrepreneurs or businesses who would like of their citizens in the
implementation of
to enjoy certain privileges or benefits related to the exploitation international regulations.
of natural resources or environmental pollution. At times these It is the states that
pressures make a government present itself in the international manage the use of their
arena less as an environ mental problem solver but more as a resources for economic
petitioner, which can leave a considerable impact on the environ development or military
aims; moreover, by using
mental efforts of other countries, to the point of rejecting otherwise
their political rights, they
necessary solutions. ensure that the welfare
In many cases, individual ministries or even agencies represent and social goals of their
their countries in international work groups or meetings, and on people are attained.
certain issues they may hold views that differ from those of the
country. Sometimes the official state delegations find themselves
under pressure – on the basis of their democratic rights, local
interest groups (producers or active environmentalists) seek to attain
an internationally binding decision that would benefit them. Besides,
decision-makers need to consider general public sentiments as well.
States of the world are very different, have different historical
heritage, environ mental conditions and natural resource reserves.
Some countries can be considered advocates of the modern environ
mental protection ideas. They include Europe’s Nordic countries, which
pursue strict demands in the sphere of international environmental

management and protection, call on other states to participate in dis
cussions and even take on unilateral additional obligations to encou
rage other countries and peoples to follow suit.
The European Union also supports a more rigorous international
management of environment by allotting considerable funds for this
aim. However, with the EU expansion, differences in the opinions on
the future perspective can be observed among member states.
The position of the USA on environmental problems of global signi
ficance, especially on restricting climate change and a tougher inter
national management of environment, has been severely criticised.
Nevertheless, several blocks of similarly thinking countries have
formed. The ‘northern’ block includes the industrialised welfare
states of North America, Europe and other continents. The ‘southern’
block is larger, represented by the developing countries of Asia,
South America and Africa. The former Second World (socialist)
countries together with the South-East Asian countries form the
block of the developing countries. The situation in the ‘Fourth World’
countries (mostly African) is the gravest. These states suffer from
extreme poverty, wars, unrests, diseases, lack of food and social care.
The block of developing countries has grown from 77 states (G77)
to 130 states, and it has a significant proportion of say in making
international decisions.
The ‘northern’ block focuses more on such environ mental
problems as climate change and ozone depletion, whereas the
priorities of the ‘southern’ block are the lack of drinking water and
desertification.
Of great importance are the funds that have been used to
attain the aims of environmental policy. Individual countries have
a significant influence on which problems are raised for discussion,
on negotiations and making political decisions, signing conventions
and protocols. Sometimes a group of countries united by common
interests, international organisations or even talented and purpose-
driven individuals assume the role of the leader in negotiations.
Leaders should be distinctly positive to be able to steer countries
towards adopting more rigorous demands for the preservation of the
global environment. There are also countries which, due to different
reasons, oppose the treatment of a particular environ mental
issue; several countries which share such a stand can form a ‘veto
coalition’ and sometimes achieve that the issue is removed from the
international environmental political agenda.
A situation like this has developed around the preparation of
an international document concerning the protection of whales:
Iceland, Norway and Japan are strictly against imposing a
moratorium on whale hunt. Similarly, the exporting countries of
genetically modified corn – Canada, the USA, Argentina – weakened

the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological
Diversity, which came into force in 2003.
However, sometimes groups of countries can achieve imposition
of stricter demands, like in the case of the Basel Convention, when
African countries called for a total ban on transporting toxic
waste from the countries of the ‘northern’ block to the countries of
the ‘southern’ block. African countries had the crucial role in the
development of the Convention to Combat Desertification.
10.3.1. International environmental organisations

In the majority of cases, international environmental organi
sations have been set up by mutual agreement of countries for
prac tical measures to tackle global environmental issues. Inter
national environmental organisations have been extremely good at
organising broad discussions to prepare projects of environmental
policy planning, funding and implementation. At present there are
about 250 international environmental organisations, most of them
specialising in preparation and implementation of conventions on
both global and local scale. The origins of environ mental orga
nisations date back to the time after World War II when the world
faced the necessity to create a system to prevent wars, to restore
the demolished economies and prepare solid ground for successful
develop ment. Thus, the United Nations (UN) was established, as
well as the International Bank of Reconstruction and Development
(the World Bank) and the International Monetary Fund. The General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) later became the World
Trade Organisation.
Several massive regional organisations came into being: the
European Union, the North American Free Trade Association
(NAFTA) and the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN).
All these organisations play an important role in tackling global
environmental issues up to this day.
Figure 10.4. Signing of

the UN Charter (26 June
1945, San Francisco, USA)

However, the leading role belongs to the UN and its environ
mental organisations. The UN was founded in October 1945, when
50 countries signed the UN Charter in San Francisco, the USA.
Today the number of its member states has grown to 192, and the
UN is recognised as the world’s most influential international
organisation. Its initial task was to promote peace in the world,
Figure 10.5. UN prevent conflicts between states, control armament, protect human
Headquarters in New rights, facilitate economic and social development and preserve the
York, USA global environment.
To accomplish the tasks regarding the environment and develop
ment, the UN has set up the following programmes: the United
Nations Environ ment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations
Develop ment Programme (UNDP) as well as the Commission on
Sustainable Development (CSD). These organisations work under the
auspices of the UN Secretariat, but their budget is endorsed by the
General Assembly of the UN.
Figure 10.6. UN
Assembly Hall
The speaker is Ban

Ki‑Moon from South
Korea, who assumed The necessity of the UN Environment Programme was confirmed
office as the Secretary during the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
General of UN on in Stockholm in 1972 as a response to the signals of the alarming
1 January 2007. deterioration of the quality of the environment. The headquarters
of the UN Environment Programme is in Nairobi, Kenya, but there
are also offices in Switzerland (Geneva) and other countries. Among
the tasks of the Programme are: the control of the fulfilment of
international agreements and decisions on environ mental issues;
urging discussions on new initiatives of environmental protection,
also by aggregating environ ment-related information from the
countries of the world and by rendering support for the required
scientific research.
Together with the UN Development Programme and the World
Bank, the UN Environ ment Programme maintains the Global
Figure 10.7. Emblem
of the UN Environment
Environment Facility (GEF), which, in turn, funds projects that tack-
Programme le the most topical environmental issues.

However, the possibilities of the UN Environment Programme
are rather limited. Therefore, the countries of the world deliberate on
substitution of the Programme with the Global Environment Organi
sation (GEO), which would have wider powers and better funding.
10.3.2. Environmental activist groups

Environmental activist groups usually come out against slow and
low-quality measures aimed at tackling environmental issues, and
they often attract the attention of the society to lesser-known environ
mental issues. Thus, they present an important force in the global
environ mental management. There are numerous environ mental
activist groups and they have different interests because of their
differences in ideology, strategy, institutional structure and goals.
Global environmental protection groups have manifested them-
selves to the world in various ways. Their principal activities are
aimed at global protection of the environment. Among these groups
are the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Greenpeace and the
Climate Change Network. Some organisations specialise in data col-
lection that testify to the degradation of the world’s environment,
for example, the World Resources Institute in Washington prepares
regular surveys of all kinds of impact on the environment caused by
anthropogenic activities.
Many environmentalist groups are extremely active at the venues
of important negotiations on the problems of the world’s environment
or sustainable development and also at world environmental con-
gresses. The protesters often wear masks of animals or birds, stick up
Figure 10.8. Greenpeace
protest slogans on tall buildings, and actively lobby leaders of official protests against the
delegations or delegates. Of late they also organise parallel conferenc- company Esso/Exxon
es and environmental forums. Mobil
Such activities cannot be ignored, especially because the major-
ity of the society support the environmentalist groups and take their
side. Consequently, many protesters’ demands are included in offi-
cial agendas and even reflected in the concluding documents. There
are new tendencies that global environmentalist groups cooperate
and work out alternative concluding documents, make them known
to wide public, collect signatures in support of such documents and
demand their consideration along with the official concluding docu-
ments. For example, the International Union for the Conservation of
Nature (IUCN), consisting of a network of nature protection groups,
prepared the Draft Convention on Biodiversity.
Participation of environmentalist groups in the implementation of
international conventions and decisions as well as monitoring is of
great importance. Usually these issues are within the competence
of member states; however, the states not always have the necessary

potential and funds. Therefore, environ mentalist groups enjoy
strong support. They raise the alarm if their countries do not fulfil
their international duties or their activities fail to meet the require-
ments of the international documents they have signed and ratified.
The global society has a decisive role in all future processes,
inclu
ding environ mental protection and sustainable development;
nevertheless, the political process is being steered precisely towards
the needs of the population of the world. The global and local groups
of environmental protection have also come from the grassroots to
demonstrate public discontent with environmental degradation, and
their activities facilitate dissemination of democratic principles in
the society as well as public participation in the management of the
global environment.
10.3.3. International corporations

The world economic system, which includes individual enter
prises, companies, joint-stock companies and international cor po
rations, exploits natural resources, and the result is environmental
pollution. This is a cause of constant complications and even con-
flicts between economic development and environmental protection.
It is widely believed that it is the large corporations, exercising a
disproportionate influence on political processes, that should be held
responsible for the current degradation of the environment and de-
pletion of the world resources. At the same time, corporations and
the business world make efforts to diminish their negative impact
on the environment by working out and implementing standards of
good management practice; they also attempt to present themselves
to the society in a ‘greener’ light.
However, facts show that there is a close connection between
sectors of industry and global environmental issues.
The industry and service sectors have great influence not only
on the environment but also on the respective national governments
and the development of their policies and development plans. How-
ever, large companies seldom get directly involved in politics. Usu-
ally this is the sphere of specific non-governmental organisations
connected with industry and trade. One such major organisation is
the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD),
representing over 170 sectors of industry. This organisation was
founded in 1991, shortly before the UN Conference on Environment
and Development, to summarise and publicise the opinion of the
business world on future tendencies.
The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) also integrates
different and diverse organisations to join in the discussions on
international environmental issues.

The activities of organisations for international environmental
management include participation in global environmental forums
or lobbying in their own countries. Sometimes organisations try to
influence governments as they participate in the drafting of inter
national regulations or standards to corner the market for their
goods or services as well as to secure other advantages and increase
their capacity to compete in global markets.
In many cases the industry and trade sectors want to achieve
adoption of universal international standards in order to exclude
competitors.
It is noteworthy that tackling many global environmental issues
is even unfeasible without drawing in the industry and trade sectors,
principally in relation to environmental pollution which underlies
unwelcome climate changes and ozone depletion. Many sectors feel
under threat as they are found co-responsible for causing environ
mental problems; others are ready to offer solutions along with
reaping huge profits for themselves.
Undeniably, producers have an increasingly powerful say
not only in the development of the environmental policy in their
countries but also in the development of a new kind of relations
with the public. Voluntary commitments concerning environment-
friendly production and an appropriate mechanism of control of
certification and compliance featuring distinct eco-labelling win
public acclaim.
Table 10.1. Global environmental issues and the associated sectors of

industry
Global environmental
Primary production Secondary use
issue
Climate change Extraction of fossil fuel Energy production,
provision of transport
system
Flow of toxic waste Waste recovery and Use of recycled materials
disposal
Decrease in biodiversity Agricultural, biotechno Use of mineral fertilizers,
and biosafety logical and pharma pesticides and modified
ceutical industries organisms in farms
Ozone depletion Chemical industry Production of refrigera
tors, electronic goods
and aerosols
Spread of stable organic Chemical industry Agriculture
compounds
Decrease in forest areas Chemical and forestry Timber industry
industry
Pollution of the World Oil extraction and Sectors that use oil
Ocean transportation products

10.4. Role of science and scientists
in identification and tackling of
environmental problems
Scientists definitely play a prominent role in the development
of international documents pertaining to environ mental policy.
Although it was traditionally believed that scientists were not directly
involved in the process, the UN Conference on the Human Environ
ment in Stockholm, 1972, actually brought out their special role.
At the intellectual level, problems are identified and
scientifically described. In this regard, J. Evelyn’s research is
notable; he announced that the quality of air in London was poor
in a publication in 1661. Similarly, the French engineer Jean-
Antoine Fabre (1748-1834), after having carried out research in the
mountains, informed the public about soil erosion in the Alps.
J. A. Fabre’s observations concerning soil erosion did not offer
solutions to the problem. The same can be said about the talented
and versatile polyglot George Perkins Marsh, ambassador of the
USA to Italy, who in his book Man and Nature (1864) explained, in
the scope of contemporary knowledge, the role of rivers, banks and
surrounding wetlands in the origin of floods in continental Europe.
He predicted the possibility of floods as long as humans would
continue industrialising and adapting rivers to their needs. However,
he did not solve the problem either.
In the early 20th century, the Swedish scientist Einar Naumann
explained the principles of eutrophication. He discovered that
Figure 10.9. The an excessive amount of nitrates and phosphates causes biological
Swedish chemist Svante activity. The results turned out to be correct although no one gave
Oden (1924-1986)
careful attention to them until the problem gained topicality in
was the first to study
the consequences of connection with a massive loss of fish. Consequently, scientific
burning fossil fuel research was necessary, yet it had been insufficient.
He realised that
Speaking of scientists as discoverers of problems, the name of
sulphurous compounds the Swedish chemist Svante Oden (1924-1986) is often mentioned.
in fuel can be oxidised in He discovered the complex and large-scale acidification mechanism
the process of burning and studied it in relation to burning fossil fuels. Indeed, for about
and later might turn into a century scientists had had some general knowledge on it, but
S. Oden’s article, which was published in the Swedish newspaper
sulphuric acid, which has
a devastating impact
on the environment. It Dagens Nyheter in 1967, turned out pivotal in tackling the situation
was tested by the Inter‑ in practice. The novelty was the more recent and precise data; yet
national Meteorological most importantly, this information could be introduced to politicians
Institute in Stockholm, who used it in decision-making. As a result, the concept of environ
which since the 1950s has mental protection was worked out in the 1960s, and practical tasks
carried out measuring of
were outlined. ‘Acid precipitation’ became an issue to be discussed in
atmospheric pollution.
political circles, but the problem formulated by S. Oden became an
environmental problem as well.

In the 19th century, global warming had not yet become an envi
ronmental problem. However, there were scientists who saw a link
between the temperature rise and human activity. Svante Arrhenius
(1859-1927), a physico-chemist at the Stockholm Högskola, had
put forward the theory of the greenhouse effect already in 1896,
but in 1938 the British scientist Guy Stewart Callendar (1898-
1964) published an article in which he demonstrated a connection
between this phenomenon and burning of fossil fuel. As a result of
burning, carbon dioxide is emitted, and with its concentration in
the atmosphere rising, the air temperature also rises. However, even
G. S. Callendar himself did not consider that to constitute an environ Figure 10.10. Major
mental problem because it was not socially recognised. It did not gain contribution of the
recognition up to 1960 when the concept of the greenhouse effect outstanding Swedish
was already in wide use and the global temperature rise had become chemist Svante
Arrhenius (1859-1927)
a topical environmental problem. The process of global warming was to science was his
gradually progressing, and the problem had to be included in the electrolytic dissociation
programme of human activity. theory
Environmental problems are not new, they have existed for However, Arrhenius
hundreds of years and have arise in many places of the world. Yet was a pioneer in many
they have been problems of local importance, dispersed and isolated different spheres.
in both time and space. They have emerged in various places and Already in 1896 he had
evaluated as well as tackled differently – by individuals and by advanced the theory
that the rise of carbon
society at large. Scientists and government officials have been dioxide concentration
involved, but sometimes these problems were left untreated, as was in the atmosphere was
the case of the London smog. Londoners had complained about it going to cause the effect
already in the 13th century, but practical measures were taken only of global warming. He
in the 1950s – 700 years later. may have got interested
in this problem after it
When these social problems surfaced and were explained,
was widely discussed in
their nature changed. People’s inconsiderate attitude to their relation to the discovery
environment was reflected in these problems. Along with the idea of the recent Ice Age. He
of the possibilities of nature and opportunities of environ mental calculated that doubled
protection, a convincing interpretation method was created and concentration of carbon
dioxide would result in a
introduced to journalists, scientists, international organisations and
temperature rise by five
individuals concerned about environ mental problems. Scientists degrees. His calculations
created environmental models, concepts and theories; to the general are very close to our
public, scientists were the activators of environ mental problems; present-day notions.
it was only scientists who could use their methods to identify the
borderline between what was ‘normal’ and ‘problematic’.
The scientist as a discoverer of environ mental problems
performs other important functions in the modern society. The
scientist is a teacher who disseminates knowledge on research
and thus carries out the mission of educating the public about the
questions of nature and the environ ment. The scientist is also a
consultant who helps decision-makers to prepare optimum solutions;
as a creator of new knowledge, the scientist works out the best

technical and social solutions for the problems of nature and the
environment. The scientist also assumes the role of a responsible
intellectual by entering discussions and explaining the interrelation
between environmental and political issues in the mass media.
Application and scientific interpretation of data on the environ
ment are instrumental in assessing global tendencies and developing
future tendencies. The case of the Danish scientist Bjorn Lomborg
is an enlightening example. In 2001 he published the book The
Skeptical Environmentalist to prove that the existing state of the
environment was not as bad as other scientists found it. Lomborg
was severely criticised for a methodologically unjustified selection
of separate environ mental data to draw general conclusions
inconsistent with the reality. However, he was not the only one to
take a stand against the propagators of environmental problems.
Such has been the case with the problem of ozone depletion, the
currently topical climate warming and other issues. This urges the
environmentalists to work even more assiduously and consider the
complex and intricate nature of the phenomenon as well as be better
prepared for the eventual attacks by sceptics and critics.
Science can take pride in being the driving force behind
activity programs for nature and environmental protection. How
ever, its history has not been a linear process, clearly outlined
and progressive. It has rather been a meandering advance, with
numerous attempts, failures and the significant achievements of the
second half of the 20th century in creating models of nature and the
environment. Science is also responsible for huge disasters, including
harm to nature; yet future without science in inconceivable. Science
remains a consequential factor in tackling problems of nature and
the environment the humanity faces worldwide and in the Baltic Sea
Region in particular.
10.5. Development of international cooperation

Policy of environmental protection (at least in its first stages)
has been directed towards specific events. It is easy to attract
the attention of the public by pointing out obvious and easily
comprehensible problems such as acid rains, seal hunting in order
to obtain furs and pollution caused by pesticides. However, when it
comes to problems that become evident after a longer period of time,
such as the global changes of temperature, expansion of deserts and
depletion of biological diversity, it is considerably more difficult.
The point of view of scientists regarding critical and problematic
issues does not always coincide with that of the governments and
international organisations.

For a government, an issue becomes critical only when it has
attracted the attention of a great part of the public, its more promi
nent members, or when the attention of the mass media has also
been attracted. That is why the international policy of environmental
protection is concerned both with the growth of the movement of
environmental protection and the development of scientific thought
regarding important ecological processes. The 20th century has seen
the most achievements of this kind.
In international political relations, the emergence of environ
mental protection issues as problems can be divided into four
phases. The first phase began in the 19th century with the signing
of bilateral fishery agreements and ended in 1945 when new
international organisations were established. The second phase
began with the foundation of the United Nations and reached its
peak during the United Nations Conference on the Human Environ
ment in Stockholm, 1972; the development and establishment of the
movement of environmental protection took place during this phase.
The third phase (1972-1992) witnessed an explosion of new environ
mental protection institutions and agreements. The fourth phase
began with the United Nations Conference on the Environment and
Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The last phase is markedly
characterised by integration of environmental issues in nearly all
public and private spheres, and the impact of these issues on the
activities of the humankind.
10.5.1. First phase: sea resources

In the beginning international environ mental protection
focused on systematising the issues of jurisdiction and ensuring
the administration of international watercourses by passing laws
for transboundary rivers and lakes. Attention was drawn to the
populations of migrating wildlife as well due to the fact that no
state could single-handedly take care of its protection when the
growth of industry threatened to destroy many species; for example,
the government of Switzerland proposed (albeit unsuccessfully) a
formation of an international committee to protect migratory birds
of Europe as early as in 1872. However, different governments had
begun taking measures to protect nature even earlier than that; they
were mostly to do with the interests of local economies – protection
of forests, inland waters, mineral fields and certain wildlife species.
With the exception of the seal protection treaty (adopted in
1911), all the other early attempts to regulate the use of joint natural
resources required so much debate that in the end they turned out
to be inefficient and had to be postponed. Dealing with environ
mental problems was difficult due to the fact that there was no

clearly defined ground and strict political approach; moreover, there
were cultural differences, and all the aforementioned aspects led
to different approaches. The attempt to ensure international whale
protection turned out to be an especially unavailing episode in the
history of international environmental protection. The Convention
on Restrictions of Whaling was signed in Geneva in 1931, and
24 states had either ratified or joined it up to 1935. However,
the Soviet Union and Japan – the two states most involved with
whaling – did not sign the convention. In addition, the states that had
signed the document had few duties to attend to. The International
Whaling Commission was established in 1946 due to the initiative
of the USA; a whaling code was adopted, and the commission could
make amendments without holding official conferences. Yet, despite
the authority given to the commission, the short-term interests of
whaling were impossible to overcome, and the commission did not
heed even its scientific advisors.
During the Conference on the Human Environ ment, whales
were mentioned as a symbol of the antiecological behaviour of
humans. A procession was organised for the protection of whales
and a decision was passed to recommend a 10-year moratorium on
commercial whaling, which was supposed to enhance the activities
of the International Whaling Commission; yet it took 10 more years
to authorise the moratorium.
The North Pacific Fur Seal Convention managed to protect seals
from a direct impact of human activities by providing that hunting
as well as the population of seals both on land and sea territories
were to be controlled. In this case, international cooperation was
more successful because the fur seals are a particular subspecies
whose behaviour is easily predictable – they have localised territo-
ries for breeding their young; thus, the territories can be controlled
by the state governments. Whales, on the other hand, have different
subspecies that populate different oceans; their behaviour is not eas-
ily predictable, resulting in difficulties to determine their numbers
and regulate the size of the population. The differences in political,
economic and geographical factors only contributed to complications
of the process.
Nevertheless, in 1982 the International Whaling Commission
finally voted for halting commercial whaling, setting a period of
transition of three years. The states concerned with whaling – Japan,
the USSR, Brazil, Peru, Norway, Iceland and North Korea – still
opposed the vote. However, in 1990, when the five-year moratorium
had ended, in a conference held by the International Whaling
Commission, most of the members voted to prolong the moratorium.
The states against it accepted the vote since refusing to do so would
have cost them their political and business reputation.

10.5.2. Second phase: activities of the environmental
protection movement and the united nations
Many non-governmental organisations concerned with protection
of the environment came into being after the end of World War II,
supported by the governments on both national and inter national
scale. During that time the global problems were related to four
important spheres:
1) the ban on distribution of nuclear, biological and chemical wea
pons, reduction of military costs, and prevention of a new war,
2) reduction of poverty,
3) the nature and environment crisis that manifested itself in Figure 10.11. Rachel
Louise Carson
depletion of resources and biological diversity and in increasing
(1907‑1964), a marine
amounts of waste, biologist and writer
4) recognition and ensuring of human rights.
However, the events that took place on an international scale had
different impact regarding the social and environmental protection
movement in each state based on the national political culture. For
example, the environ mental protection movements in Denmark,
Sweden and the Netherlands had certain national peculiarities
resulting from specialisation and the professional standard.
Some of the movements had attracted a great number of members
whereas others consisted of a small number of groups of experts;
similarly, some of the movements were concerned with solving
general problems of environmental protection and development while
others focused on particular environmental issues.
During the 60s, there was a significant interest in nature in
scientific and economic aspects; the decade left an impact on how en
vironmental problems were viewed in intellectual and political circles.
Her most significant
In 1962, Rachel Carson published her book Silent Spring which work is Silent Spring,
criticised the overly extensive use of pesticides and stressed their republished in 2002 to
negative influence on human health and ecosystems. Although the commemorate 30 years
scientific community criticised the work as being over-emotional, since the publication of
almost all of the pesticides mentioned by R. Carson are banned now. the first edition
In 1962, the actual state of environment was uncertain; however,
1970 arrived with a many-voiced and unyielding public opinion.
Groups of concerned scientists, administrators and environmental
protection enthusiasts initiated an explosion of a mass movement,
which spread in the industrialised world. The later movement of
environ mental protection came more from the grassroots, was
much more active and politically responsive compared to the earlier
organisations of nature protection.
Significance of environmental organisations in the international
relations of environmental protection begun to increase. Environ
mental organisations increased pressure on the governments to make
them formulate and carry out efficient environmental protection

policies. Non-governmental organisations collaborated via a regional
and global network in order to obtain information and work out the
strategy needed for environmental protection. On the local scale the
organisations established groups and enlisted individuals to solve
particular immediate problems in their vicinity. These organisations
were grassroots movements with influence on the international
policy of environ mental protection, and several organisations of
significant standing and a particularly scientific or professional
approach, such as the International Council of Scientific Unions
and the World Conservation Union, grew out of them. They actively
participated in the preparation of the United Nations Conference on
the Human Environment in Stockholm, 1972.
Among the institutions and centres concerned with environment
al information, education and consultations, the International Insti
tute for Environment and Development, the Institute for European
Environmental Policy and the World Resources Institute stand out.
During the 50s and 60s, the global economy experienced growth;
however, afterwards fundamental problems began to develop, resulting
in the oil crisis of 1973. The crisis coincided with the awareness of the
‘limits to growth’, explained to the world by the Club of Rome.
The Club of Rome was established as a free association of
European scientists, technical employees and politicians during the
time when the liberal democracy of capitalism was shaken by crises,
and issues of civil rights, peace and environment were beginning to
dominate. The Club of Rome published the report Limits to Growth,
based on the research carried out by the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (USA) led by D. Meadows.
Limits to Growth was based on the outcomes of prognoses
regarding the constant depletion of resources, increase in pollution
and population. The goal of the report was to promote awareness
of the economic, political, social and environmental components of
the global system as well as to aid the development of new opinions
regarding the political means of solving problems. Limits to Growth
exposed the probable global development up to 2100, examined
the use of computer-created models in system analysis (which had
been unprecedented before), and extrapolated based on the growth
Figure 10.12. Three
editions of Limits to experienced from 1900 to 1970. The conclusion was that if structural
Growth (1972, 1992 and changes were not introduced, the world could experience grave
2004) difficulties around 2100.
The model examined five interdependent spheres of develop
ment, namely industry, resources, pollution, food and population.
Changes that affect only one sphere could still cause problems in
others, and technological innovations dealing with the expansion of
a particular sphere would not affect the general tendency towards a
collapse. The report severely attacked the widespread view that the
development of technology could improve the environment. Although

the report was criticised for its focus solely on the analysis of the
Western system as well as the application of the system dynamic
method, Limits to Growth set the preconditions for a new way of
thinking and an awareness of global action programmes and helped
to form a new comprehensive view on the global environment.
10.5.3. Third phase: from Stockholm (1972) to

Rio de Janeiro (1992)
Two international conferences took place in 1968 and 1972,
during which the problems of global environ mental protection
were discussed; moreover, specific solutions to improve the state
were proposed. The first was the Biosphere Conference in Paris,
which was in a more scientific vein and in which such problems as
the human influence on the biosphere, the effect of air and water
pollution, overgrazing of green areas, deforestation and the drainage
of wetlands were discussed. The same problems were analysed in
more detail during the next meeting – the Biosphere Conference in
Stockholm, which attracted international attention to many global
problems of nature and the environment.
The United Nations Conference on the Human Environ ment
in Stockholm in 1972 undoubtedly was a turning point and the
most important event regarding the establishment and expansion
of an international environ mental protection movement. It was
the first time when environmental problems were discussed and
analysed in connection with economic and social development
in an international forum. A direct outcome of the conference
was the establishment of a new United Nations agency: United
Nations Environ ment Programme (UNEP), which marked the
transition from the environmental protection form of 1960 to the
establishment of a movement that dealt with the environ ment
protection politically and globally – a much more serious movement
of the 1970s, thus confirming the trend towards emphasising a
human-inhabited environment affected by humans and underlining
the importance of a marked conservation and protection of nature.
At the beginning of the 1980s, there were about 13 000 non-
governmental organisations in the developed industrial states
(30% had been established in the previous decade) and 2230 in the
developing countries (60%). The environmental non-governmental
organisations in the developing countries provided an alternative to
the corrupt governments.
The environmental protection movement was a significant force
in the struggle for independence in eastern Europe and the Baltic
states – Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The rapid expansion of the
movement probably was fuelled by the objections to the decisions

made in Moscow regarding the development of industry and the
use of natural resources; moreover, it was generally confirmed
that extensive pollution is a significant factor contributing to the
deterioration of human health.
The conference in Stockholm triggered many international
initiatives and activities.
Figure 10.13. Opening

of the United Nations
Conference on the
Human Environment in
Stockholm, June 5, 1972
The Geneva Protocol on long-range transboundary air pollution

(adopted in 1986) proposed quantitative goals. The document in
question was reconciled with the European Commission and the North
Sea Declaration. It was decided to reduce the amount of pollution
caused by heavy metals, toxic and volatile organic substances and
biogenic substances by half up to 1995.
The Baltic Sea Declaration signed in Ronneby in 1990 was an
important step to ensure the implemen tation of environ mental
protection measures agreed upon internationally on a local scale.
An action programme was approved coordinated by national
and international experts and financial institutions, including
the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the
European Investment Bank, the Nordic Investment Bank and the
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Programmes
and regulations to cut the pollution were adopted on a local scale.
Figure 10.14. Gro In 1992, the plan was backed by the Baltic Sea Environ ment
Harlem Brundtland, Declaration, which ensured the possibility to further guarantee the
ex-Prime Minister economic strategy of financing environmental actions.
of the Kingdom of
In accordance with the United Nations General Assembly
Norway and Chair of
the World Commission Decision of December 1983, the World Commission on Environ
on Environment and ment and Development was founded, and the position of chair was
Development entrusted to Gro Harlem Brundtland.
The task of the Commission was to single out critical problems
and formulate their solutions planned as a renewed research to
ensure the emergence of multilateral solutions and re struc
ture
international economic corporation. The commission organised

public conventions in all five continents, and the report Our Common
Future prepared by the Commission was published in 1987. The
report was widely used by the United Nations and others in order
to emphasise the possibilities of implementing the set goals in each
state. The definition of sustainable development was an agreement
on political principles, arrived at through a difficult process, which
would serve as basis for a careful and responsible monitoring and
use of the resources of the Earth.
‘Sustainable development is development that meets
the needs of our generation without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their needs.’
The process of founding Green Parties took off – as early as 1972
in New Zealand, later in 1973 – in Great Britain, 1974 – France, 1978 –
Belgium and West Germany, 1979 – Switzerland and Luxembourg,
1980 – Finland, 1981 – Sweden, 1982 – Austria and Ireland, 1983 –
the Netherlands and 1984 – Italy. In the elections of the European
Parliament in 1984, Green Parties from seven states took part.
The Green Party of Latvia was founded in January 1990 as the
first new political party in Latvia before the Declaration of Inde
pendence on May 4.
A new ideological turning point in the environmental protection
movement was needed in order to be able to formulate the new
philosophy of life, like the Club of Rome had done before. In Gaia: A
New Look at Life on Earth by James Lovelock, published in 1979, the
general arguments were accompanied by a new comprehensive view,
namely that the humankind is only part of a much greater natural
system as the processes that take place on the Earth are influenced
by all living organisms that inhabit the planet. They are inseparable,
interrelated and form a unity – the biosphere.
Figure 10.15. United
Nations publications are
10.5.4. Fourth phase: the period of integration issued in huge editions
worldwide
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
that took place in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 was the most diverse
and large-scale conference ever organised by the United Nations. 179
state representatives and 120 state leaders partook in the Conference.
Preparations for the conference took two and a half years, and its
progress was widely reported by the press. Many national delegations
with representatives of governmental, municipal, business, scientific,
non-governmental and other organisations took part in the debate with
the institutions of the United Nations. The discussion touched upon
issues of international importance – protection of the atmosphere;
the use of the oceans, freshwater and land resources; preservation of
biological diversity; careful application of biotechnology; and problems

regarding toxic and solid waste and hazardous chemical substances.
Five documents were signed at the end of the conference, signifying
joint national interests and the reached unanimity. This conference
was very significant for the future development of the debate on
sustainable development, negotiations between developed and
developing countries and for the process of explaining the relations
between environment and development.
Figure 10.16. United

Nations Conference
on Environment and
Development in Rio
de Janeiro, 1992 – the
meeting of 103 state
leaders
The conference was

opened by the United
Nations Secretary-General At the conference, an important United Nations commission –
Boutros-Boutros Ghali Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD) – was founded; its
on June 3, 1992, and goal was to sum up the results of the conference and monitor how
Fernando Collor de the Agenda 21 was implemented on a national, regional and inter
Mello, President of Brazil,
national scale in order to ensure worldwide sustainable development.
was elected President
of the Conference. The Agenda 21 called upon the governments to develop a strategy
Conference adopted that would further and ensure sustainable development by attracting
the Rio de Janeiro non-governmental organisations and the general public. Agenda
Declaration on Environ 21 particularly emphasised the necessity of having multilateral
ment and Development, partnership with international organisations, state governments
Agenda 21, the
Statement of Principles
and municipalities, business organisations, non-governmental
on the Management, organisations and different resident groups. The document daringly
Conservation and suggested to develop an environ mental development plan for the
Sustainable Development 21st century. It required that a general inventory in all spheres be
of All Types of Forests, performed to assess their sustainability, connecting the spheres and
the United Nations
developing action plans for the future. Thus, the guidelines for and
Framework Convention
on Climate Change structure of implementation of future action were set. The 40 chapters
and the United Nations of Agenda 21 (over 500 pages) are classified into four main parts:
Framework Convention social and economic issues;
on Biological Diversity. resource conservation and management for development;
establishing the role of the main action groups;
determining and solving the most important issues.
However, the main problem of Agenda 21 is the lack of actual
financing. Approximate expenses estimated by the secretariat of the
Conference amounted to EUR 430 billion a year, 100 billions of which

should be covered by international financial aid. These sums seemed
unrealistic, taking into account the opportunities of attracting and
exploiting financial resources.
A report on implementation of Agenda 21 was submitted at the
meeting of the United Nations World Commission of Environment
and Development in the summer of 1997. Global Environ mental
Facility (GEF), established due to the report of the United Nations
World Commission of Environ ment and Development in 1987,
planned on spending only EUR 0.93 billion in the period of 1991
to 1994 and EUR 1.33 billion in 1995 to 1998, most of which would
be spent on global climate change, international water pollution and
protection of biological diversity and the ozone layer. On the whole,
international financial aid (including multinational and bilateral
financial cooperation) to developing countries has decreased because
of political and economic factors. At the end of the Cold War, some
of the financial resources due for developing countries were shifted
to the former Soviet Block countries. In addition, the former market
relations between eastern Europe and the developed countries
weakened, leaving some of the former Soviet Bloc countries in a
political deadlock and forcing them to search for new partners. The
cut in international aid was also related to a financial crisis affecting
the developed countries. In order to diminish the consequences of
the crisis and stabilise the local situation, the countries drastically
cut the resources for international financial aid.
In addition, the environ ment in the countries of the former
Eastern Bloc was a concern, as well as the competition between these
countries and the developing countries for the economic aid from
the West. The former Eastern Bloc countries had to overcome many
problems to be able to embrace sustainable development. In May 3-4,
1996, Prime Ministers of the Council of the Baltic Sea States and
EU top officials, including President of the European Commission,
met in Visby, Sweden. The setting was one of the most remarkable
scenes of regional policy making since the end of the Cold War. In
the final declaration of the meeting, the issue of environmental
protection was high on agenda, including Agenda 21 for the Baltic
Sea Region, as well as co-operation and knowledge transfer. Sweden,
as the host of the meeting, set aside a sum of one billion Swedish
crowns (about 110 000 EUR) to fund the proposed activities with the
help of the newly created Advisory Council for co-operation on the
Baltic Sea Region issues. During economic difficulties, it is of utmost
importance to ensure that environmental protection is a political
priority. That can be achieved only if environmental organisations
keep pressing the issues and have the support and involvement of
the society. In all eastern Europe countries in which Green Parties
were a significant force in the struggle for independence, the

priorities have gradually changed. Many representatives of Green
Parties elected in the first free elections lost their mandates in the
next. At the moment, there is a tendency in society for economic
problems to come first regarding political action. Despite that, there
is some progress regarding advancement towards the drafting and
adoption of national sustainable development strategies. Similarly to
developed countries of the West, the advance towards sustainable
development takes place on several levels of the society: between
politicians and the civil service, between regional and local
authorities, between different business organisations and residents.
10.6. Recent tendencies in international

cooperation on environmental
protection and sustainable development
Multilateral international environ mental agree ments (con
ventions) are one of the oldest forms of cooperation in solving
problems of the environment and nature. After the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environ ment in 1972, international
environ mental agreements have become the main instrument of
global environmental administration; however, the emphasis is on
international diplomacy, not technical understanding. Approximately
140 international agreements have been signed, ratified and come
Figure 10.17. First into force since 1920; the number of the documents accompanying
Conference of the
Parties of Aarhus
them (protocols and amendments) is much greater. Some of the
Convention conventions and protocols are of greater significance – on degradation
of the ozone layer, biological diversity and climate change.
Although the conventions and protocols differ in both their
subjects and goals, there are similarities as well. The conventions
are international laws that independent countries or institutions
have agreed upon. Since the conventions set down the obligations
and rights of the countries in a particular sphere, the representatives
of the states spend quite a lot of time on harmonising the documents
before adoption of the conventions. After that, technical experts
Conference took place in develop the project of the convention and submit it to the member
October 2002 after about
states for evaluation. The highest ranking officials of the states sign
four years of preparation
since its adoption and the convention during an international conference dedicated to the
signing in Aarhus, debate on the questions related to the convention. The procedure of
Denmark, in June 1998. To ratification takes place after signing; it involves an official decision
commemorate the deca‑ by the parliament confirming that the convention complies with
de of Aarhus Convention,
the national legislation and that the state is willing to observe the
the Third Conference of
the Parties was held in rules of the convention and undertake international liabilities. If an
Rīga in June 2008 established number of states (the minimum number of states needed

for the convention to function efficiently is decided by the member
states themselves) have ratified the convention, they convene the
first conference of the parties of the convention to agree upon
the actions needed to implement the convention, including the
establishment of the secretariat of the convention, financing, usage
of financial means, the procedure of reporting the progress and,
if necessary, the criteria for evaluating the conformity of member
states. In some cases, expert committees and work groups are
formed in order to solve current issues.
Figure 10.18. Nobel

Peace Prize 2007
was awarded to the
Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change
Figure 10.19. The

Club of Rome General
Assembly
From the right: Queen

Regarding the making of global environ mental policy and Beatrix of the Nether‑
lands, J. Cohen, Mayor
development of conventions and their protocols, the role of scientists
of Amsterdam, R. Lagos,
and experts is invaluable. A good example is the Intergovernmental former President of Chile,
Panel on Climate Change (IPPC), which consists of approximately R. Lubbers, former Prime
three thousand scientists. The results of their research and a Minister of the Nether‑
mutual exchange and collective interpretation of the results have lands, M. Gorbachev,
raised global awareness of the current environ mental problems
former President of the
USSR, who all took part
and helped in developing a unified policy for subduing the negative in the work of the Club of
consequences of climate change. The contribution of IPPC has been Rome General Assembly
awarded with the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007. in October of 2009
Figure 10.20. Chair of

Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change
R. Pachauri addresses
the delegates of COP15
in the official opening of
Copenhagen Conference
on December 7, 2009

Table 10.2. International conventions on nature and environmental protection
Place of Year of
Conventions and agreements
adoption adoption
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling 1946
Radiation Protection Convention 1960
Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Vienna 1963
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 1968
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, Especially as Waterfowl
Ramsar 1971
Habitat
UNESCO World Heritage Convention 1972
CITES Convention on International Trade in Wild Species of Fauna and Flora Washington 1973
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships London 1973
Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats Bern 1979
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals Bonn 1979
Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution Geneva 1979
United Nations Convention on the Law on Seas 1982
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer Vienna 1985
Montreal Protocol Montreal 1987
Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological
Vienna 1986
Emergency
Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident Vienna 1986
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Basel 1989
Wastes and Their Disposal
Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context Espoo 1991
Agreement on the Conservation of Bats in Europe London 1991
United Nations Framework Convention on Biological Diversity Rio de Janeiro 1992
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety Cartagena 2002
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Rio de Janeiro 1992
Kyoto Protocol Kyoto 1997
Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area Helsinki 1992
Convention on the Protection and Use of Trans-Boundary Watercourses and Inter
Helsinki 1992
national Lakes
Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents Helsinki 1992
Convention to combat desertification in countries seriously affected by drought
Paris 1994
and/or desertification, particularly in Africa
Convention on Nuclear Safety Vienna 1994
The Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds 1995
Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of
Vienna 1997
Radioactive Waste Management
Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Rotterdam 1998
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade
Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and
Aarhus 1998
Access to Justice in Environmental Matters
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants Stockholm 2001

Since as early as the 1960s, scientists have been attempting
to link global climate change with anthropogenic action. At the
beginning the initiative came from the scientists working on research
on the atmosphere, who were trying to make the connection between
the impact of the collective action of humankind on the whole
atmosphere and its possible changes. This kind of interdisciplinary
approach was used in a scientific programme ‘Human and Biosphere’
carried out by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) from 1971 to 1984. In a way, it set
the foundation for interaction between environmental science and
environmental politics and enabled solving current global problems
more efficiently.
In September 2000, the General Assembly of the United Nations,
which 191 member states took part in, signed the United Nations
Millennium Declaration and set eight Millennium Development
Goals to be fulfilled until 2015.
Figure 10.21. Emblem
of the United Nations
United Nations Millennium Development Goals and the stand at the
UN Headquarters
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. in New York with
Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education. the Millennium
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women. Development Goals
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality.
Goal 5: Improve maternal health.
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability.
Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development.
Figure 10.22.
Environmental
protection activists
protest against the
world leaders’ inability
to make decisions on
definite and immediate
actions to diminish the
negative consequences
of climate change.
Copenhagen, COP15
Conference, December
2009

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11. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT:
LEGISLATION, POLICIES, INSTITUTIONS
11.1. Legislation of environmental protection

The terms ‘environmental law’ and ‘environmental legislation’
are used for denoting the measures of environmental legal protection.
Environmental law means a body of legislative provisions, regu-
lating the public rules of conduct in the area of environmental pro
tection. Environmental law is a relatively new and complex area of
public law, which includes such legal provisions of constitutional law,
administrative law, criminal law and administrative procedure law
that aim to ensure and promote environmental protection. Environ
mental law belongs to public law, which means that, to protect the
environment, the state prescribes for the public certain requirements
that must be followed. If a person fails to comply with these require-
ments, the state may use coercive measures against such a person,
imposing a corresponding penalty or ordering to eliminate the ad-
verse effects on the environment resulting from the violation.
What are the rules of conduct contained in legal provisions can
be ascertained through studying the sources of law. Environmental
law consists of several types of legal sources, representing the writ-
ten law (legislation) and the unwritten law (general legal principles
and customary law). In addition, the sources of environmental law
can be divided into the basic sources (laws) and ancillary sources
(case law or the rights of judges and jurisprudence – legal science or
jurists’ law).
The main source of environmental law is the law (external legal
provisions), viz. the written sources of law, which include generally
binding rules of conduct. The generally binding legal pro vi
sions
comprise laws adopted by parliament, regulations issued by govern-
ment and binding rules issued by local authorities. Furthermore, EU
legislation – including regulations, directives and decisions – is bind-
ing to the European Union Member States. EU environmental legis-
lation is developed mainly in the form of directives that the Member
States must then integrate into their national law.
National environmental legal protection is also based on inter
national legislation. For the most part, they are international agree
ments (conventions, protocols) to which the Member State is a party.
11. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: LEGISLATION, POLICIES, INSTITUTIONS 233

The term ‘environmental legislation’ is associated with national
Therefore, environmental
legal protection is
associated with both environmental law, and it mostly refers to legal acts (laws of
environmental and nat‑ parliament, regulations of government and local authorities) that
ural resource protection pertain to the environment or help to achieve the national aims of
and sustainable use, and environmental policy – to preserve, protect and improve environ
the protection of human
mental quality, provide for sustainable use of natural resources and
health from harmful
environmental factors in ensure a high-quality living environment.
the following environ‑ For the purpose of the law, ‘the environ ment’ is taken to
ment-related areas: mean an aggregate of natural, anthropogenic and societal factors.
water protection, Obviously, ‘the environment’ includes not only natural factors (the
soil protection, natural environment) but also human beings and their impact on the
protection against
noise in the
natural environment.
environment,
ambient air protection,
nature and biodiversity 11.1.1. Law as an environmental protection instrument
conservation,
waste management, Various cultures of the world have different understandings of
turnover of chemical law. The conception of law largely depends on what is recognised
substances and as the sources of law. The world’s developed countries, including
products, including European countries, have quite similar conceptions of law. The
laws of these countries belong to the so-called Western law,
biocides and pesticides,
turnover of genetically
modified organisms, where ‘law’ usually means a body of legislative sources regulating
various emissions community life. The laws of the Baltic Sea region countries belong
and releases into the to the continental European law family or civil law system. Although
environment, this system may also include unwritten law, the main recognised
environmental impact
sources of law are written – above all, the laws adopted by national
assessment,
access to environmental parliaments. Generally binding rules of conduct or regulations,
information and to a limited extent, may also be issued by executive powers – the
public participation government and local authorities. The legal provisions of the highest
in environmental legal force – the State Basic Law (Constitution) – are at the top of
decision-making at the this hierarchy.
state level,
urban and rural spatial
In many countries, environmental protection is a constitutional
planning. norm. For example, Article 115 of the Constitution of the Republic
of Latvia stipulates: ‘The State shall protect the right of everyone
to live in a benevolent environment by providing information on
environmental conditions and by promoting the preservation and
improvement of the environment.’ Several state obligations can be
derived from this constitutional provision – to protect the right of
everyone to live in a benevolent environment, to provide for the
preservation of such environment and to promote the improvement
of the environment as well as to ensure public access to environ
mental information.
The countries that belong to the continental European civil
law system have codified laws, which are often referred to as
codes. In several countries, there are civil and criminal as well as
environmental law codifications. For example, Germany, France

and Sweden have environ mental codes. Latvian environ mental
regulatory standards are included not just in one but in several laws:
the Environmental Protection Law, the Law on Pollution, the Law
on the Conservation of Species and Biotopes, the Law on Specially
Protected Nature Territories, the Protection Zone Law, the Waste
Management Law.
Figure 11.1. German

Parliament (Reichstag)
building in Berlin
The dedication Dem

Deutschen Volke, meaning
‘For the German people’,
can be seen on the
architrave.
The laws of such countries as the United Kingdom and United

States, in turn, belong to another group of Western law – the English-
Saxon common law system. In this group of laws, the basic recognised
sources of law are both the laws adopted by the parliament (legislative
statutes) and judicial precedents. Therefore, in these countries, the
so-called rights of judges have significantly greater weight than in
continental Europe.
Human behaviour is governed by different types of rules – from
etiquette and morality to legal provisions. However, only the latter
are contained in the sources of law and are binding.
Environmental laws are primarily focused on solving environ
mental problems and include measures that should be taken in
order to prevent known environmental problems. Compliance with
the requirements of legal provisions makes possible to eliminate
environmental damage or to reduce its impact.
To prevent human-created environmental problems successfully,
we need to develop a strategy to change human behaviour, making it
more environment-friendly. Since law is the most effective regulator
of social behaviour, it is widely applied in order to change social
behaviour patterns in the use of the environment. In general, environ
mental law is primarily incentive and disincentive rules of conduct
contained in environmental legislation. They underpin different areas
of life. Hence, the law may set a binding framework, within which
economic, technical, informative, educational and other measures are
often implemented on their merits.

The desired behaviour can be achieved with two kinds of
methods, working as a ‘pie’ or a ‘whip’. The ‘pie’ strategy means
that the law stimulates the implementation of environment-friendly
behaviour in a way that compliance with environmental protection
requirements is beneficial. The ‘whip’ strategy, in contrast, provides
for measures impeding specific actions. These measures have to be
such that the disadvantageous consequences of environ mentally
unfriendly actions would inhibit people from these actions. The
‘whip’ strategy is most commonly used in the provisions that impose
penalties or other coercive measures for non-compliance with
environmental protection requirements.
Usually, environmental law drafts are developed by executive
powers or politicians, adopted by the legislator and implemented
by specialised state or municipal environ mental protection
authorities, whereas courts exercise control over the compliance
with these laws. Unlike it is with other social norms, the
compliance with legal provisions can be enforced by compulsion.
Therefore, only the law has a specific implementation process – the
legal provision.
Legal provision is a mechanism for ensuring the compliance with
legal provisions or their fulfilment. In order to make this process
work, the state has created relevant institutions (authorities) –
courts, police, prosecutor’s office, specialised state environmental
departments – which have been granted a monopoly of coercion. The
coercion mechanism grants the state (the law enforcement bodies)
the lawful right to apply coercive measures against the violators
or non-observers of the law. The coercive measures themselves are
established by the law, and they are quite different.
The state has the right to monitor the compliance with environ
men tal legislation. Such control can be exercised by state envi
ronmen tal inspectors. If non-conformities with the requirements
of en viron mental legislation are found during inspections, state
environmental inspectors may, for example, issue binding injunct
ions (administrative acts) for temporary suspension of the company’s
operations, draw up statements of the cases for less grievous (admi
nistrative) violations and impose statutory administrative penalties
for these violations. Although the law also provides for criminal
liability for environmental legislation offences, in practice the en
vironmental regulatory violations are classified primarily as less
serious violations. The most common punishment for environmental
violation is an administrative fine, whose amount is usually fixed by
the law.
If it is economically more profitable for a company to pay fines
and com pensate for environmental damage instead of continual
con form ity with environmental protections requirements, such a

situation is indicative of the inefficiency of the legislator’s chosen
‘whip’ strategy, as it does not promote the compliance with these
requirements.
11.1.2. Law and environmental science

Environ mental science and environ mental law each has its
own specific tasks. Environmental science explains and forms
understanding about the processes taking place in the natural
environment, interaction going on among the elements of nature
and between humans and the natural environ ment. By contrast,
the task of the law is to regulate social relations for the purpose of
protecting and improving the environment and to solve the related
disputes. Although the environmental science and law are quite dif-
ferent areas, they are at the same time closely related. Regulation of
social relations in such a way that human activity would not have
any destructive environmental impact is possible only if both the
legislature and general public have an understanding of the pro-
cesses in the environment and their causes, as well as of the impact
of various human activities on the environment. If the knowledge
of environmental science was not taken into account in drafting
environmental legal provisions, it would be impossible to achieve
the goals of environ mental law. Consequently, such a normative
regulation would have to be regarded as an ineffective means of
environmental protection. Environmental science, in turn, without
binding environmental protection regulations, would not have the
tool for transforming the behaviour of society and directing it into a
more environment-friendly direction.
11.1.3. Law and environmental ethics

Regulating social relations, the law as such is silent on ethical
issues. Is it acceptable to degrade the natural environment and to
consume a large part of the planet’s natural resources during one
generation? What kinds of actions in relation to nature should be
regarded as good or bad? What is the moral value of nature? Answers
to these questions should be sought in environ mental ethics.
Environmental law is based on two main conceptions of environ
mental ethics – anthropocentrism and ecocentrism. According to the
anthropocentric approach, the environment should be protected in
the interests of human welfare – today’s environmental protection
conserves environ mental resources for future consumption. The
ecocentric approach, in turn, implies that the environment (nature)
has an intrinsic value in itself; therefore, the human responsibility is
to protect it without regard to the benefits humans could obtain from

it, and to provide for the possibility to exist not only for humans
but also for other living beings. Contemporary environmental law is
primarily anthropocentric.
In the legal system, animals or nature in general are usually
regarded as legal objects, which can be equated to things. Usually,
neither nature nor animals are recognised as legal entities which
may have rights. Only humans possess rights. Hence, the law, being
for the most part anthropocentric, guarantees the priority and
protection of rights and interests just to one species – humans.
11.2. Legal principles of environmental

protection
Environmental protection principles are guiding ideas, on the
basis of which the state develops its environmental policy. Compared
with legal provisions as sufficiently clear rules of conduct, the
environmental protection principles are more abstract. Therefore,
they are often considered as an intermediate stage between environ
mental policy and environmental law. These principles are established
by law and serve primarily as guidelines for the Development of
environmental laws and regulations.
There are several environmental protection principles effective
in the European legal space – the principle of high level of environ
mental protection, the precautionary principle, the principle of
preventive action, the assessment principle and the ‘polluter pays’
principle.
When new environ mental laws and regulations are adopted,
the principle of high level of environmental protection prohibits
deteriorating the existing level of environmental protection.
The precautionary principle does not allow to start on an
environment-affecting action until the information has been ob
tained as to how high a risk exists and what measures have to be
taken to reduce it. If the research process reveals a threat, the pre
cautionary principle calls for precautionary measures, despite the
fact that there is some uncertainty as to whether the risk is indeed
real. The aim of the precautionary principle is not to permit certain
actions only when the risk to the environment or human health is
equated to zero, but to assess the magnitude of the risk and, in case
of need, take the necessary measures.
Although all kinds of chemical substances we use on a daily basis
help to simplify our life, they can imperceptibly harm us in the future.
Humans have created thousands of new chemicals, and only part of
them have been proven dangerous and, therefore, are prohibited to

use (for example, the use of some plastic softeners in children’s toys).
At the same time, there is a great deal of chemicals still in use whose
hazards have not yet been properly researched. These substances
are contained in various goods and products that are widely used on
a daily basis, and we can take them in with food, breathe in with
air or absorb through the skin. Until now, before a country could be
prohibited to produce some chemical substance, its hazardousness
had to be conclusively proved. Now the European Union law has
brought new binding requirements based on the precautionary
principle – over 30 thousand existing and new chemical substances
will have to be tested with regard to their effect on human health. It
is no longer the country but manufacturers and importers of chemical
substances who must obtain certain information on the properties
of these substances and test them to determine their impact on the
environment and humans, as well as guarantee their safe use, that is,
prove that the substance is not hazardous.
The principle of preventive action requires to prevent
pollution or other harmful impacts on the environment or human
health as much as possible, or, if it is unfeasible, then at least to
prevent further spreading of these harmful effects and their negative
consequences. The principle of prevention combines two EU environ
mental protection principles – the principle of preventive action and
the principle of causation.
The principle of preventive action is implemented through such
regulatory enactments which require, for example, compliance with
the environ mental pollutant emission standards or waste ma na
gement regulations. Waste should be processed and disposed of as
close to its place of origination as possible (the proximity principle),
and each state or local government should, as far as practicable, by
itself treat and manage in an environmentally sound manner the
waste generated at its territory (the self-sufficiency principle).
The assessment principle prescribes: if the consequences
of an action or project can significantly affect the environment
or human health, they must be assessed before such an action or
project is permitted (commenced). If it becomes evident after the
assessment that the action or project in question will adversely affect
the environment or human health, the government may allow it on
condition that the expected positive result for society as a whole
will exceed the harm that the respective action or project will have
caused to the environment and society.
The assessment principle clearly attests to the aforementioned
anthro pocentrism of environ mental law. Moreover, ‘the expected
positive result for society as a whole’ may be related to the imple
mentation of economic interests, such as the construction of roads,
dams, pipelines, nuclear power plants. Therefore, the environmental

legislative regulation is aimed not so much at prohibiting any
negative impact on the environ ment than at controlling and
minimising this impact as far as reasonably practicable.
‘The polluter pays’ principle requires that the costs of assess
ment, prevention and mitigation of pollution as well as the costs of
elimination of its effects are borne by the person whose activity has
caused the pollution in question.
There are over 3000 sites (including land areas and waters)
identified in Latvia that are actually or potentially contaminated
with hazardous substances. On the European Union scale, there are
over 300 000 such sites. But this should not happen at all.
The earlier environmental regulatory framework has not pre
vented the possibility of origination for such sites, because the en
vironmental polluters could have easy ways to avoid responsibility.
Now, there are new legislative acts passed on the basis of ‘the
polluter pays’ principle in order to make the polluters accountable
for restoring the contaminated sites to their previous environmental
condition.
Persons – individuals or companies – whose actions have caused
harm to the environ ment, i.e., such detectable changes in the
environment that are likely to have significant negative impacts on
both human health and also the environment (e.g., waters, specially
protected areas, species, habitats) are required to restore the
previous state of the environment, covering the pollution removal
and environment restoration costs.
‘The polluter pays’ principle will fully come into effect when
each contaminated site is decontaminated and the decontamination
costs are covered by the persons who have caused the respective
pollution.
To put ‘the polluter pays’ principle into effect, it is important to
determine who is the polluter and for what the polluter must pay.
Companies engaged in such economic activities that have a
high environmental risk – for example, carrying dangerous cargos,
transporting chemical (oil) products via pipelines, operating
fuel filling stations or producing cement, glass fibre or chemical
products – have to prevent the damage caused to the environment
due to their activities and to restore the environment to its previous
state even if these companies have not violated environ mental
regulations. In legal context, this is called strict liability.
Latvia and other former Eastern Bloc countries have established
the register of historically contaminated (and potentially contami
nated) sites. The new legal acts on environmental liability are not
applicable to the restoration of these sites, as their requirements
are not effective with regard to past events. Therefore, specific
requirements have been set for the restoration of such sites. First

of all, the responsibility lies with the person whose activity has
caused the pollution. If that person cannot be held liable due
to objective reasons, then the current landowner will have this
responsibility. The contaminated site has to be restored to such an
extent as to prevent the contamination from spreading or entering
the groundwater, so that it would no longer be hazardous for human
health or the environment.
‘The polluter pays’ principle is not applicable in cases when
it is impossible to determine who has caused the environ mental
pollution, or the company at fault for the pollution is known but no
longer exists, while the contaminated site has not been transferred
to another owner. In the Baltic states, for example, these sites are
mainly the territories formerly occupied by the Soviet army as well
as the sites contaminated by the former Soviet plants.
If the actual polluter does not exist anymore, and the
contaminated site does not have another owner, the clean-up of the
contaminated site has to be covered from the state budget. Besides,
legislation usually establishes less stringent requirements for the
state – the polluted site restoration works are to be carried out only
if the state has sufficient funds for this purpose. This is one of the
reasons why past pollution continues to be a major environmental
problem in the Baltic states.
Finally, in the cases provided by the law, ‘the polluter pays’
principle is also extended to the manufacturers of specific products.
Figure 11.2. Deepwater

Horizon offshore drilling
rig on fire, Gulf of
Mexico, 2010
Vessels combat the fire

on Deepwater Horizon
while the United States
Coast Guard searches for
missing crew

The Deepwater Horizon oil spill (also referred to as the British
Petroleum (BP) oil spill) was a massive oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico
that was the largest offshore spill in the history of the United States
and among the largest oil spills in history. The spill stemmed from a
sea-floor oil gusher that resulted from the 20 April 2010 Deepwater
Horizon drilling rig explosion. The explosion killed 11 platform
workers and injured 17 others. On 15 July, the leak was largely
stopped by capping the gushing oil wellhead.
The quasi-official Flow Rate Technical Group estimated the oil
well was leaking 5600 to 9500 cubic metres of crude oil per day.
This volume is approximately equal to the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil
spill every four to seven days. The resulting oil slick covered at
least 6500 km2, fluctuating daily depending on weather conditions.
Scientists have also reported immense underwater plumes of
dissolved oil not visible at the surface.
The spill caused extensive damage to marine and wildlife habitats
as well as the Gulf’s fishing and tourism industries. Crews worked to
protect hundreds of miles of beaches, wetlands and estuaries along
the northern Gulf coast, using skimmer ships, floating containment
booms, anchored barriers and sand-filled barricades along shorelines.
The USA Government has named BP as the responsible party, and
officials have committed to holding the company accountable for all
cleanup costs and other damage.
11.3. Process of enforcement of environmental

legislation
11.3.1. Approaches to elaboration of legal documents
Environmental quality
is affected by different First, environ
mental law contains regulations that focus on
factors – pollution, quantifiable and stationary sources of pollution. These are mainly
excessive deforestation, standards for the companies that operate different stationary
land cultivation and industrial (technological) equipment. Since the operation of such
unreasonable fertilisation, equipment leaves a more or less extensive environmental impact,
the use of substances
or organisms foreign to
they are called polluting activities. State exercises control over
the natural environment. the polluting activities: they are permitted only if the company
To encompass all these previously obtained a relevant permit from a competent national
and other factors, environmental authority. Moreover, the law requires the competent
several approaches and national environmental authority to issue such a permit on condition
measures are used in the
that the emissions of pollutants into the environ ment would be
legal regulation of envi‑
ronmental protection. maximally reduced.
Second, environ mental law includes mandatory regulations,
which require the state to take complex steps to achieve certain

objectives defined by law. For example, EU legislation requires
from the new Member States that water in their natural and
artificial water bodies must be in good condition by 2015. The water
condition is defined as good if it does not endanger the survival of
diverse aquatic ecosystems even if the effects of human activities
can be detected. This kind of regulation is also referred to as the
ecosystem approach. The objectives in other environmental areas
are set forth in a similar way: to mitigate climate change and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions as well as to facilitate the removal
and recycling of waste (for example, packaging waste recovery
standards).
Third, there are also regulations for various state and local
government decision-making processes. For example, to decide on
where to locate a waste disposal landfill, a special procedure has
to be carried out – the environ mental impact assessment for this
landfill. During this process, the potential impact is assessed and
actions for the reduction of this impact are planned, and alternative
landfill sites are ascertained. A decision on locating the landfill at
a particular site can be taken only after the environmental impact
assessment. Such regulation is necessary in order to ensure that
every decision, whose implementation may affect the environment,
would be taken on the basis of sufficient information regarding its
possible impact on the environment, to take into account environ
mental considerations in addition to the economic and social
ones, to make such decision-making transparent and to facilitate
the interested public to become involved in the decision-making
process and influence it, in particular the residents in the vicinity
of the planned object who may be directly affected by the project in
question.
All three approaches are used in the normative regulation of
environmental protection. However, going back to the beginnings
of environ mental laws, it is possible to trace their changes and
Development s over time. Initially, environ mental legislation was
focused on controlling the pollution from industrial enterprises.
Then it became clear that other economic activities also degrade
the environment – agricultural and forestry practices, uncontrolled
use of chemical substances and products, construction works at
environ mentally sensitive areas, such as the sea coast and river
banks and lake shores. Therefore, the legislature began to set forth
the objectives to be attained within specified periods of time and to
require complex measures – gathering and analysis of information
on the actual situation of the environment, planning and execution
of measures required for the attainment of objectives set. Moreover,
such a planning process should be transparent, involving the
community as well.

11.3.2. Environmental legislation instruments
Binding regulatory requirements are also called standards.
Often they are regarded as the core of environmental law, because
they, as the means of ‘command and control’, directly set forth cer
tain requirements (standards) for environment-polluting activities,
substances and products, as well as for the implementation and appli
cation of environmental regulations. There are several categories
of standards: emission standards for the permissible pollution that
can be released from the end-of-pipe of industrial facilities into the
environment; the environmental quality standards for such environ
mental components as air, surface and ground water and soil;
standards for different processes, requiring the use or abandonment
of specific technologies, materials or practices. For example, there
are requirements to use the ‘best available technologies’ in cellulose
production, or specific fishing gear and dragnets with specific mesh
sizes in fishery. Likewise, specific environmental standards are
established for the production, use and disposal of various products;
for example, the environ mental requirements for fuel, laundry
detergents and electronic appliances.
Voluntarily made commitments (self-regulation). Self-regu
la
tion is rooted in the idea that enterprises voluntarily assume
additional commitment for environmental protection.
Another form of self-regulation is environmental audit, which
is carried out within the framework of the environmental manage-
ment and audit system established by law. When a company becomes
involved in this system on a voluntary basis, it commits itself to
develop and implement its own environ mental policy and regu-
larly conduct environmental audits, that is, to check whether the
company’s environ mental policy is being implemented, whether
the environmental protection investments are not spent in vain and
whether the company’s business activity meets the environmental
protection requirements. The purpose of such a system is to encour-
age the involved companies to be more environment-friendly, at the
same time gaining some benefits from the involvement in the sys-
tem – to raise their competitiveness in the market.
Another self-regulation measure is eco-labelling. Eco-labels
provide consumers with information on the environmental impact
of products.
In Europe, a transition to a new public management model took
place in the 90s of the 20th century. In accordance with this mod-
el, public management takes over the management style typical to
the private sector, i.e. it is aimed at economy and efficiency. As a
consequence, environmental regulation has been increasingly using
economic means with the objective to promote economy that would
be economically viable and environmental friendly at the same time.

Examples of such means include environmental taxes (in Latvia –
the natural resource tax) and the EU’s newly implemented pollution
rights trading system. This system provides that a company which,
as a result of technical improvements, has not used all the allocated
CO2 and other greenhouse gas emission allowances, can sell the un-
used allowances to another company.
To make the right decisions, accurate information is needed first
of all. The information at the basis of making political decisions and
dealing with environmental issues has to be public and transparent.
Today, obtaining environmental information has become one of the
state functions. Environmental laws require the state to establish and
maintain registers and databases, providing access, for example, to
the data on environmental situation, pollution and its sources, state-
issued permits for polluting activities, environmental monitoring,
environmental impact studies, as well as environmental legislation
and policy documents.
At the same time, public access to the environmental information
at the disposal of the state has been significantly liberalised – in the
EU Member States, the right of public access to this information is
stipulated by law. The state has to create publicly available and free
online databases, the publicly available environmental information
has to be presented in an easily perceivable and comprehensible
manner, the requesters of the environ mental information do
not need to provide reasons why they need this information. The
receipt of environ mental information can be restricted only in
the cases specified by law. However, it should be noted that these
requirements for public access to environmental information does
not apply to private companies.
Finally, the right of society – any of its member – to apply to
court, so that it would verify whether the decisions or actions of the
state itself (its authorities) comply with the requirements of environ
mental legislation can also be considered a means of environmental
legal regulation.
11.3.3. Dialogue with society and the role of society in

environmental protection
The authority of public opinion is crucial in environ mental
protection. Environmental laws can have the necessary support and
effect only if the majority of society understands the importance
of favourable environment for human life and the need to preserve
the environment. Public pressure often expedites the drafting and
adoption of laws.
Besides, there are such legal provisions today, whose imple
mentation is not even possible without public activities. A vivid

To facilitate this objective, example is the Aarhus Convention on public rights in environmental
the Aarhus Convention matters. This Convention deals with environmental protection in
guarantees the public close relation with human rights. The Convention is particularly
(any of its member) the
significant, as it not so much prescribes mutual obligations for the
following individual
rights: participating countries than determines the basic principles how
the right to access to form relations between the state and the public in the area of
environmental environmental protection, establishing an internationally recognised
information at the standard.
The Aarhus Convention envisages environmental protection as a
disposal of the state;
the right to participate
in environmental precondition for ensuring the public welfare and right to live in an
decision-making; environment that is not hazardous to health.
the right to apply to The Aarhus Convention is based on the idea that if the public is
court in environmental active and well-informed, it can be a powerful force in sustainable
matters.
and environment-friendly Development. Therefore, the members of
society are not required to provide reasons as to why they need any
specific environmental information.
Figure 11.3. In need of

strong environmental
legislation
Turkish environmentalists
in anti-nuclear/anti-dam
protest in Istanbul, on the The public has a right to participate in adopting environment-
24th anniversary of the related decisions. These can be decisions on issuing permits for
Chernobyl disaster. polluting activities or construction of major infrastructure objects.
The public has a right to participate in the environmental impact
assessment process of proposed projects and in the preparation of
various environment-related planning documents – including spatial
planning – establishing restrictions for the use of land and buildings
(constructions).
Exercising their rights to participation, members of the public
may express their opinions and concerns with regard to the proposed

plans, projects or activities. The institution that takes the decision,
in turn, has an obligation to take into account and evaluate these
opinions and concerns. Furthermore, if the institution rejected
the people’s protest against the proposed project, it is obliged to
give reasons for such rejection. If these public rights are violated,
everyone, including non-governmental organisations (environmental
associations), is entitled to apply to court to protect the infringed
public rights.
Nowadays, the role of the public in state governance has increased
significantly in both environmental policy drafting and implementa-
tion. For all that, it is up to the members of the public themselves
whether they exercise these extensive rights.
11.4. Environmental policy

The aim of environ mental policy is to identify and resolve
environ mental problems, establish a system of environ mental
legislation and set tasks to ensure environmental quality. Environ
mental policy should promote the participation of the public in
solving environmental issues and ensure the integration of environ
mental protection and nature conservation issues in all economic
sectors.
Environmental policy provides a framework for the environ
ment and natural resource use, so that an adequate economic
structure and social security could be established for the needs
of society. Environ mental policy has more general and broader
functions than environmental management. The latter provides for
the practical implementation of the former. The purpose of environ
mental management, in turn, is to ensure that national economy
utilises the natural resources efficiently, that the necessary goods
are manufactured and the necessary services – received, and that
pollution is reduced to the level which is not harmful to human
health and ecosystems. In a word, environ mental policy can be
considered as environmental protection and conservation strategies.
Environmental policy provides a framework for setting objectives
and tasks for environmental protection and for ensuring the improve
ment of environmental quality. Environmental policy consists of se
veral interrelated stages that form a cycle.
At an early stage of policy-making, usually an understanding
emerges that there is an environmental problem. Then the problem
to be solved is defined more exactly through collecting and analysing
the known facts, data and information. After that, the environ
mental policy planning documents are being developed – concepts,

guidelines, strategies, programmes and plans, subsequently to be
approved by the parliament or government.
Stage 1
Definition of a problem Formulation of a policy
Evaluation of the policy Stage 2

Implementation of the policy
Figure 11.4. Stages Monitoring
of environmental Stage 4 Stage 3
policy-making Putting the policy into effect
Medium-term policy planning documents usually reflect the

current situation, formulate environ mental policy objectives,
challenges and directions for action to attain these objectives. In
many cases, the overarching objective of environmental policy is to
build a framework for the preservation and restoration of environ
mental quality as well as for sustainable use of natural resources, at
the same time limiting the impact of adverse environmental factors
on human health.
Some of the key problems to be solved are:
air quality standards in major cities are frequently exceeded,
and transport emissions make the largest proportion of air
pollution;
eutrophication of inland waters is increasing, and it is largely
caused by agricultural activity; this factor, in turn, adversely
affects water quality in the Baltic Sea;
in the situation of economic crisis, the use of recycled
materials cause a problem; considering the substantial drop in
prices and demand, the attainment of waste recycling targets
are also becoming problematic;
planning documents for economic sectors do not sufficiently
reflect various environmental factors – air quality and noise
in traffic planning documents, geological and flood risks,
industrial accident prevention measures;
society’s lack of understanding about the dependence of
long-term availability of natural resources on the forms and
methods of current economic activities;
lack of long-term, systematic scientific studies on the potential
impacts of climate change on the environment in many of the
EU Member States, climate change risks, effects of climate
impact mitigation measures on economy, as well as lack of
economic and social adaptation measures and programmes
prepared for their implementation;

lack of funding to control the compliance with the statutory
requirements.
Solving of environ mental problems directly depends on the
level of society’s knowledge on environmental protection. Environ
mental education and communication are the main tools of raising
public awareness. Communication is an ongoing two-way exchange
of information between decision-makers and the general public.
It is an important policy tool, having a major role throughout
the implementation process of the policy and environ mental
management. Although communication has a different function
at each policy and management Development and implementation
stage, these stages are interrelated.
The most important communication functions are:
to make information available to the public;
to draw public attention to specific issues or problems;
to involve the public in discussing and solving specific
problems;
to provide information on new Development s in various
fields, promote the exchange of ideas and knowledge;
to facilitate changes in public behaviour and attitudes.
Environmental education is one of the most important means of
raising public environmental awareness in the progress towards a
sustainable society. The role of environmental education is:
to promote community Development in a way that would
harmonise the spiritual and material needs and interests;
to increase substantially the public sense of responsibility,
involving citizens and society in environmental conservation
and rehabilitation;
to educate the public about the environment and nature,
raising the level of knowledge and self-education opportunities;
to involve the responsible organisations, educational institu
tions, experts and enthusiasts in the process of environmental
education, thus supporting the national and local initiatives.
Environmental education helps build environmental awareness –
to study the environment, identify its problems and obtain a careful
and conscientious attitude towards it. Environmental education of
staff involved in environmental management and protection should
be considered a prerequisite for the environmental protection system
to exist. Environmental education justifies the need for mobilising
financial resources for environmental policy challenges. Environ
mental education, decision-making and practical activities are based
on research and knowledge of environ mental science. Environ
mental education and environmental science are a foundation for
setting environ mental policy and social sustainability goals and
dealing with problems.

Environmental education is needed in order to make possible
drafting and implementation of laws and regulations – not only
those on environmental protection but also on economic sectors,
addressing internationally significant environmental protection
problems at the local level, studying the environ mental quality
and developing new environ mental technologies, and ensuring
protection of the environment in general.
At schools, environmental education and education for
sustainable Development are generally integrated into various
subjects according to their specific content, ensuring the continuity
and coordination in various stages of education.
Research Development and the use of knowledge and environ
mentally sound technologies is the principal economic Development
path that can ensure sustained prosperity. Consequently, it is
essential to develop exact principles for the content and objectives of
environmental education and science. Environmental studies should
focus not only on knowledge acquisition and research proficiency but
also on the skills to identify and address environmental protection
problems significant for society.
11.5. Environmental management system –

from vision to implementation
Environmental protection is a set of measures of environmental
quality preservation and sustain able use of natural resources,
whereas its purpose is to eliminate, mitigate or prevent environ
mental damage. Environmental management system is a continuously
repeated cycle of planning, implementation, outcome evaluation and
more precise definition and improvement of further action. It is used
in state and local government as well as in commerce – in order to
identify and implement environmental quality improvement goals.
This approach helps to ensure continuous im provements and
achievements. The set of measures includes:
planning of the overall process, starting with the environ
mental situation assessment for the purpose of setting goals;
actions required for pilot projects ran for the purpose of
gaining experience and knowledge and becoming prepared
for the main tasks;
control of the process and situation changes, including
monitoring to make adjustments if necessary;
implementation of the process to achieve the set objectives,
evaluating performance at regular intervals to determine
whether the achievements match the plans.

Agreement on the vision and its approval
Determination of the problems and their causes
Setting objectives
Problem prioritisation
Approval of objectives
Determination of the conditions for action
Development of programmes to accomplish objectives

Figure 11.5. Scheme of
Implementation and control of the action plan the Development of a
general environmental
Further development of the process protection system
11.5.1. Discussion and approval of the environmental

policy vision
To initiate an integrated environ mental assess ment and the
necessary management process, first of all there must be such a
desire. It can be expressed by state and local government leaders,
deputies, non-governmental organisations, citizens groups, environ
mental protection enthusiasts or business representatives. Regardless
of what caused the initial impetus, leaders must be ready to listen
and to prepare adequate documentation for starting the process
to resolve issues relating to financial resources and administrative
involvement. Since most government institutions, municipalities and
other organisations have already been integrated into the processes
associated with the use of the environment for rendering services or
the environmental impact assessment, the deputies must be ready to
listen to their voters’ wishes and put them into practice.
After the initial steps of the process, an increased interest should
be awaked on national or community levels. Also, the necessity
of various activities or campaigns should be carefully studied by
interviewing people. However, it is quite difficult to evaluate the
need for comprehensive long-term planning. Various communication
methods can be used, giving priority to those which have already
been successful in cooperation with public groups. Interest groups
may already exist, but in many cases they come into being when
there is an increase in public interest about environmental issues.
The next task is to prepare a statement of reasons for the entire
action. It should include public participation principles and vision
of the future that could be acceptable to a wide range of represen
tatives of public groups and even those who have different opinions.
To initiate such a process, it is useful to review society’s
environmental values and to draw the participants’ attention to the

environmental preservation and protection needs. Objects of value
can be visited, such as individual natural features, wildlife systems,
historical buildings. Besides, the spirit of unity and patriotism
within the community, territory-specific crafts and decorative art
activities and the ability of mutual understanding should also not
be neglected. Ideas can be generated at meetings of various groups,
using the brainstorming method. The ideas put forward should be
kept for the vision Development stage.
Vision could include population health, keeping in mind that
the associated problem area is usually much broader, involving, for
example, such factors as deterioration of the demographic situation
or a higher mortality rate of lung disease in a district and on average
in the country. One of the causes of problems in the human environ
ment is deterioration of the living standards; consequently, the task
of normalising the situation can be related to the improvement of
economic situation.
It should be taken into account that the vision cannot be borrow
ed from the neighbours or someone else – it can only be single and
specific to a particular country or community. The vision should
express the society’s future expectations and aspirations that can
be articulated through such important factors as health, living
standard, lifestyle, environmental quality and future directions of
economic Development. The vision should be brief, composed in
an easily comprehensible language, and it should reflect the main
directions toward which the society will have to work hard.
11.5.2. Determination of environmental problems and

their causes
Environmental information has a major role in environmental
policy Development and environ mental management system
operation. This information comprises knowledge and data obtained
through environmental studies, statistical information, long-term and
systematic observations of the environment, society and its activities.
Environmental information consists of the observational data, whose
gathering, processing, analysis and interpretation make the facts
describing the processes in the environment and society. Environ
mental information should enlighten the scientists, politicians and
persons working in environmental management, so that they would
be able to make the correct policy decisions – i.e. matching the
actual situation and the environmental challenges in the region –
and to make well-founded and rational environ mental protection
and management measures. An important task of environmental
information is to identify environmental problems before starting the
processes that may threaten the environment quality. The efficiency

of environ mental policy and management is dependent on the
completeness and quality of environmental information.
In the context of good management provision, it is important
that citizens have access to the Internet, enabling them to follow
the activities of the state government, local government and non-
governmental organisations and business processes as well as to
engage in discussions and decision-making process by sending
their opinions and recommendations to relevant authorities in an
electronic form.
Environ mental information cannot be restricted access infor
mation – it should be public. The public is entitled to have environ
mental information on
environmental situation, including information on water, air,
soil and subsoil, flora, fauna, natural areas and landscapes,
biodiversity, species and habitats and their interactions, as
well as information on genetically modified organisms;
anthropogenic pressures and activities that affect or may
affect the environment;
environmental protection measures affecting the environ
ment;
reviews and reports on environmental protection, policy
planning documents in the field of the environment, laws and
activities affecting the environment, cost-benefit analysis,
economic analysis reports in relation to the implementation
of environmental policy.
EMEP (European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme) is a
scientifically-based policy-driven programme under the Convention
on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution for international co-
operation to solve transboundary air pollution problems.
If a decision on a vision is taken, it is necessary to clarify the
specific environmental problems. There are several methods that
can be used for collecting and processing information in order to
ascertain the real problem and its scope. The collection of data on
certain parameters to assess the root of an environmental problem is
of particular importance. The process should move on in such a way
that the degree of its complexity would be acceptable to the public –
from a highly sophisticated computer programme to a brainstorming
session on local environmental issues that people know well enough.
Even a small summary of data may give a hint regarding the
current situation in a district, across the country, the EU Member
States or the world at large. Such information can also be obtained
from the European Environment Agency, the statistical bureaus and
municipal authorities of the EU Member States.
The data shown in Figure 11.6 predict a reduction in this
metric of approximately 2 µg/m3 or more per year in central and

north-western Europe. Smaller reductions are predicted outside this
region (Spain, Balkan countries, the Baltic and the Nordic countries).
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°

Ozone – mean of
10 highest maximum
daily values in IV–IX
Reference years:
1995–2005 60°
Indicator:
estimated trend
60° EMEP model
<–2
– 2 to – 1
– 1 to 0
0 to 1
1 to 2
>2 50°
50° Countries
excluded
from study
40°
40°
Figure 11.6. Ozone

estimated trend in
MTDM calculated using
0 500 1000 1500 Km
the EMEP model 0° 10° 20° 30°
Note: MTDM – the

mean of the ten highest
daily maximum ozone It is very difficult to carry out in practice a complete, objective
concentrations (based on analysis, covering all environmental problems, without delimiting
hourly mean data) during the research scope. Any observer is more or less subjective, and any
April-September, corre‑
perception is influenced by the manner in which an observation or
sponding approximately
to the mean of the data measurement is made. Nevertheless, a relative objectivity can be
≥ 95 percentile. achieved.
Some method of objective analysis could apply to a particular
component of the environment, such as water, or to a specific
pollutant. In the case of subjective analysis, the opinions of the
society and citizens as to what they perceive as environ mental
problems are ascertained. Although this type of information does
not give a complete picture, because the respondents usually do
not mention problems that cannot be seen or felt, it may give some
direction where to look for the environmental damage. One example
is the noise. The perception of noise as a problem can be very
different. The noise that is loud according to physical measurements,

might not be a problem if people need it. Even so, if the noise is
strong and damages hearing, it is a problem.
People should be interrogated as to what kinds of environmental
problems they see and how, in their opinion, these problems should
be ordered by importance. Such information can be obtained from
population surveys, by listening to the views of elected deputies and
by other methods.
Estimations regarding future problems should also be made.
Some of these problems can affect the entire country, such as a sharp
increase in packaging material waste due to increased import of
goods, or growing road traffic intensity due to increasing number of
cars.
When problems have been identified, an accurate and possibly
complete database should be created. It should be based on a suitable
choice of parameters, which can vary in each specific case of local
environmental problems. These parameters can be both subjective
and objective, but, in any case, they must be measurable. Otherwise,
it will be impossible to determine whether any changes have
occurred in the environment – environmental quality improvement
or degradation.
Sometimes the choice of standards can lead to sharp political
debates. Even if the administration prepares research reports
and, based on these results, proposes parameters or standards for
selection, ultimately it is government or municipal council that has
to take the final decision.
The EU has established a common framework of reference for
standards. Still, in some cases, standards are also set at a national
level, and local governments retain the right to use more stringent
requirements, but not vice versa, i.e. they are not entitled to lower
the national standard requirements.
Furthermore, when the indicators or parameters have been
chosen and the corresponding measurements have been performed,
they need to be assessed in order to understand the environmental
situation. If the parameters have corresponding standards, it is
possible to make comparisons and assess whether a given parameter
exceeds or does not exceed the standard.
If a problem is detected, it is necessary to study its causes and
consequences. In many cases, it is obvious that there are a number of
phenomena which point to existing problems, while in other cases it
is not so clearly perceivable.
Each problem can have a hierarchical chain of causes, and, in
case of its successful detection, there is a possibility to detect the
root causes and deal with them first. If changes are found in the
natural environment of a rural area, for example, some populations
of species become larger, while some – disappear, the cause could

be changes in agricultural activity, which could have been focused
on more intensive production. This effect, in turn, could have been
caused by some farm’s decline in income, forcing them to decide
on a sharp increase in production to at least avoid impairing their
quality of life. However, the deeper the root cause could be sought
in the national food price policy and regulations on food product
import.
Figure 11.7. Music shop

window in Stockholm
(Sweden)
Environmental and social
problems (e.g., noise
pollution) can be used to If the root causes are discovered, some problems can be easily
advertise the business. resolved. The situation may be improved – even if slightly – in any
case. If enough data have been gathered and assessed, a public
information material should be prepared – a report on environ
mental situation or a similar document.
At any rate, the process should be pushed on, so that, by
combining the administrative management of the environ mental
impact assessment with the initiation of practical measures, it would
be possible to improve environmental quality. It may later become
the basis for creating an environmental monitoring system.
11.5.3. Setting environmental policy objectives

Environmental policy objectives reflect society’s expectations
about the future. They may be scientific, social, cultural, long-term
or short-term. They do not always need to be measured or evaluated
quantitatively or against some previously accepted standards or

criteria. Even more important, the objective should include environ
mental philosophy, which should underpin the vision even if its
Development has been entrusted to the experts of specific fields.
Environ mental philosophy should also appear in environ mental
action plans – as a mediating ground between the vision and specific
objectives.
Once the objectives have been formulated, one can see that
immediate completion of all the objectives is not possible due to
budgetary and other constraints. However, it is very important to
identify all the necessary works and to have a general view on the
entire course of action, before taking a step back and starting to set Problems can be sorted
priorities. Setting priorities is likely to be the most difficult of all in order of importance by
parts of the process, so it should be done with full awareness of the
several criteria:
how much the
potential benefits. pollution levels exceed
The analysis of the collected information should reveal the the standards;
areas which have the greatest weight, which significantly influence how big the costs of
the process in general, or which require immediate action to environmental damage
prevent irreparable harm. There are many known methods to elimination will be;
what the expected
set priorities, and it is better to choose several of these methods expenses for health
because they give an opportunity to consider the process from care or other important
different perspectives. areas are.
One of the most widespread methods is comparative risk analysis
of population health, environmental protection and quality of living
conditions. Problems are ranked taking into account the selected
criteria and mutual agreement on the acceptable level of risk.
Environ mental impact assessment is carried out in order to
decide on what the consequences will be if nothing is done to change
the existing situation and on what will be achieved through specific
measures. Both of these borderline cases are very important – if
they show that an action of a relatively small impact can be carried
out relatively easily with few resources, it could be taken on to
achieve rapid success, which would also earn public recognition and
decrease the likelihood of unforeseen side results. Conversely, if a
serious problem cannot be solved or the situation cannot even be
improved by using all the available and potential resources, then it
is better to divert resources to other targets.
All possible choices need to be analysed for their impact on the
environment, costs and social implications. Impact on the environ
ment involves two groups of issues: assessment of the effectiveness
of a choice if the objective is achieved and the potential unforeseen
impact on the environment. Even if it is not possible to predict the
consequences of each action, it is desirable to determine many of
them. Although each situation is unique in a sense, much can be
learned from others, using their experience.

11.5.4. Types of action to accomplish environmental policy
objectives
If priorities are clear, types of action should be determined with
the purpose of accomplishing the objectives stated. The types of
action can be carried out as special projects, which also stipulate
some policy compliance and maintenance. Economic methods
and the use of the mass media can also be suitable and may have
a positive effect on the behaviour and attitudes of officials and
citizens. For the purpose of implementing a common strategy,
influence on the behaviour of certain social groups should sometimes
be exerted. For example, it is necessary to guarantee that the land
use would not be detrimental to nature protection objectives. The
land owner, obtaining a permit from the environmental authority for
performing a desirable activity, at the same time commits himself
or herself to participate in an environmental protection measure. In
this way, private land owners or users can also contribute towards
the accomplishment of the objectives set.
Administration staff do not necessarily have to be green-minded,
but their attitude may have serious effects on solving the environ
mental problems. For example, the municipal employee who is in
charge of procurement for local needs can greatly affect the state of
the environment if he or she truly understands the situation.
This applies to both state administration or local government
leaders and the officials lower in the hierarchy, who may come up
with good ideas – for example, to hold regular discussions with local
residents and hear their views. So, this is an opportunity to engage
in the environmental protection process and timely prevent problems
that might arise, for instance, due to a mistake in the environmental
action plan or because of dissatisfaction of the population.
Social implications of all the proposals should always be taken
into consideration. Shut-down of a company caused by its failure to
comply with environmental requirements would have significant
consequences, such as job loss. In such a case, it would be difficult
to take a political decision on the suspension of operations of the
company, and, most likely, such a decision would not be taken
after all. A better solution would be to start cooperation with the
company’s management in order to make improvements and move
towards the compliance with environmental requirements gradually.
Moreover, jobs are not the only social problem. Requiring people
to change their daily patterns, habits or traditions is always quite
difficult. Besides, such factors as the cultural level and religious
beliefs need to be taken into account. At the global level, the extent
of these kinds of difficulties can be seen, for example, in the debates
associated with birth control.

Initiator Initiator’s Initial evaluation of a
proposal Regional Environmental Board
Decision of the Environmental

Impact Assessment State Bureau
Informing the public
Initial public discussion
Proposals of the public
Preparation of the environmental

impact assessment programme
Informing the public
Research and Public discussion
preparation of the of the progress report
progress report
Proposals of the public
Research and Assessment of the progress report
preparation of the and preparation of a statement
final report
Assessment of the final report

and preparation of a statement
Informing the public Figure 11.8. Procedure
Project Approval of the activity for environmental
implementation impact assessment
Changes that may be disadvantageous to population’s standards

of living or family budget will always be perceived as unacceptable –
as long as people’s thinking is changed by way of education or
information.
11.5.5. Development of the programmes to accomplish

environmental policy objectives
The Development of an environmental programme is initiated
on the basis of the analysis performed and objectives set. The
programme may contain separate plans or projects and a variety of
methods to ensure information exchange, legislative compliance and
economic conformity. Projects can be carried out by the institutions
or organisations that have won the state or local government tenders.
Accomplishing a certain objective, the agricultural pollution
discharge into streams, rivers and lakes can be reduced in rural
areas. Another objective could be related to the diversification of
regional economic by attracting tourists. A clean river with nature
trails and opportunities to observe wildlife could draw the attention
of tourists; at the same time, a certain balance should be kept in
order to avoid the rise of new conflicts between tourists and nature.

For example, if the river is used for water sports Development, it
can adversely affect the fauna of the river. Additional difficulties
and new challenges may arise, and they have to be dealt with to
avoid contradictions in the overall execution of the environmental
programme.
As of 1 May 2004, when several Baltic Sea region countries
became Member States of the EU, the environ mental impact
assessment of planning documents was begun, which is actually a
strategic environmental impact assessment under the EU Directive
‘Assessment of the effects of plans and programmes on the environ
ment’. The objective is to assess the possible environmental impacts
of the implementation of planning documents and to involve
the public in discussions and decision-making regarding these
documents, as well as to develop proposals to eliminate or minimise
the negative impacts. The strategic assessment is carried out during
the planning document preparation, before it is submitted for
approval.
The strategic impact assessment should be performed for those
planning documents, whose implementation can significantly affect
human health and the environment, including the planning docu
ments in the areas of agriculture, forestry, fisheries, energy, industry,
transport, waste management, water management, tele commu
nications, tourism and mining, as well as the planning documents
related to regional Development, land use, spatial planning and the
use of EU co-financing.
The strategic environmental impact assessment procedure en
sures that the developers of various planning documents (Develop
ment plans and strategies for national economy and its various
sectors as well as spatial Development plans) are responsible for
assessing how the implementation of these documents would affect
the environ ment and for introducing the draft documents and
environmental reports contained there to the public, so that the
latter could express opinions.
11.5.6. Implementation and control of the environmental

action programme or plan
The implementation of an environ mental action plan begins
with the determination of institutions and persons who will be
responsible for the execution of the programme or its parts. For some
programmes, there is no need to appoint the responsible leader. In
this case, collective decisions are taken by people who are directly
involved in the process.
To ensure a successful implementation of programmes, different
organisational models can be used. These models can have a more or

less complex or simple hierarchical structure. However, in all cases
it is necessary that the persons in charge have sufficient environ
mental knowledge and understanding of the nature of the process as
a whole. In some cases, short-term training or seminars on individual
substantive issues relating to the programme implementation may
be held.
The implementation of a programme requires resources. If
funding for the attainment of the programme objectives has been
approved and allocated and the responsible persons – designated, the
implementation of the programme or plan can be started. Careful
planning of the implementation process is crucial for a successful
completion of the programme.
Process control is a very important element in implementing
programmes because it ensures two important things, namely, it
guarantees that the expected environmental improvement effect will
be achieved and dangerous side effects will not arise.
The opportunities of using environ mental indicators towards
the attainment of specific objectives should be evaluated in order
to ascertain the progress made. If a programme is implemented for
reducing nitrogen dioxide concentrations in urban air for a specific
amount (the yearly threshold for human health safety set by the law
is 40 µg/m3), the assessment of the environmental status change can
be made by determining the NO2 concentration and comparing it
with the concentration at the time of beginning the programme.
It is difficult to carry out systematic and regular measurements
of a parameter that is difficult to control. Yet, such controls
are required. If environ mental monitoring data show that the
programme does not bring the desired results, it should be reassessed
to determine the changes needed.
Then there are three
If the programme implementation process has been appropriate, options:
but the desired result has still not been achieved, the reasons of to stop this activity
failure have to be looked for. They could be, for example, incorrect completely and look for
assessment of the cause of the problem; however, in most cases, the an activity of different
type;
reason is inaccuracies in the calculation.
re-assess the same
process and then go on
Table 11.1. NOx emissions and projections: current and projected progress with it;
towards the ceiling persistently continue
the process already
Denmark Latvia begun, at the same
2010 emission ceiling 127 Gg 61 Gg time looking for some
2010 WM projections (existing measures in place) 126.0 Gg 45.1 Gg alternative action.
Distance to NOx emission ceiling in 2007 39.7 Gg –18.2 Gg

Comparison of 2010 emission ceiling with WM
–1.0 Gg –15.9 Gg
projections 2010

Depending on the scale of the required changes, additions can be
included in an already existing programme, or the programme can
be modified. Even if it is possible to fit the changes in the existing
programme, this fact should be made known to the public.
350 Past NOx emissions

WM projections
300
Emission ceiling
250 to be attained in 2010
200
Gg NOx
150
100
50
0
a 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
80
70
60
50
Gg NOx
40
30
20
Figure 11.9. NOx 10
emissions and
projections in Denmark 0
(a) and Latvia (b) b 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Reporting by the
Member States under
Directive 2001/81/EC of Environmental monitoring
the European Parliament
and of the Council of Environ mental monitoring comprises systematic observations,
23 October 2001 on measurements and calculations of environmental situation, pollution,
national emission ceilings emissions, population and species needed for the environ mental
for certain atmospheric assessment and planning of nature conservation and measures for
pollutants.
controlling the effectiveness of environmental protection. In environ
mental information system Development and implementation,
resource accounting data are of great importance – cadastral
data, information on the country’s socio-economic situation and
Development tendencies provided by the national statistical data
analysis and public opinion polling. Effective decision-making
in environmental protection is possible only if all the available
information is analysed.

Sometimes the environmental monitoring information – which
is an essential part of the environmental information system – is
stored in various institutions, in the databases of different size
and accessibility or only on paper. This factor makes it difficult for
the interested persons – the public, decision-makers, experts – to
obtain and use this information for environmental problem-solving
or decision-making. Unfortunately, it is often impossible to know
whether the monitoring data are being aggregated and made
available.
Environ mental monitoring is divided into the environ mental
situation, environmental policy implementation and early warning
monitoring.
The environ mental situation monitoring consists of systematic
observations carried out in different natural environments in order
to detect and assess changes caused by natural processes or anthro
pogenic impacts. This includes the monitoring of emission, spreading
and concentration of pollutants and assessment of the status of eco
systems, including the Development of proposals for ecosystem
quality improvement. The monitoring of environmental situation is
carried out regularly in order to obtain information on environmental
conditions and changes, and also, in specific cases, to assess the
environmental condition changes after an accident or after the imple
mentation of an environmental protection programme or to obtain
The implementation of
the programme helps
information on the environmental impact of a particular object. to avoid duplication
The policy implementation monitoring is a systematic assessment in the environmental
of environmental changes effected through the implementation of monitoring work, when
environmental policy measures. This is one of the key elements in several institutions
the Development of environ mental policy and assessment of its perform similar functions
for limited state budget
effectiveness as it helps to ascertain the causes which impede the funds. The environmental
attainment of environmental quality targets in conformity with the monitoring programme
environmental quality regulations and standards. also ensures monitoring
The main functions of the early warning monitoring is early in the areas which
detection of dangerous changes in environmental quality, fast-track are important at both
national and EU levels.
provision of information and making of short-term forecasts. These programmes
The execution of an environ mental monitoring programme primarily consist of the
is coordinated by the state institution of appropriate level. This following components:
institution is also responsible for public access to the information air monitoring,
on pollutants and monitoring results on the Internet. In addition, water monitoring,
soil and land surface
it prepares and provides the required information for the European
overgrow monitoring,
Environment Agency and the European Commission. biodiversity monitoring,
Each part of the programme provides information on such radioactive
aspects as monitoring objectives, legislation stipulating the need contamination
for monitoring, criteria for environ mental quality assessment, monitoring,
climate change
indicators, priorities and funding necessary for the execution of the
monitoring.
programme.

Figure 11.10.
Environmental sampling
to monitor tasks
Furthermore, each part of the programme consists of monitoring

subprogrammes. Each subprogramme contains such data as the
monitoring network description, inspection schedule, parameters to
be determined, actual and potential methods to be used, Development
tasks, necessary maintenance costs and investments. The executor
of the specific monitoring programme part creates and maintains
one’s own monitoring data processing system in accordance with the
legislative requirements for national information systems.
Environmental monitoring information is structu red according
to the principle of causality, grouping the data in a logical five-phase
The indicators are model: driving force – load – condition – impact – action.
integrated into a single
causal chain, showing: Environmental policy and environmental quality indicators
what causes the
problem; In the 1970s, reports in different fields were started to be
why it occurs; prepared according to the principle of causality, logically grouping
what are its effects;
the characteristic variables into the causal model, later on extended
how and by what
means the problem can into the five-phase model by the Organisation for Economic Co-
be solved. operation and Development (OECD). The characteristic variables
contained in the analytical model are called indicators.
Certain methodological requirements are set for the indicators, so
that countries and specialists could come to an understanding when
they are published and interpreted in various reports. The indicators
must be credible, represent certain time periods and regions,
scientifically accurate, obtained through standardised methodologies,
expressed in standardised units, verifiable, easily perceptible and
comprehensible, comparable, non-duplicating, necessary to users,
sensitively reacting to changes, predictive of processes and ensuring
acquisition of information at a reasonable cost.

Policy preparation
Indicators
Policy assessment Policy formulation
Indicators Figure 11.11. Policy

Policy implementation
cycle and indicators
The main function of indicators is to provide information during

the decision-making process and to adjust different levels of policy Integrating economic,
according to the policy cycle scheme. environmental and social
The use of sustainable Development indicators in such a scheme issues, the following
is focused on the interaction links between the traditional indicators, factors are taken into
account:
but the synergistic effects in such a complex system are stronger as sectoral and sectoral
the direct cause-effect interactions. strategic plans and
programmes, indicating
Table 11.2. EU Sustainable Development Strategy implementation progress how environmental
for the period between 2000 and 2009 issues are integrated
into these plans and
EU-27 programmes;
SDI theme Headline indicator evaluation whether appropriate
of change
action plans with
Socio-economic development Growth of GDP per capita specific time and
resource planning have
Greenhouse gas emissions* been developed;
Climate change and energy
Consumption of renewables what environmental
policy measures and
Energy consumption of transport
Sustainable transport methods are used in
relative to GDP
the particular sector;
Sustainable consumption what general-purpose
Resource productivity
and production policy measures
Abundance of common birds** function particularly
Natural resources widely and effectively;
Conservation of fish stocks*** what the major projects
Public health Healthy life years**** of environmental pro
tection or conducive
Social inclusion Risk of poverty **** to environmental
protection are.
Demographic changes Employment rate of older workers
Global partnership Official development assistance*****

Good governance [No headline indicator] :
* EU-15 ** Based on 19 Member States *** In North East Atlantic
**** EU-25, from 2005 ***** From 2005
Clearly favourable change/on target path
No or moderately favourable change/close to target path

Moderately unfavourable change/far from target path
Clearly unfavourable change/moving away from target path
: Contextual indicator or insufficient data

Granting environ mental issues a dominant or equal status
compared to economic and social issues, the system is supplemented
by sectoral indicators, creating mutual integration (at the policy
level – the integration of environmental issues in sectoral policies;
at the indicator level – eco-efficiency and energy intensity estimates,
analysis of environmental profiles).
Under the EU Sustainable Development Strategy, EUROSTAT
uses approximately 100 indicators, while the headline indicators
characterise the key directions of sustainable Development (socio
economic Development, sustainable consumption and production,
social inclusion, demographic changes, public health, climate
change and energy, sustainable transport, natural resources, global
partnership, good governance).
11.5.7. Further development of the process

For a better assessment of the progress made, and to ensure
the communication of the results to the public, a few questions
have to be answered in the first place: have all plans been fully
implemented? Have the planned results been achieved?
General environ mental quality indicators should be used
in order to ascertain whether the measures taken have led to the
expected environ mental situation improvement. For example, if
the city’s thermal power plant is modified to replace peat fuel
with natural gas, the expected result in reducing nitrogen dioxide
emissions from the power plant to the planned level can be fully
achieved. Nevertheless, the overall air quality improvement effect
can be relatively low as the atmo spheric concentration of NO2
remains about the same as in previous years. Apparently, not enough
attention has been paid to another source of NO2 – transport, which
in many cases is the main source of NO2 pollution in cities.
The reasons for not fully achieving the planned results have to
be analysed. Environmental monitoring data will also show which
objectives of the programme have been achieved and in which
cases adjustments are necessary in order to make progress towards
what has not been achieved yet. Admittedly, it could be quite an
unpleasant situation, because nobody wants to assume responsibility
for mistakes. However, it is essential to know the real reasons, not
just carry out formal investigation. Emphasis should be put on shared
learning from mistakes, so that the implementation of measures
would get better in the next stage, given the actual capabilities of
employees and budget allocation.
The programme implementation results should be communicated
to the public through the mass media, creating conditions for the
public to express comments and discussions. Only in this way people

can get the true information on the process that has taken place and
its outcomes. It could also be the basis for future discussions on the
adjustments necessary to the environmental measures.
In essence, the whole process can be likened to a continuous
spiral, not to a closed circle, for each successive loop is a little more
advanced than the previous one and strives toward the ultimate
goal – a sustainable society. Even if the ultimate goal is not reached
in the near future, society will still seek to mitigate the impact on
the environment both locally and globally.
11.6. Voluntary measures of environmental

policy
Any form of business or production as well as any individual
action can have an impact on the environment, causing environ
mental degradation. At the same time, the public interest in environ
mental issues and the impact of specific manufacturing processes
or companies on the environ ment is increasing. In addition, the
lawmakers are also interested to make the operations of companies,
plants, industrial units comply with the requirements of the law,
whereas consumers want them to operate or provide services in an
environment-friendly way. Finally, employees also want to work in a
safe and healthy work environment.
An environmental management system helps satisfy the interests
of everyone by establishing certain requirements or principles related
to processes and products, by preparation of information, as well as
by granting companies and plants certification of an independent
authority (certification organisation) that they meet certain
requirements.
In this way, not only those concerned can feel safe and have assur
ance but also every company is enabled to make its business comply
with the environmental requirements, as it has an opportunity:
to identify and assess the company’s impact on the environment,
to formulate the company’s intentions in the area of
environmental protection (the company’s environmental
policy and environmental protection objectives),
taking into account the financial and technical capabilities,
to develop the company’s environmental programme aimed
at systematic and targeted reduction of the negative impacts,
to know the legal requirements regulating the company’s
business activity,
to perform accountancy of the company’s resources and
analysis of the environmental pollution caused.

The International Organisation for Stan dardisa
tion (ISO) is a
worldwide federation of national stan dardisation organisations,
which brings together approximately 100 countries. ISO is a public
Figure 11.12. Emblem organisation established in 1947.
of the International The ISO 14001 standard developed by the International Organi
Organisation for
sation for Standardisation is a global-scale environmental standard.
Standardisation
The EU Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) was
developed and implemented as a management tool to promote en
vironmental protection, wise use of resources and improvement of
public information activities at the companies and organisations that
voluntarily participate in the system.
In the EU Member States, this system works since 1995, initially
involving industrial enterprises. As of 2001 – after the adoption
of the European Commission Regulation (EC) 761/2001 allowing
voluntary participation by organisations in a Community eco-
management and audit scheme (EMAS) – the system is open to all
organisations. Upon completing the necessary preparation, any
enterprise, company, institution and municipality can participate in
this system. The companies and organisations which are included in
the EMAS register obtain the right to use the EMAS logo.
In 2009, the Commission decided to extend this environmental
management system to all its activities and buildings in Brussels and
Luxembourg as described in Decision C (2009) 6873. The European
Commission recognises the positive contribution it can make to
sustainable Development as a long-term goal through its policy
and legislative processes as well as in its day-to-day operations and
decisions.
To be more specific, the Commission commits to minimise
the environmental impact of its everyday work and continuously
improve its environmental performance by:
taking measures to prevent pollution and to achieve more
efficient use of natural resources (mainly energy, water and
paper);
taking measures to reduce overall CO2 emissions (mainly
from buildings and transport);
encouraging waste prevention, maximising waste recycling
and reusing and optimising waste disposal;
integrating environmental criteria into public procurement
procedures and into the rules regarding the organisation of
events;
complying with relevant environmental legislation and regu
lations;
stimulating the sustainable behaviour of all staff and
subcontractors through training, information and awareness
raising actions;

progressively extending all the above to all its activities and
buildings;
systematically assessing the potential economic, social and
environmental impacts of major new policy and legislative
initiatives and promoting the systematic integration of
environmental objectives into Community policies;
ensuring the effectiveness of environmental legislation and
funding in creating environmental benefits;
promoting transparent internal and external communication
and dialogue with all interested parties.
Organisations are registered with the competent national autho
rity that assesses the applicant’s compliance with the requirements
of the Regulation, registers organisations and decides on their
removal from the register temporarily or permanently.
Pursuant to the requirements of the Regulation, a participating
organisation should, involving and educating all its employees,
identify environmental problems, develop an environmental policy,
establish and implement an environmental management system and
internal auditing system and draw up an environmental statement,
which includes information on what has been accomplished and
what is planned for the future. The environmental management and
audit system of the organisation is inspected by an independent,
accredited environmental assessor (verifier), who also approves
the environmental statement. The information included in the en
vironmental statement is updated on a regular basis and is freely
available to the public and all interested persons.
With the emergence of ‘green’ marketing, ‘green’ consumer orga
nisations began to develop as well. Consumer protection authorities
have been active already since the 1960s. Marking of goods to
indicate that they are environment-friendly has been promoted in
many countries, including USA, Canada, Germany and Sweden. In
most cases, independent agencies measure certain products against
similar products to determine which of the compared products cause
less environmental impact. Germany was among the first countries
introducing the ‘green’ labelling of goods (1978).
In the EU eco-label system, ecological criteria are developed for
each group of goods or services. These criteria are aimed at reducing
the product environmental impacts throughout their life cycle –
from manufacture to disposal. The criteria are developed by expert
working groups under the guidance of the presiding Member State,
in consultation with the representatives of all interested parties
(manufacturing and retail businesses, state and public consumer
Figure 11.13. EU EMAS
protection and environmental protection organisations).
and Eco-labelling
This was one of the ways to influence consumer behaviour, emblems
helping them to identify the environ mental impact of products.

Eco-label also requires manufacturers to address environ mental
protection issues and reduce environmental impact.
The eco-labelling process helps to determine the impact on
the environment and build an informative link between producers,
traders and consumers. However, in eco-labelling the attention
is paid to the product and almost none to the production and
distribution processes. Consequently, an environ ment-friendly
product can be manufactured in a company causing extensive
pollution, or this product can cause damage to the environment or
human health after its use.
11.7. EU environmental management

institutions1
11.7.1. EU directorate-general for the environment
Many EU countries have long environ mental protection
traditions, which are also reflected in their environmental law.
In some countries – for example, in the Mediterranean – environ
mental protection issues have received less attention. Increasing
integration of the EU requires supporting the implementation of the
most effective environmental policies at a much larger scale. It is
also necessary to ensure a common framework of environmental
law, uniform monitoring methodology and standards. These issues
are the competence of the European Commission’s Directorate-
General for the Environment.
The Directorate-General (DG) for the Environment is one of the
more than 40 Directorates-General and services that make up the
European Commission. Commonly referred to as DG Environment,
the objective of the Directorate-General is to protect, preserve and
improve the environment for present and future generations. To
achieve this it proposes policies that ensure a high level of environ
mental protection in the European Union and that preserve the
quality of life of EU citizens.
The DG makes sure that Member States correctly apply EU
environmental law. In doing so it investigates complaints made by
citizens and non-governmental organisations and can take legal
action if it deems that EU law has been infringed. In certain cases
DG Environment represents the European Union in environmental
matters at international meetings.
1
This chapter is prepared based on the materials of the home page of the EU
Directorate-General for the Environment – http://ec.europa.eu/environment/in-
dex_en.htm

General Objectives of DG Environment
In the current crisis, part of our economic activity is coming
from the stimulus to demand. But we cannot rely forever on a short-
term stimulus. New sources of growth will have to take up the baton –
sources of growth that are sustainable. Sustainability means keeping up
the pace of reform, targeting our skills and technology on tomorrow’s
competitiveness and tomorrow’s markets; modernising to keep up with
social change; and ensuring that our economy can respect the need to
protect the European environment, its countryside, its maritime zones,
and its biodiversity.
José Manuel Barroso, September 2009
Political guidelines for the next Commission
Environment policy is a fundamental pillar in ensuring green
growth in the EU and the shift to a low carbon and resource efficient
economy. To serve this purpose these are the general objectives of
DG Environment:
to contribute to a high level of quality of life and well-being
for citizens, by aiming to secure an environment where the
level of pollution does not give rise to harmful effects either
on human health or on the environment and by supporting
the Development of a greener and more resource efficient
economy;
to ensure a high level of environmental protection by promot
ing measures at international level to deal with regional or
worldwide environmental problems;
to preserve, protect and improve the quality of the
environment by promoting and supporting the implementa
tion of environmental legislation and the integration of en
vironmental protection requirements into the definition and
implementation of other EU policies and activities, with a
view to promoting sustainable Development.
The Sixth Environment Action Programme of the European
Community (2002-2012) takes a broad look at the environmental
challenges and provides a strategic framework for the Commission’s
environmental policy up to 2012. Every year the Directorate General
makes public its priorities for the upcoming year and also publishes
a yearly report on the preceding year’s policy initiatives.
DG Environment Management Plan for 2010:

Figure 11.14. European
Mission Statement and Challenges Union flags outside the
Commission building
(by Karl Falkenberg,
Director General of DG Environment)
The main role of DG Environment is to initiate and define
new environ
ment policy and legislation, to promote integration of

environ mental concerns into other policy areas, and to ensure that
agreed policy measures are implemented effectively in the EU Member
States. Its mission statement is ‘protecting, preserving and improving
the environ ment for present and future generations, and promoting
sustainable Development’.
The political guidelines highlight that the exit from the crisis should
be the point of entry into a new sustainable social market economy,
a smarter, greener economy, where our prosperity will come from
innovation and from using resources better, and where the key input will
be knowledge. Conserving energy, natural resources and raw materials,
using them more efficiently and increasing productivity will be the key
drivers of the future competitiveness of our industry and our economies.
Consequently, developing a resource efficient low-carbon economy and
stimulating green innovation, growth and jobs are among the main
priorities of the EU-2020 Strategy.
Harnessing the environment policy contribution to this goal will
mean putting in place the right mix of smart regulation, incentives
and market-based mechanisms to foster eco-innovation, sustainable
consumption and production and these considerations will underpin all
our work. Exploiting the resource potential of waste streams, an action
plan for eco-innovation and reviewing the Environ ment Technology
Action Plan, the Thematic Strategy on Natural Resources and the Waste
Thematic Strategy will be part of the contribution from environment
policy to improve resource efficiency.
The threats from biodiversity loss are becoming clearer and the
failure to meet interim goals on biodiversity loss cannot continue.
The real value of ecosystems must be recognised and the link between
biodiversity conservation and greenhouse gas mitigation should be fully
explored. New EU and global targets will have to be agreed in 2010 and
a new realistic – but ambitious – action plan for biodiversity will have
to be designed and negotiated. Further initiatives are required to protect
endangered species of fauna and flora and to address illegal logging
and deforestation worldwide. Achieving and maintaining good soil
quality is essential in a world where resources are becoming increasingly
scarce and there is increased competition for land use from transport,
energy, food production and nature preservation and adoption of the
Commission proposal by the Council will support this goal. A coherent
forest information system for the EU will also be an important element.
With the adoption of REACH, the new law entered into force
on 1 June 2007. (REACH is a European Community Regulation
on chemicals and their safe use (EC 1907/2006). It deals with the
Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemical
substances.) The EU has set the benchmark for chemicals policy.
But it is the implementation of REACH which will determine its
effectiveness and will be a key area of cooperation with DG ENTR

(Directorate-General for Enterprise and Industry) and ECHA (European
Chemicals Agency). Registration of chemicals by industry, appropriate
evaluation by authorities and substitution of substances of very high
concern are key to ensure the safety of chemicals and will also stimulate
innovation in the chemical industry. Ensuring a successful co-decision
outcome on biocides constitute further important elements to increase
the chemical industry’s sustainability. Nanotechnology is also rapidly
developing and can bring benefits to the environment and contribute
to economic growth, but can only flourish if its safety is ensured by
a clear regulatory framework. It is more important than ever to focus
on using water resources more efficiently, exploiting the potential for
water savings and on keeping water clean. Implementing the Water
Framework Directive and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive
effectively will be essential and will depend on implementation of the
urban wastewater and nitrate directives in particular. But it will also
require a cross-cutting approach involving support from other sectoral
policies.
Air quality legislation brings substantial health and environmental
benefits. We need to investigate in more detail the underlying causes of
implementation problems in some Member States so that the environ
mental and health benefits from better air quality are secured. In this
context the adoption of the revised proposal on industrial emissions
by Council and Parliament is important. In addition, the pending
Commission proposal for a revision of the directive on national emission
ceilings of certain air pollutants will be re-examined.
Implementation of our legislation maintains environmental progress
and ensures that the health and environmental benefits intended
from proposals at the time of their adoption actually materialise.
Implementation gaps notably in the areas of waste and nature legislation
have to be addressed.
Increasingly, progress in environment policy depends on measures
taken in other policy areas – such as transport, energy or agriculture –
to address the drivers of environmental degradation. We must therefore
ensure that environ mental objectives are mainstreamed into other
Community policies and reflected in the preparation of the future
multiannual Financial Perspectives for the 2014-2020 period.
Improving and refining our knowledge base through better
information, better management of information systems and the
Development of appropriate indicators will help target environ
ment policy as efficiently and as effectively as possible. Following up
on our communication on GDP and Beyond, we will work to develop
complementary indicators to GDP to measure societal welfare and
progress more appropriately. We will work with the EEA (European
Economic Area) and the Member States on an implementation plan to
see how a shared environmental information system could be put in

place. 2010 is the international year of biodiversity, and among other
communication activities, a special focus on this theme is planned.
Environmental challenges are increasingly global and moving
towards a green economy and sustainable production and consumption
patterns requires action well beyond EU borders.
The EU is a global leader in developing environment policy and
has an important role to play in improving international environ
mental governance, in particular through multilateral environmental
agreements, and ensuring positive synergies with other polices, in
particular trade and Development, and the growing significance of the
environmental impact of emerging economies. We also need to build
alliances and promote global solutions in several areas e.g. in chemicals,
in order to capitalise on our experience with REACH.
The 6th Environment Action Programme will be assessed to help
assess how policies on air, water, waste, biodiversity and chemicals can
be further improved. Environment and health threats from issues such
as endocrine disruptors and chemical mixtures will also be addressed.
EC DG Environment
Commissioner for the Environment DG

Janez Potočnik
Office of the Director-General
Directorate A: Legal Affairs and Cohesion

Directorate B: Nature
Figure 11.15. Structure Directorate C: Industry
of the Directorate- Directorate D: Water, Chemicals and Biotechnology
General for the Directorate E: International Affairs
Environment of the Directorate F: Strategy
Shared Resources Directorate
European Commission
EEA’s mandate is:

to help the
Community and European environment agency
member states make
informed decisions The task of the European Environment Agency (EEA) is to
about improving provide sound, independent information on the environment. EEA
the environment, is a major information source for those involved in developing,
integrating
adopting, implementing and evaluating environmental policy, and
environmental
considerations into also the general public. Currently, the EEA has 32 member countries.
economic policies The regulation establishing the EEA was adopted by the
and moving towards European Union in 1990. It came into force in late 1993 immediately
sustainability; after the decision was taken to locate the EEA in Copenhagen.
to coordinate the Work started in earnest in 1994. The regulation also established
European environment
information and
the European environ ment information and observation network
observation network (Eionet).
(Eionet).

ICELAND
FINLAND
NORWAY
SWEDEN ESTONIA
LATVIA
DENMARK
IRELAND LITHUANIA
UNITED KINGDOM
NEDERLANDS
POLAND
BELGIUM GERMANY
LUXEMBOURG
CZECH Member countries
REPUBLIC
FRANCE SLOVAKIA Cooperating countries
LIECHTENSTEIN
SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA
HUNGARY
SLOVENIA
ROMANIA
CROATIA
AL
BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA
TUG
SERBIA
BULGARIA
POR
SPAIN ITALY
MONTENEGRO
FORMER YUGOSLAV
REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
ALBANIA
TURKEY
GREECE
Figure 11.16. EEA
MALTA CYPRUS member countries and
cooperating countries
The main clients are the European Union institutions – the

European Commission, the European Parliament, the Council – and
member countries. In addition to this central group of European
policy actors, EEA also serve other EU institutions such as the
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions.
The business community, academia, non-govern mental
organizations and other parts of civil society are also important users
of our information. EEA try to achieve two-way communication with
clients in order to correctly identify their information needs, and
make sure that the information provided is understood and taken up
by them.
The EEA Information Centre gives individual responses to
external requests for information and is open to the general public
every working day. The EEA provides assessments and information
in the form of reports, short briefings and articles, press material
and online products and services. The material covers the state
of the environment, current trends and pressures, economic and
social driving forces, policy effectiveness, and identification of
future trends, outlooks and problems, using scenarios and other
techniques.
Summaries of major reports and various articles and press
releases are often translated into the official languages of EEA
member countries.

In February 2008, the European Commission proposed to
establish a European Shared Environ mental Information System
(SEIS) – a web-based system where public information providers
share environmental data and information. SEIS will bring together
existing data flows and information related to EU environmental
policies and legislation and make it easily accessible to both policy-
makers and citizens. A major challenge will be to develop SEIS as a
platform for two-way communication, enabling users to upload and
share information.
Over the coming years, EEA and Eionet will work together with
the European Commission and other stakeholders to implement SEIS.
It will be done by building on existing reporting systems and tools
(Reportnet), initiatives related to e-Government, the Infrastructure
for Spatial Information in Europe (INSPIRE), Global Monitoring for
Environment and Security (GMES) and the Global Earth Observation
System of Systems (GEOSS).
The EEA Management Board consists of one representative of
each of the member countries, two representatives from DG Environ
ment and DG Research of the European Commission and two scientific
experts designated by the European Parliament. Among its tasks, the
Management Board adopts the EEA’s work programmes, appoints
the Executive Director and designates the members of the Scientific
Committee. The Committee is the advisory body on scientific matters
to the Management Board and the Executive Director.
The Executive Director is responsible to the Management Board
for implementing the work programmes and for the day-to-day
running of the EEA.
The EEA organises its activities in yearly work programmes,
overarched by a five-year strategy and multiannual work
programme. The current strategy covers the period 2009-2013.
The information provided by the EEA comes from a wide range
of sources. A network of national environmental bodies was set up
to work with the EEA – the European environmental information
and observation network (Eionet) – which involves over 300
institutions across Europe. The EEA is responsible for developing the
network and coordinating its activities. To do this, EEA work closely
with national focal points (NFPs) – typically national environment
agencies or environ ment ministries in member countries. They
are responsible for coordinating the activities of Eionet at national
level. The main tasks for the national focal points are to develop
and maintain the national network, identify national information
sources, capture and channel data and information from monitoring
and other activities, help the EEA analyse the information collected
and assist in communicating EEA information to end-users in
member countries.

Management
Board
Bureau
Executive Scientific
Director Committee Figure 11.17. EEA
governance
ETC NRC
ETC
NRC
EEA
ETC
European NFPs
Environment National
Agency NRC
NRC focal
ETC points
Figure 11.18.
NRC
European environment
ETC NRC information and
observation network
Other important partners and sources of information for the

EEA are European and international organisations, such as the
Statistical Office (Eurostat) and the Joint Research Centre (JRC)
of the European Commission, the Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD), the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
and the World Health Organization (WHO). The EEA cooperates
closely with these organisations in producing information and
assessments for its clients and target groups.
References
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12. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
12.1. Limits to growth
12.1.1. Nature of growth and social development

The development of humanity in the 20th century is characterised
by an exponential growth of human population, production and
consumption as well as globalisation of numerous processes.
Certainly, not everything grows at the same rate; for example, the
world oil consumption rate has been slightly decreasing, while that
of natural gas – increasing. The nature of selected characteristic
changes in the development of humanity is presented in Figure 12.1,
which clearly shows that the rates of change are different but the
common trend – growth – persists.
The world human population exponential growth started with
the Industrial Revolution. The amount of the world industrial pro
duction (as an aggregate of the gross national product) demonstrates
the trends of exponential growth, even if we disregard the changes
created by the fluctuations in the world oil price and the economic
crisis. The amounts of pollutant emissions are also growing, and
global climate change is the consequence of rising concentration of
CO2 in the atmosphere.
Social development has often been viewed as an achievement.
Many communities and peoples, rich and poor, are seeking oppor
tunities for the expansion of their activities to solve vital problems.
In the developed part of the world, the necessity of economic
growth is justified by the need to create new jobs and provide
social security and technical achievements. In developing countries,
economic growth appears to be the only way out of poverty. Unless
a different solution for world’s problems is found, people will look
upon development as the main road to a happy future and will
do everything to promote growth. Such is the psychological and
material motivation for growth.
Obviously, growth can solve some problems; unfortunately, it
also causes new ones. This is due to the growth and development
limitations. The Earth has its limits. Any physical growth, also
population growth, rising numbers of automobiles and buildings,
12. Sustainable Development 279

increase in pollution still continues. However, human birth rate,
number of cars or buildings and pollution levels are far from the
most important limits to growth. The truly vital limits are related to
the flows of energy and materials required to sustain people, make
cars and construct buildings.
Society and economy depend on constant flows of air, water,
food, raw materials and organic fuel, which come from the Earth.
However, these flows create the flows of pollution and waste. Limits
to growth in fact are limits of global resources and our planet’s
limited capacity to absorb waste and pollution.
A range of human activities, from the use of mineral fertilisers
to urban development, are growing exponentially and can be
represented graphically (Figure 12.1).
7 400
CO2 oncentration, ppm

Population CO2 concentration
Population (billions)
6
in the atmosphere
5
350
4
3
300
2
1
0 250
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
10 45
Urban population GDP
Population (millions)
9
1990 USD (1012 )
8
7 30
6
5
4
3 15
2
1
0 0
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
6000 28
Water consumption River dams
24
Dams (thousands)
5000
20
4000
16
km3
3000
12
2000 8
1000 4
0 0
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
300 250
Consumption of fertilisers Paper consumption
250 200
Tons (millions)
Tons (millions)
200
150
150
100
100
Figure 12.1. Variability 50
50
of characteristic human 0
0
development indicators 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
over the last centuries Year Year

Exponential growth is the driving force that is responsible for
our economy approaching the physical limits of our planet. Rooted
in human culture, exponential growth has become an inseparable
part of the global system.
The concept of exponential growth, simple on the face of it,
can produce surprising results if we look into what it means in our
everyday life. It can be illustrated by a Persian legend about the
wise courtier who gave his ruler a gift of wonderful chessboard.
When asked about a reward, he asked for grains of rice the number
of which would be doubled on every next square of the board. One
grain on the first square, two grains on the second, and on the tenth
square there should be already 512 grains, on the fifteenth – 16 384,
while the twenty-first square required over a million grains of rice.
Naturally, the ruler’s resources of rice were insufficient.
The number of human population and capital are the driving
forces that ensure the growth of the industrialised world. Other
parameters – food production, use of resources and pollution – also
show a trend of exponential growth, although not because they
themselves multiply but because of the impact of the human popula
tion and capital. Thus, food production and the use of resources and
energy have been increasing not because of their structural capacity
but because the exponential growth of human population demands
ever more food, materials and energy. It is the growing number of
population and capital that determine exponential growth. As they
increase, they call forth demands for materials and energy which, in
their turn, increase pollution emission. This is no arbitrary assump
tion; it is a fact. Exponentially growing systems have a structural
nature, and the mechanism that determines growth is known and
comprehended. We have to bear in mind that human population
and capital as well as the supporting flows of energy and materials
have been increasing for centuries, with a few short-term lapses.
Production capital includes equipment, hardware, machines and
plants that are necessary to produce goods with the help of labour
force, energy, raw materials, land, water, technologies, management
and our planet’s natural ecosystems. Production capital creates an
incessant flow of production.
Changes in the nature of capital can be characterised by expo
nential growth, exponential decrease or dynamic balance. Just like
the number of population depends on demographic changes in the
process of industrialisation, so is economy dependant on the process
of long-term changes. Production capital grows exponentially and
faster than the number of population. Between 1970 and 2008, the
world production volume has grown by almost 100%. Such a growth
should have produced twice as many industrial goods per person if
the number of population had remained constant. However, with the

growing human population, the average amount of industrial goods
per person has grown only by a third.
If the rate of capital growth exceeds that of population growth,
according to the demographic transition theory, an increase in the
material standard of living should slow down the rate of population
While all sectors of world growth. To a certain extent and in some places this is true. However,
human activity have neither economic growth nor its demographic counteraction is
witnessed huge develop‑ sufficiently fast. In individual cases these factors even facilitate each
ment, social problems in other. That is why economic welfare dwindles while the number
the world become more
of population remains constant or is on the increase. In a way, this
vexing year after year:
every year over two trend is determined by the type of distribution of goods.
million children below Economic stratification of the world society is particularly
the age of 5 die of easily evident. The type of distribution of natural resources as well as
preventable diseases; human-produced material and non-material wealth has created both
every day 6000 children
very well-to-do people and an extremely destitute part of society.
die of diseases that are
related to the shortage According to the World Bank estimates, an average income of one-
of clean drinking fifth of the world’s population is less than 0.7 euros per day. 70% of
water or poor living these people are women.
conditions; The world’s twenty most developed countries, comprising ap
about two billion
proximately one-fifth of the world’s population, mostly are in North
people have no
electricity, another two America and Western Europe, and Japan, Singapore, Australia,
billion suffer from its New Zealand, the United Arab Emirates and Israel also belong to
shortage; this group. Over three billion live in the poorest countries in Africa
since 1985, over seven and Asia. The gap between these two worlds is growing. The annual
million people in income level of an average person in a world’s affluent country is
25 countries have died
of AIDS;
over 100 times higher than that of an average resident of a low-level
out of 1.2 billion income country. The inequality gap is even more striking at the level
people who live in of individuals. The total wealth of the world’s 200 richest people
extreme poverty, amounts to 0.7 trillion euros, which is more than possessed by the
around 900 million three billion of world’s poorest people together.
reside in rural
The lifestyle of the well-off people has an essential impact on
regions; their survival
directly depends on the consumption of the world’s resources. For example, the USA
biodiversity, level of with its 5% of the world’s population consumes about one-fourth of
water pollution and soil the world’s industrial goods and produces nearly half of industrial
degradation. waste. An American citizen’s average daily consumption comprises
450 kilograms of raw materials, including 18 kilograms of fossil
fuels, 12 kilograms of agricultural produce, 10 kilograms of timber
and paper, and 450 litres of water. Annually, Americans dispose
of 50 million tons of paper, 67 billion bottles, 18 billion pampers,
2 billion razor blades and other resources.
The economist Jeffrey Sachs, Director of the United Nations
Millennium Project, points out that eradication of extreme poverty
by 2025 is feasible if the developed countries donated just 0.7% of
their GNP towards aid to developing countries. These funds should
be used on vaccinating children against infectious diseases, ensuring

general accessibility to primary education, family planning services
for those who need them, provision of drinking water and sanitation,
food for the famine-stricken, and for strategic micro-loans to self-
employed people. This sum – 10 billion euros a year – is much bigger
than the current donations; however, the question is about the
priorities. At present, military expenditure exceeds 0.7 trillion euros
per year, which amounts to the annual income of half of the world’s
population. The price of an aircraft-carrier is tantamount to the sum
that all the industrially developed countries donate to aid developing
countries in ten years.
Resources
Centre Periphery
Industrial production Source of raw materials
and services with and resources Figure 12.2. Simplified
high added value (including human resources) scheme of division of
Export of goods, services Consumer of goods
and capital and services labour in globalised
economy: structures of
Goods and services centre and periphery
Figure 12.3. Distribution

of welfare: countries of
the world. The size of the
countries on the map is
in proportional to their
per capita GNP
In industrialised countries, economy develops more rapidly,

and economic growth is systematically in progress. Economic stag
nation in developing countries is determined by a number of causes,
including systematic injustice and oppression, especially concerning
the poorest layers of society. It is much easier for a developed country
to economise, invest and accumulate capital not only because deve
loped nations have a better control of markets, develop and purchase
new technologies and manage resources. During the previous
centuries of growth, the developed countries have accumulated
more capital which can now be multiplied even more efficiently.
However, providing for basic needs in the future is feasible without

the depletion of the existing reserves by economising resources
and preserving the volume of investments. A smaller population
growth in more developed countries enables them to allocate most
of production capital to industrial investments and diminish invest
ments in the service sphere, particularly in health care and education.
Rapidly developing countries and economies cannot afford it.
In developing countries, there are considerable restrictions
to capital growth due to growing population and other reasons.
The surplus value that could be used for investments is allocated,
luxury of the power elite, payment of external debt or excessive
militarisation. Conducive to poverty is corruption, low level of edu
cation, and mismanagement, while population is placed under the
growth model that increases the number of population and prevents
the growth of welfare. The structure that relates the number of
population to capital ensures the principle of the global economy
model which can be illustrated by an ancient proverb: the rich
become richer, the poor beget children. Notably, these features of
the system are by no means accidental. The system has been created
to produce precisely such results, and the process will continue if
the structure is not subjected to well-considered changes. Population
growth impedes the growth of production capital, calling forth ever-
increasing demands of schools, hospitals, resources and basic goods,
in this way diminishing the part of industrial produce that could
be invested in production. Poverty makes the growth of human
population endless, forcing people to live without quality education,
health care and access to family planning. The only choice or way to
live on is a big family and a hope that children will help to raise the
family income or serve their family as labour force.
Poor people need food, shelter and material values. The well-
off people use material growth in order to satisfy other needs, real
but non-material: boosting their own recognition, self-confidence,
unity, personality. While we are rapidly approaching the limits of
our planet, unfortunately, discussions about the limits to growth in
many cases does not have any influence on these people.
12.1.2. Limits to development

Considering the self-regeneration potential of population and
industrial capital, they can be viewed as the driving forces of the
world system’s exponential growth. Society promotes their growth
in every way for the purpose of ensuring production.
The number of population and capital have a potential that
ensures their production and reproduction. This potential cannot
be realised without a continuous supply of energy and materials or
without a continuous removal of pollution.

People need food, water and air for their growth, sustenance of
their bodies and procreation. Production, in its turn, needs energy,
water and air as well as huge amounts of minerals, chemicals and
biological material to produce goods, to facilitate human life, to
maintain the system of production and ensure its increase. In accord
ance with fundamental laws, people – and plant-consumed materials
and energy do not vanish. Materials can be recycled, or they turn
into waste and pollution, whereas energy is dispersed as heat.
Materials and energy consumed by population and capital are
extracted from the Earth, returning waste and heat to the Earth
instead. There is a constant flow from the global sources of energy
and materials via economy to the environment, where waste and
pollution are accumulated. However, there are definite limits to the
increase rate of the use of materials and energy and the resultant
production of waste, so that it would not harm people, economy or
the Earth’s absorption processes, regeneration and self-regulation.
All resources that people use – food, water, iron, phosphorus, oil
and thousands of others – are limited in terms of both their sources
and resulting emissions. These limits are complex, since both the
sources and emissions constitute part of a dynamic, interrelated and
single system – the Earth. There are short-term limits, for example,
the amount of oil in a reservoir stored for a specific purpose; there
are also long-term limits, for example, the amount of oil in the
Earth. Sources and discharges can interact, while the planet can,
through natural processes, influence both the sources and pollutant
emissions. Thus, soil can be both a source for food production and
a recipient of acidic precipitations resulting from air pollution. The
capability of soil to perform a particular function largely depends on
the performance of other functions.
To introduce some clarity in this complexity and to define
long-term or equilibrium limits to development, the World Bank
economist Herman Daly has offered three simple regularities:
1) for renewable resources – soil, water, forests, fish – the rate of
long-term use must not exceed that of their regeneration. For
example, catch of fish is viable if the fishing rate is in balance
with the reproduction of the remaining fish population;
2) for non-renewable resources – fossil fuels, high-concentration
mineral ores, natural underground water – the rate of their
balanced use must not exceed that of the use of renewable
resources to replace the non-renewable resources. For
example, the use of oil fields would be balanced if part of
profits were systematically invested in the production of
solar panels or planting trees. This means that when oil
reserves are exhausted, the flow of renewable energy will be
sustained;

3) the rate of pollutant emissions must not exceed the rate of
absorption of pollution or the rate of rendering it harmless
to the environment. For example, a discharge of wastewater
into a lake or a river is admissible only if the rate of
discharge corresponds to the ecosystem’s natural capability
of self-purification.
Figure 12.4. Forest There is plenty of evidence to support the idea that development
gutted by fire (summer and growth take place at the expense of irreversible depletion or
of 2009, Greece)
degradation of the existing resources.
The nature of human development demonstrates that people
do not use the Earth’s resources and possibilities of development
in a balanced way. Soil, surface waters and groundwater, wetlands,
nature and the environment are degrading. Even in the places where
renewable resources seem to be plenty (for example, North American
forests or European soils), the quality and diversity of these resources
and their potential of survival can be questioned. Mineral and fossil
fuel resources are running out. Moreover, there is no plan and no
satisfactory capital investment programme to sustain industry when
fossil fuel will have run out. Pollution is accumulating – pollution
emission has started to overtake the flow of substances in their
In 1972, an interpretation biogeochemical cycles, and the chemical composition of the atmo
of the nature of as well as
limits to human develop‑
sphere is changing.
ment and, what is more If only a single resource or several resources run out while there is
important, modelling sufficient amount of others, we might presume that growth will con
the consequences of tinue by replacing one resource with another (although there are limits
exceeding these limits even to such replacement). However, if many sources are depleted
and guidelines for action
and pollution flows are overloaded, there is no doubt that human
were offered by Dennis
Meadows, Donnella H. consumption of materials and energy has gone too far. Humanity will
Meadows and Jørgen have overstepped the limits of sustainable development.
Randers, authors of the These limits apply to the amount of raw materials that has been
book Limits to Growth. used up over a given period of time. Humanity has accelerated the
consumption of resources not only in terms of space, rate of flows or
The character of human
economic development
and the approach limits; this is also true concerning human population growth.
to the solutions of
environmental and social
problems confirm that 12.1.3. Beyond the limits
the offered prognoses
and models are correct The modelling of humanity’s development is based on the
and that it is necessary to assessment of the volume of the existing and available resources,
change the character of correlating their changes with the number of population and capital.
development. To achieve this aim, it is necessary to turn from the static analysis
of a single factor in time to a dynamic analysis of the whole system.
In the majority of the world countries, capital grows faster than
the population, although in some other countries a reverse process
can be observed. In some countries the growing economy allows to
slow down the birth rate, while in other countries poverty and social

inequality increases mortality. People who have become richer de
mand more goods, more energy and cleaner air. Poor people fight
for clean water, agricultural land and firewood. Some technologies
increase pollution flow, others decrease it. The reserves of non-
renewable and some renewable resources are running short, while the
The number of human
remaining reserves are used more intensively and more efficiently. population, the volume
The modelling of the nature of human development (Figure 12.5) of the use of resources
demonstrates that, with the existing trends of development, even and the volume of con‑
with sustained technological progress and expanded accessibility of sumption in developed
raw materials and resources, an overshoot of limits to growth and countries continue to
grow like it was in the
catastrophic drop in welfare can occur already in this century. A 20th century, until the
possible consequence of this is decreased industrial production and growth rate is decreased
food availability, as well as a decrease in the number of population. by the availability of non-
renewable resources and
their rising price. Even‑
Resources
Industrial output tually, this leads to the
Population decrease in production
Pollution volumes and allocation of
Food investments to support
resource flows, whereas
the decreased availability
of investments in other
sectors of economy
leads to the decrease in
1900 2000 2100 industrial production and
services. As the volume
Life span of industrial and food
Consumer goods per capita production diminishes,
Services per capita the availability of health
Food per capita
services shrinks, and,
as the environmental
pollution increases, the
life span falls into decline.
Figure 12.5. Possible
nature of social develop
ment at the existing
1900 2000 2100 consumption rate
Over the last century, modern society has witnessed a rapid

human population growth and has made remarkable achievements
in the technological and social spheres: from the steam engine to
democracy, to the computer and corporations. The achievements
have enabled economy to overstep the visible physical and material
limits and sustain continuous growth. This is especially true
about the last decades, when the full-scale industrial culture was
associated with the development of consumer society and implanted
in human minds as an idea of unceasing growth. To most people this

makes the idea of limits to growth inconceivable and unacceptable.
Politically, limits should not be mentioned; economically, they are
inconceivable. Society tends to dismiss the possibility of limits
and tries to replace it with a possible fight for the improvement of
technologies and the development of free market. Meanwhile, the
results of social growth modelling show that the existing way of
human development has exhausted itself.
If the tendency of growth for the world population, industry,
pollution, food production and consumption of resour ces
continues, the limits of our planet will be reached approx
imately within this century. Use of more common resources
and numerous types of pollution have already exceeded the
rates that can be physically balanced. Unless a considerable
decrease in the flows of materials and energy is achieved,
the coming decades will see an uncontrolled decrease in per
capita amount of food, energy and industrial produce. As a
foreseeable result, there may be a sudden and uncontrolled
decrease in population and volumes of production.
However, this decrease is not unavoidable. It is feasible to di
minish the tendencies of growth and create conditions for
environmental and economic stability that can be well balan
ced even in a long-term future. The global equilibrium should
be created with a view to satisfy every person’s basic material
needs and provide equal possibilities of self-development for all.
The existence of a balanced and sustainable society is
technically and economically viable, and it is more desirable
than a society that seeks to solve its problems through conti
nuous expansion. Transition to a balanced and sustainable
society requires carefully balanced long-term and short-
term goals, preferring sufficient provision for life, equality
and quality instead of the volume of the aggregate product.
It takes more than just labour productivity, more than just
technology; it also takes maturity, empathy and wisdom.
Should people opt for the second option, the sooner they start
acting, the better are the prospects for the success.
12.2. Concept of sustainable development

Today the concept of sustainable development is not just an
opinion on how humanity as such and also each community and
society should develop; it is principally a set of opinions about
the model of a society that can ensure its own existence. The
concept of sustainable development includes physical conditions,
political conceptions, the notions of the quality of life or welfare

and an optimised influence on the environment to ensure that the
resources are equally accessible to all generations. The concept of
sustainable development is based on the understanding of three
notions: development, needs of society and needs of the future
generations. Within the concept of sustainable development, the
notion ‘development’ includes not only growth (of production,
gross national product, welfare) but also the development of social
and economic spheres that guarantees the preservation of natural
ecosystems and the human living environment. Thus, the concept
of sustainable development not only looks at short-term processes
(to satisfy the current needs) but also aims at ensuring equal
possibilities for the next generation.
A society that would exist eternally could be deemed sustainable.
With this perspective, the concept of sustainable development is a
frame of reference that aims at influencing the future of humanity
and the existence of society. So far, social development models have
been unsuccessful and have proved either their obvious inability to
ensure social development, or they have not managed to take into
account essential differences between various regions of the world.
Re-evaluation of social development conceptions largely depends
on understanding the impact of social development on the environ
ment and the urgency of environmental protection. Many arguments
support the necessity to re-evaluate the models that have been
practiced up to now.
Development, especially in Western societies, is understood
as human domination over nature (illustrated by the phrase
‘man – the crown of creation’) and the use of its resources for
the development of production. This attitude ignores the role
of nature and ecosystems in providing for the development of
humanity; it also ignores the value of nature per se and that
other forms of life and living organisms may have needs and,
most importantly, a right to exist.
The main priorities in the development model that dominates
in Western societies is economic growth and consumption,
the latter being the principal parameter of an individual
person’s and humanity’s welfare. In conformity with this
concept, social welfare is the standard of life – the part of
income that is used to purchase goods and services. This
model of development, based on individual consumption,
eventually leads to huge inequality in terms of income and
welfare even within a single country (especially because of
the cyclic nature of free market economy), to say nothing of
the arising differences between different regions of the world.
The inevitable differences of such welfare model result in
social tension, military conflicts and social instability.

The consumer society’s development based on the increase in
resources unavoidably leads to the increase in consumption
and industrial waste (pollution) and depletion of resources.
Due to the growth of production and increase in consumption,
the nature of environmental problems over the last decades
has changed.
Environmental pollution sources – point or non-point. In
the past, point sources of pollution were common, for
example, pollutant discharge into the air or water from
a plant, leakage of hazardous substances as a result of
an accident or from a landfill. Gradually, the harmful
influence on the environment became less concentrated,
and non-point sources of pollution started dominating,
such as agricultural runoff of nutrients, domestic use of
chemicals, pollution arising from automobile exhausts.
The consequences of point source pollution can be tackled
by restrictive measures; dealing with the problems
created by non-point sources is much more complicated
and takes more time to achieve positive result.
Scale of environmental problems – local, regional or global.
Until quite recently, pollution was of a local nature,
usually around the point source of pollution. Later on,
it transpired that pollution can impact regions, crossing
the borders of countries, for example, acid rains and
eutrophication. At present the most topical environmental
problems are of a global scale. The larger the scale of the
problem, the more difficult it is to tackle it, as it requires
international cooperation.
Duration of environmental problems – short-term or
long-term. In many cases the harmful impact on the
environment is short-term if the activity of the source
is limited in time. Such were the cases of air pollution
from district heating plants or water pollution from small
inhabited places. Currently, most of the environmental
problems are long-term; they do not disappear
immediately even after the source is liquidated. Persistent
organic compounds, compounds of heavy metals or
radioactive contamination can affect the environment
long after the pollution has stopped. An example of this
is the eutrophication of the Baltic Sea, the reduction
of which is going to take several decades, even if the
nutrient release were totally stopped.
Complexity level of environmental problems – simple or
complex. Many environmental problems are becoming
more and more complex. A single enterprise may use

hundreds of various chemical substances and many of
them can be environmentally persistent. Also, consumer
goods can affect the environment in more ways than
one. Not just various substances, even different sectors of
industry, have a synergistic influence on the environment.
The more complex the environmental problem is, the
more complicated it is to understand and tackle it.
The consumer society’s model of development ignores the fact
that it is unviable to globally sustain the type of production
which consumes resources and degrades the environment
and which ensures the lifestyle of the world’s most developed
countries. Already now, when the desirable consumption level
has been attained in a relatively small number of the world
countries, all the ecosystems of the planet cannot absorb
the human-created pollution, like in the case of greenhouse
gas emissions causing climate change. It is obvious that
the Earth’s resources are insufficient to ensure the existing
consumption level in West European and North American
countries over a long period of time, not to speak of ensuring
such a volume of consumption for all people in the world.
Similarly, the consumption rate increase is unviable in the
future, even if we do not take the technological progress into
account.
The understanding of the character of the development of
the so-far existing Western societies was based on the idea of
limitless development and growth. Now we have to admit that
there are limits to economic growth. They are determined by
the planet’s carrying capacity, accessibility of resources whose
amount is limited, and the capacity of the planet’s ecosystems
to absorb pollution. Although technological progress can,
undoubtedly, increase the efficiency of how resources are
used, it is impossible to overcome these development limits.
Hence, the development of humanity must guarantee a
balance between the planet’s ability to sustain human
existence and the desired lifestyle.
12.3. Formation of the concept of sustainable

development
The necessity of sustainable development was first declared in
Stockholm in 1972, at the UN Conference on the Human Environ
ment. The contemporary understanding of sustainable development
is based on the idea that was voiced in the 1987 Report by the

UN World Commission on Environ ment and Development: Our
Common Future: ‘Sustainable development is development that
meets the needs of the present generations without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.’1 The
concept of sustainable development, its agenda and solutions for
its implementation today are important tasks of the UN. The UN
Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro,
1992, was dedicated to the above issues. Two important documents
were adopted at the conference: ‘Declaration on Environ ment
and Development’ and action programme for the 21st century
‘Agenda 21’.
The strategy ‘Think globally, act locally’ highlights the idea that
no global action is feasible without purposeful local steps. Many
countries of the world have recognised the necessity to design their
development strategies in such a way that not only the rates and
prospects of economic development as well as quality of life are
sustained but also environmental degradation and over-consumption
of resources are eliminated. Thus, the concept of sustainable
development became a frame of reference that could influence the
activities of the contemporary society and the development of the
future society. The sustainability of the development of the world
countries was evaluated in 2002 at the UN World Summit on
Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, the Republic of South
Africa.
An updated and more elaborated definition of sustainable deve
lopment is provided in the European Union Sustainable Development
Strategy:
Sustainable development means that the needs of the present
generation should be met without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. It is an overarching objective of
the European Union set out in the Treaty, governing all the Union’s
policies and activities. It is about safeguarding the earth’s capacity
to support life in all its diversity and is based on the principles of
democracy, gender equality, solidarity, the rule of law and respect
for fundamental rights, including freedom and equal opportunities
for all. It aims at the continuous improvement of the quality of life
and well-being on Earth for present and future generations. To that
end it promotes a dynamic economy with full employment and a
high level of education, health protection, social and territorial
cohesion and environ mental protection in a peaceful and secure
world, respecting cultural diversity.2
1
Our Common Future (1987) Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2
EU sustainable development strategy. Accessible: http://ec.europa.eu/environ
ment/eussd/

Figure 12.6. Boutros
Boutros-Ghali, Secretary
General of the UN,
opens the Conference
on Environment and
Development in Rio de
Janeiro, 1992
The concept of sustainable development is based on the

necessity to optimise economic development and social system, as
well as the impact on the environment and the use of resources. This
model of development has to ensure the sustainability of economy,
environment and the social sphere in time and space (Figure 12.7).
The three basic spheres requisite for the humanity’s existence today
are the following: viable economy, harmonious society and healthy
environment. These are also the desirable external prerequisites for
the development of an individual. Sustainable development implies
that each economic, social or environmental issue must be solved
in such a way that the adopted decision is favourable, or as little
unfavourable as possible, for the development of other spheres.
Social
domain Economy
Sustainable Figure 12.7. Sustainable

development development of the
Environment
environment, economy
and the social domain
The main tasks of sustainable development are the following.

Preservation of resources, i.e. ensuring the avail ability
of resources for humanity’s development not only to the
present but also to the future generations. This involves the
necessity to implement an agenda and policies that aim at
raising the efficiency of the use of non-renewable resources,
their replacement with renewable resources, at the same time

Sustainable development preserving biodiversity and protecting the genetic potential
goals and principles of species. The ways of carrying out this task are well known,
have become guidelines for example, the development of alternative energy sources,
for the adoption of
recycling of industrial and other waste, development of new,
corresponding decisions
concerning economy, environment-friendly technologies.
policy and environment Balanced development of the human-created (anthropogenic)
protection with the aim environment and the natural environment, related to,
to: for example, the necessity to preserve the productivity of
agricultural lands or optimise the use of urban territories and
restrict human impact
on the surrounding
natural environment traffic flows.
and prevent further Ensuring the quality of the environment that allows social
overstepping the self- development by discontinuing or restricting the processes
regeneration capacity that degrade the environment and exert an adverse impact
of the environment;
on the self-regeneration of ecosystems, and by eliminating
maximally decrease
the consumption processes that may be hazardous for human health and
of non-renewable lower the quality of life. Besides, it is necessary to restore the
resources and ensure a degraded environment at the same time.
more extensive use of Ensuring social equality. Sustainable development cannot
renewable resources; be achieved without ensuring social equality in individual
safeguard and protect
nature to ensure
countries as well as among countries by preventing the
the preservation of growth of income inequality and ensuring the kind of
biodiversity; development that reduces social inequality.
promote economic Social participation in the management of the state and the
development to satisfy environment clearly shows that sustainable development must
human needs, improve
enjoy an overall people’s support. Sustainable development
the quality of life and
ensure fair distribution is unattainable without a change in the citizens’ attitude
of the world wealth; to consumption and use of resources. Social transition to
create a decision- sustainable development can be ensured only if there is a
making and political commitment and transition from a socio-economic
society based on the overuse of the existing resources
management system
that is conducive to
citizens’ participation and unequal distribution of benefits to a society based on
in the decision-making social equality, considerate use of resources and efficient
process. management. It is also clear that such social changes cannot
be achieved by administrative reforms; instead, they must be
introduced and supported by the grass roots. The objective
of sustainable development is to bring about changes in the
people’s attitude to values by ensuring greater participation of
citizens in political decision-making and social management.
Sustainable development can be attained by solving the above
five tasks – implementing social planning within the framework
of market economy without stipulating the instrumental political
system.
Sustainable development is functioning when the aggregate
stocks of the Earth’s capital remain undiminished or continue
growing.

Sustainable development involves continuous development and
The aggregate stocks of
the Earth’s capital can
preservation of all forms of capital, as humanity’s existence and be classified into three
welfare depend on them now as well as in the future. Since the principal forms:
Earth’s aggregate capital consists of the totality of these capitals, economic (human-
there is a possibility that the aggregate capital stocks can increase made) capital, which
even if one form of capital diminishes. For example, the natural conventionally
comprises equipment,
capital can decrease, while the economic growth may be sufficient to technology, buildings
ensure the growth of the aggregate capital. and infrastructure,
This is why the mutual substitution of capital forms can be and which is used for
described as two approaches to sustainable development: producing goods and
strong sustainability is achieved if none of the sustainable providing services;
social capital, which
development capital forms is depleted. This approach is not is related to human
based on the substitution principle and does not admit of welfare both socially
the substitution of the natural capital with the human-made and individually. It
capital. As a result, the approach creates problems when consists of social norms
the critical limits of the natural capital are determined. The and formal and informal
structures that ensure
denial of substitution of capitals, in turn, creates a situation
access to resources,
when certain forms of capital are endowed with an absolute helps to solve common
value which is higher than that of others; problems and
weak sustainability is based on the assumption that welfare enhances social unity.
and sustainability do not depend on a certain form of It is based on human
spiritual and physical
capital; instead, it is ensured if the Earth’s aggregate capital
health, education,
stocks grow. This approach permits the mutual substitution motivation, talent, skills
of different forms of capital. Consequently, it would admit and abilities;
of logging Brazilian virgin forests to develop green farming natural capital, which
in the vacated territory, or to invest the procured funds includes all ecosystems
in the development of human capital. In this case, the and natural resources
(renewable and non-
problem arises as two incomparable categories – forests renewable). Besides the
and people – are compared, determining their value and conventional natural
level of substitution. Weak sustainability is also based on resources (timber,
the analysis of gains and losses, which admits of mutual water, energy, minerals),
substitution. the natural capital
comprises also such
values of nature that
are difficult to express
in monetary terms –
12.4. Guiding principles of sustainable biological diversity,
development species and ecosystems
that ensure ecosystems
services (for example,
In the process of planning, implementing and evaluating the purification of air and
sustainability of development, a number of basic principles have water).
been worked out. Some of these are socio-ecological principles,
which clearly outline regularities of development and enable
precise identification of development goals. There are different
transition routes to sustainable development, and mistakes are
possible; however, having a precisely defined goal is prerequisite.

The advantages of socio-ecological principles lie in their assessment
of sustainable development from a systemic perspective and
consideration of activities in succession from the very beginning.
Among the basic principles of sustainable development, the most
important are four ways of sustainability that give answers to the
question ‘how to act?’ to ensure social development.
Diversity should be viewed as a prerequisite for the
development of any system (including society). Biological
diversity, economic diversity and cultural diversity underpin
the capacity of the biosphere and society to sustain their
dynamic stability. Innovation and adaptation to new
conditions are feasible if there are different approaches and
alternatives to development, which can serve to form new,
stable social systems. To enhance long-term stability, as often
as not the most suitable strategy is the diversification of
development.
Subsidiarity or self-government implies all possible functions
at the lowest possible level of management. External assistance
or directives are acceptable only if they help to perform the
delegated functions without endangering the autonomy of
the subsystem. Self-government is closely connected with
social responsibility and social security, and it can be applied
to all spheres – politics, administration, entrepreneurship,
technical systems, management of material flows in economy.
This principle does not provide clear instructions; instead,
it urges to seek the optimum solution between autonomy
and integration in more comprehensive systems. The
implementation of the principle of self-government stimulates
individual participation and the proactive attitude of local
governments with the aim to improve and manage their life,
thus promoting democracy.
The principle of cooperation emphasises the significance
of horizontal, non-hierarchical interactions. This model
of cooperation is based on common objectives and rules
and, as a rule, is open: participants can join in or opt out.
Cooperation networks ensure the exchange of experience
and information, promote mutual support, stabilise systems
as well as facilitate competition – participants can choose
another, more attractive cooperation network. This is why
a vitally important feature of cooperation networks is their
ability to adapt to novelty and focus on the participants’
needs.
The principle of participation or involvement corresponds
with the basic ideas of democracy and forms the grounds
for diversity of approaches. It can play an essential role

in avoiding conflicts. It is of utmost importance that all
the parties involved in the solution of a problem should
participate at the initial stage of defining the problem
and identifying the possible alternatives. Participation
facilitates responsibility and motivates people to make their
contribution towards the implementation of the adopted
decision. Besides, participation claims the participants’
time and interest, openness of the institution involved and,
as a rule, more time and funds than the accurate hierarchic
decision-making. The chosen procedure may pose a risk that
the decision may not comply with the experts’ opinion, while
the principle of participation commands respect for diverse
interests and opinions.
Although there are various basic principles of sustainable
development, their application adds a practical dimension to
adopting responsible decisions concerning economy, policy and
environmental protection.
Assessing the implementation of sustainable development, the
issue of using the concept of sustainable development in countries
with different economic and social regimes is particularly
important. Up to now, the most extensive research pertains
to the perspectives of sustainable development in industrially
developed countries. Although the number of such countries
is relatively small, their complying with the basic principles
of sustainable development is particularly topical due to the
high level of consumption which, in interaction with the free
market economy and globalisation processes, is, in fact, one of
the principal causes of global environ mental and development
problems. At the same time, precisely the industrially developed
countries display the understanding of the necessity of sustainable
development. A strategically important trend of sustainable
development in industrially developed countries is the concept
of dematerialisation – decoupling economic development from
material consumption or ensuring the growth of well-being against
the background of diminished needs of material consumption and
use of resources. The situation in industrially developed countries
is considerably different from the situation, for example, in Africa,
most of Asia, in South America as well as in many European
countries. The people’s desire to reach the level of welfare
of industrially developed countries as fast as possible makes
the necessity to decouple economic development and material
consumption even more topical. Even so, sustainable development
issues in the developing countries are related to the solution of
the problems caused by the backlash of free market economy and
globalisation, which cannot be solved locally.

12.5. Ecological footprint1
To satisfy human needs for goods and services, the use of natural
resources creates environ mental pollution and waste. Ecological
footprint is an indicator of sustainable lifestyle which shows how
much land is required to satisfy people’s needs.
Mathis Wackernagel, one of the author’s of the ecological foot
print concept, defines it as the area of land and water, converted
into hectares, necessary to produce the products that an individual
or a population, or an activity has consumed and to absorb the
Figure 12.8. Ecological pollution formed in the life cycle of the products, using the existing
footprint technologies and experience of resource management. For example,
the ecological footprint of a given country is the total land area
Ecological footprint is in hectares that is necessary to produce food, goods and services
a means for measuring consumed by its population and to absorb waste and pollution
the flows of energy and that have arisen in the full life cycle of these goods. The ecological
materials in a given eco‑ footprint allows to measure and analyse the consumption of natural
nomic system (country,
resources, volume of created waste and regenerative capacity of
city, household), and the
values are converted into nature. Unlike other indicators (of impact on the environment), the
the land area necessary ecological footprint also shows the pressure on the environment that
for nature to maintain our consumption causes in other countries, because the pressure on
these flows. the environment from producing imported goods is in the country of
origin.

footprint in world’s
countries
People consume resources and ecosystem services from different

countries of the world, and their ecological footprint is the totality
of these territories irrespective of their whereabouts. The map shows
territories of countries by their ecological footprints in proportion to
the total world ecological footprint. The largest ecological footprints
are those of the USA, China and India. However, the largest
1
At preparation of this chapter contribution of J. Brizga is acknowledged.

ecological footprint per capita is in the USA, while in China and
Bioproductivity is an
essential parameter to
India it is three times smaller than the world average. assess the ecological
The ecological footprint as an efficient indicator of the environ footprint as an indicator
ment and development is rapidly gaining attention. It was the of the consumption
ecological footprint that the European Environment Agency in its of natural resources in
reports of 2005 and 2007 on the environmental situation in Europe global hectares. It shows
the planet’s ecological
used as one of the indicators. This graphical representation of human capacity or biological
impact on the environment allows to compare different countries productivity. In this way,
and also the dynamics of indicators within a particular country. the balance reflects the
At present the ecological footprint is widely used in the world demand (ecological foot‑
to characterise environ mental sustain ability and form public print) on the one hand
and the supply – biopro‑
awareness of environmental issues. Several countries (Switzerland, ductivity that consists of
United Arab Emirates, Japan, Belgium, Ecuador and France) have various bioproductive
included the ecological footprint in their national statistics and territories – on the other
carry out these calculations regularly. In the United Kingdom, the hand. These territories
ecological footprint is extensively used in the environmental impact are:
cropland,
assessment, including that of the local development scenarios.
pasture,
forest,
sea,
12.5.1. Ecological footprint calculation methodology territory allotted to the
preservation of bio
National bioproductivity is the whole of all the territories diversity.
(including those not used because of economic, nature protection or
other reasons). Each bioproductive territory is converted into global
hectares, multiplying this territory by the equivalence factor of the
given territory and the corresponding productivity factor.
As to the ecological footprint, its calculation begins with This calculation can
creating a matrix of the type of land use which includes, apart from be expressed with the
bioproductive territories, the infrastructure and territories that are following formula:
necessary for the absorption of carbon dioxide. Consumption catego
B = T × EF × PF,
where
ries within this matrix are food, dwelling, transport, consumer goods B – bioproductivity, hag,
and services. The matrix of the land use type shows the kind of land T – territory, hag,
use necessary to ensure the production of goods and consumption EF – equivalence factor,
for a given number of people and consumption patterns. The number hag,
of population and information about various consumption categories PF – productivity factor,
t/ha.
are used to calculate the average annual consumption per person.
The consumption is calculated by adding up the data on import and
national production and subtracting export. The term ‘seeming con
sumption’ has also been introduced, which is different from the real
household consumption since it includes the resources that are used
in export and excludes the resources that have been invested in the
imported goods (for example, energy that has been consumed to
produce tomatoes in Spain and transport them to Latvia).
The methodology for ecological footprint calculation stipulates
the parameters of the data used, re-calculation factors, boundaries of
research and dissemination of results.

The methodology for ecological footprint calculation is based
The territory of land
necessary to produce the
annual consumption of on the assessment of the area of bioproductive territory. Global
goods is attributed to a hectares (hag) is the bioproductive territory (total area of the Earth is
category of bioproduc‑ 11.2 billion hectares) with the world’s average productivity. Instead of
tive territory (cropland, the volume of the produced biomass, productivity in this case is the
pasture, forests, fishing maximum potential of agricultural production. This makes a hectare
and built-up territories)
of fertile soil equal to several global hectares. Global hectares have
which is multiplied
by the equivalence been normalised so that the total number of hectares of productive
factor to calculate the territory would be the same as the quantity of global hectares.
ecological footprint in Global hectare is a means to compare the ecological footprints and
global hectares: bioproductivity of different countries.
C , Equivalence factor helps to convert the given bioproductive
EFp =
PF × EF territory (cropland, pasture, forests, developed and marine territory)
where into global hectares. For example, cropland is more productive than
EFp – ecological footprint, pasture and its equivalence factor is correspondingly higher.
hag,
C – consumption, t/g,
PF – productivity factor, Table 12.1. Land use equivalence factors (hag/ha)
t/ha,
EF – equivalence factor, Land use Equivalence factors (hag/ha)
hag/ha. Cropland 0.50
Forest 1.33
Built-up territory 2.64
CO2 absorption 1.34
Productivity factors show the fertility of a particular type of

bioproductive land in different countries. For example, owing to its
high fertility of grass, one hectare of pasture in New Zealand can
yield more meat than in Latvia. Such differences may be related
to the local peculiarities, such as precipitation, quality of soil or
particular management.
The ecological footprint is not a comprehensive indicator
that would reflect all of the environmental pressure. It does not
directly reveal chemical pollution, soil erosion, consumption of
water resources, nutrient runoffs and sensitivity of forests to pests
or storms, or other factors that can have a considerable impact on
bio
productivity. However, the majority of possible impacts will
affect productivity and are reflected in the ecological footprint and
bioproductivity. The ecological footprint does not reveal the depletion
of non-renewable resources (oil, coal, mineral resources) because the
regenerative capacity of resources in the calculation functions as the
delimiting factor. The impact of fossil and mineral resources on the
environment in the ecological footprint calculation appears only in
relation to the energy invested in the full life cycle of these resources.
Therefore, the ecological footprint calculation is often complemented
with the analysis of resource flows, which also includes information
about the consumption and flows of mineral resources.

12.5.2. Contemporary society’s ecological footprint
The area of productive land available to the human population
of our planet is only 2.1 hectares per person. However, the annual
average ecological footprint per person worldwide is 2.7 hectares,
and this means that our planet’s ecoproductivity is being consumed
faster than it can regenerate. We live in nature’s debt.
Industrially developed countries with a comparatively smaller
number of population are responsible for most of these pressures
because the average ecological footprint in the high income countries
is 6.4 hag/per capita, while in the developing countries it amounts
on average to 2.2 hag/per capita, which is just slightly more than
the globally available amount (2.1 hag/per capita). In the developing
countries (approximately 2.4 billion inhabitants) the ecological
footprint is even smaller – only 1.0 hag/per capita. Such differences
in the ecological footprint distribution can also be observed at the
regional level.
10
Ecological footprint (hag /per capita)
North America
9
Europe (EU)
8
Europe (outside EU)
7 Latin America and the Caribbean Islands
6 Middle East and Central Asia
5 Asia
4 Africa
3
2
1 Figure 12.10. Ecological
0 footprint in the world
Population (millions) regions
The largest ecological footprint (9.5 hag/per capita) is in the

United Arab Emirates and the USA (9.4 hag/per capita), where the
consumption of non-renewable resources is the biggest. The smallest
ecological footprint belongs to Afghanistan (0.48 hag/per capita) and
Malawi (0.47 hag/per capita). None of the extremes is sustainable as,
in the first case, more resources are consumed than available, while
the second extreme is related to poverty and inability to satisfy basic
human needs for food, safety and dwelling.
To satisfy all the needs of a citizen of the USA, 9.4 hag are
required. Strikingly, if all the people of the world consumed such an
amount of natural resources, we would need 5 planets. Although the
average ecological footprint of the EU population is much smaller –
4.7 hag/per capita, it exceeds the global bioproductivity twice
(2.1 hag/per capita) and the bioproductivity of the European Union

(2.3 hag/per capita) itself. This means that the territory necessary for
ensuring the needs of the EU population should be twice than that
available.
12.5.3. How to reduce the ecological footprint

An individual’s ecological footprint can be calculated using the
electronic calculator created by the World Wide Fund for Nature.
By calculating one’s own ecological footprint and understanding
the most instrumental factors of one’s impact, it is possible to trace
one’s habits and try changing those that most affect the environ
ment. The three essential spheres for a decrease in the ecological
footprint are food, transport and dwelling. Therefore, by choosing
the local biological and seasonal food, by going on foot or using
public transport or bicycle instead of a private car wherever possible,
by taking care of the heat insulation of one’s home as well as by
using only energy efficient electric appliances, every person can
decrease his or her ecological footprint in a comparatively simple
way. However, all responsibility cannot be laid at the citizens’ door
only. Governments should also take action:
by taking stock of nature’s capital and regulating its use. A
good example is the establishing of fishing quotas to ensure
the regenerating capacity of fish populations;
by including the full life cycle of goods and services
associated with nature degradation and environmental
pollution in the costs. One way to achieve this could be
a tax reform, imposing a higher tax on the use of natural
resources, at the same time alleviating the citizens’ income
tax. In this way, consumption would be shifted towards
more environment-friendly groups of goods while preserving
equilibrium in the state budget. Another option could be the
eradication of subsidies that facilitate the overuse of natural
resources and pollution;
by promoting the development of environmental technologies
that facilitate a more efficient use of natural resources –
alleviating taxes for the enterprises that introduce
environment-friendly technologies;
by working out state procurement mechanisms that would
require state institutions to choose more environment-
friendly goods, thus setting an example to the private sector
and creating a new type of market relations;
by heightening public awareness of environmental issues,
improving environmental education and providing citizens
with the information that would enhance public under
standing of environmental processes.

Since environmental problems are of global nature, they cannot
be solved at the level of individual countries. This is why it is
necessary to improve international environmental legislation and
work out such international trade agreements that would facilitate
full payment of ecological and social costs. All the above measures
would ensure long-term economic stability, preservation of natural
capital, higher employment level and welfare.
References
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Interest: Ecological Footprints as an Indicator of Sustainability. London:
Earthscan.
Dicken P. (2008) Global Shift. Los Angeles: Sage.
Dresner S. (2008) The Principles of Sustainability. London: Earthscan.
Meadows D., Randers J., Meadows D. (2008) Limits to Growth: The 30-year
Update. London: Earthscan.
Meadows D. H., Meadows D. L., Randers J. (1992) Beyond the Limits:
Confronting Global Collapse, Envisioning a Sustainable Future. London:
Earthscan.
OECD. (2002) Towards Sustainable Household Consumption. Paris.
United Nations Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development.
(2002) Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August – 4 September 2002.
New York: United Nations.
Wackernagel M., Rees W. (1996) Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human
Impact on the Earth. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers.
WCED – World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) Our
Common Future (The Bruntland Report). Oxford: World Commission on
Environment and Development, Oxford University Press.
EEA. (2005) Household Consumption and the Environment. Accessible:
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Production. Accessible: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/pdf/
FL256_analytical%20report_final.pdf.
Global Footprint Network. Accessible: www.footprintnetwork.org.
ICLEI – International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives. (2004)
Aalborg Commitments. Accessible: www.aalborgplus10.dk/.
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sustainable/.
WWF – World Wildlife Fund. (2002) Living Planet Report 2002.
Accessible: http://globalis.gvu.unu.edu/indicator.cfm?Country=
LV&IndicatorID=99.
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waterunites-ca.org/.
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Māris Kļaviņš, Azamat Azizov, Jānis Zaļoksnis
ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT:
THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN
University of Latvia Press

5 Baznīcas street, Riga, LV-1010, Latvia

Environment Pollution Development The Case of Uzbekistan

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MĀRIS KĻAVIŅŠ,

The book is prepared with the support of Project «Master Program in

Translation by Andra Damberga

Figures prepared by Laura Kļaviņa

Layout by Ieva Tiltiņa

Cover photo: Māris Kļaviņš

4 ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN

Understanding of the environ­ ment, human-nature relations,

8 ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN

2.1. Geographic situation and climate

Figure 2.2. Emblem

Figure 2.3. Geographic

Uzbekistan is unequally divided into two parts: the plains

2. UZBEKISTAN: A COUNTRY WITH HISTORY, PRESENT AND FUTURE 9

10 ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN

half of the year, provoking intensive warming and abrupt changes in

2.2. Natural resources of Uzbekistan1

2. UZBEKISTAN: A COUNTRY WITH HISTORY, PRESENT AND FUTURE 11

Non-renewable Partially renewable Inexhaustible Conditionally

12 ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN

2. UZBEKISTAN: A COUNTRY WITH HISTORY, PRESENT AND FUTURE 13

Figure 2.7. Overgrazed

14 ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN

Figure 2.8. Soil with

2. UZBEKISTAN: A COUNTRY WITH HISTORY, PRESENT AND FUTURE 15

16 ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN

Figure 2.9. Tulipa

Figure 2.10. Bukhara

2. UZBEKISTAN: A COUNTRY WITH HISTORY, PRESENT AND FUTURE 17

18 ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN

2. UZBEKISTAN: A COUNTRY WITH HISTORY, PRESENT AND FUTURE 19

«Water is not a commercial product like

3.1. Hydrological cycle

3. Water resources of Uzbekistan 21

Glaciers and icecaps (78.19%)

Figure 3.1. Distribution The World Ocean (97.57%)

22 ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN

Types of water Volume, km3

Water in the atmosphere

Figure 3.2. Hydrological

The hydrological cycle (Figure 3.2) represents the movement

3. Water resources of Uzbekistan 23

24 ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN

3. Water resources of Uzbekistan 25

3.2. Water resources of Uzbekistan

26 ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN

Total Fresh­water Per Capita

Flow generation: km3 per year

3. Water resources of Uzbekistan 27

Volume of runoff Volume of runoff

Total number of different streams in Uzbekistan is 17 777 and

28 ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN

Kazakhstan Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Turkmenistan

DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATED LAND

Figure 3.6. Trends

3. Water resources of Uzbekistan 29

3.3. River Amu Darya

30 ENVIRONMENT, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF UZBEKISTAN

Figure 3.7. River

Understanding of the environ ment, human-nature relations,

Types of water Volume, km3

The hydrological cycle (Figure 3.2) represents the movement

Total Freshwater Per Capita

Each scientific discipline has its specific object of study. Inas

The layer closest to the Earth’s surface is called troposphere.