Chapter 6

Air Pollution

6.1 COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere refers to the layer of gases that surrounds Earth and is held in place by
Earth's gravitational attraction (gravity). The mix of gases in the atmosphere forms a
complex system organized into layers that together support life on Earth. Although there
are numerous gases, as shown in the table below, the top four gases make up 99.998 % of
the volume of clean dry air (unpolluted air that contain water vapor). Of this dry
composition of the atmosphere nitrogen, by far, is the most common. Nitrogen dilutes
oxygen and prevents rapid or instantaneous burning at the Earth's surface, as oxygen gas is
a necessary reactant of the combustion process. Nitrogen is also needed and used by living
things to make proteins, though as nitrogen gas, N 2, it is unavailable to most living things.
Oxygen is used by all living things to make molecules that are essential for life. It is also
essential for aerobic respiration as well as combustion or burning. Argon is a non-reactive
gas and we use it in light bulbs, in double-pane windows, and to preserve priceless
documents such as the original Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Carbon
dioxide is an essential gas used by plants and other organisms to make sugar (food)
through photosynthesis. This process is essential for other life as well because during
photosynthesis, water molecules are split apart and their oxygen is released back to the
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide also acts as a blanket that prevents the escape of heat into
outer space. The atmosphere is rarely, if ever, completely dry. Water vapor (water in a 'gas'
state) is usually present up to about 4% of the total volume depending on location. In the
Earth's desert regions (30° N/S) when dry winds are blowing, the water vapor contribution
to the composition of the atmosphere will be near zero.

Gas Symbol Content

Nitrogen N2 78.08%
Oxygen O2 20.95%
Argon Ar 0.93% 99.998%
Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.03%
Neon Ne 18.20 parts per million
Helium He 5.20 parts per million
Krypton Kr 1.10 parts per million
Sulfur Dioxide SO2 1.00 parts per million
Methane CH4 2.00 parts per million
Hydrogen H2 0.50 parts per million
Nitrous oxide N2O 0.50 parts per million
Xenon Xe 0.09 parts per million
Ozone O3 0.07 parts per million
 Nitrogen Dioxide NO2 0.02 parts per million
Iodine I2 0.01 parts per million
Carbon monoxide CO Trace
Ammonia NH3 Trace
Table 6.1 Average Composition of clean dry air in the lower atmosphere

Earth's atmosphere is divided into four distinct layers based on thermal

characteristics (temperature changes), chemical composition, movement, and density
(Table 6.1). The troposphere is the lowest layer extending from the surface up to roughly
18 km above the surface depending on the location (varies from as low as 6 km to as high
as 20 km). There is continuous flow and swirling of air constantly through convection
currents redistributing heat and moisture around the globe. This results in the short-lived
and local patterns of temperature and moisture that we call weather. Because gravity holds
most air molecules close to the Earth' s surface, the troposphere is the densest of all layers,
containing about 75% of the total mass of the atmosphere. The density of the gases in this
layer decrease with height so the air becomes thinner. In response, the temperature in the
troposphere also decreases with height. As one climbs higher, the temperature drops from
an average around 17°C (62°F) at sea level to about -51°C (-60°F) at the tropopause, a
sharp boundary at the top of the troposphere that limits mixing between the troposphere
and the upper layers.
The stratosphere is the layer that extends from the tropopause up to about 50 km to
53 km above the Earth's surface depending on location. The proportions of most gases in
this layer is similar to that of the troposphere with two main exceptions: 1) there is almost
no water vapor in the stratosphere and 2) the stratosphere has nearly 1,000 times more
ozone (O3) than the troposphere. With only about 19% of the total mass of the atmosphere,
the density of the stratosphere is significantly lower than the troposphere. However,
temperature in this region increases with height as a result of heat that is produced during
the formation of ozone (more on ozone in section 6.2). This heat is responsible for
temperature increases from an average -51 °C (-60°F) at tropopause to a maximum of
about -15°C (5°F) at the top of the stratosphere. This increase in temperature with height
means warmer air is located above cooler air. This prevents "convection" as there is no
upward vertical movement of the gases. The consequence of this little to no mixing of gases
in the stratosphere makes it relatively calm but also means that once substances such as
pollutants enter this zone, they can remain suspended for many years. The top of the
stratosphere is bound by a boundary known as the stratopause.
Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere which extends to about 85 km above the
Earth's surface. The mesosphere has no ozone molecules and the other gases such as
oxygen and nitrogen Continue to become less dense with height. As a result, not much
ultraviolet and x-ray radiation from the sun is absorbed by molecules in this layer so
temperature decreases with altitude. Both the stratosphere and the mesosphere are
considered the middle atmosphere.
Between about 85 km and 600 km lies the thermosphere. This layer is known as the
upper atmosphere. Unlike the mesosphere, the gases in this layer readily absorb incoming
high energy ultraviolet and x-ray radiation from the sun. Because of this absorption, the
temperature in the thermosphere increases with height and can reach as high as 2,000°C
(3,600° F) near the top depending on solar activity. However, despite the high temperature,
this layer of the atmosphere would still feel very cold to our skin due to the very thin
atmosphere. The high temperature indicates the amount of energy absorbed by molecules
but with so few in this layer, the total number of molecules is not enough to heat our skin.
There's no sharp boundary that marks the end of the atmosphere. Pressure and density
simply continue to decrease with distance until they become indistinguishable from the
near vacuum of outer space.
6.2 OZONE

Ozone (O3) is a molecule in which three atoms of oxygen are bonded together. The
oxygen gas in the air we breathe has two oxygen atoms bonded together (Oz). Ozone is
relatively unstable and releases its third oxygen atom readily so it oxidizes and burns
things more readily than oxygen gas. This characteristic makes ozone in the troposphere
(ground-level ozone) an air pollutant, but in the stratosphere, ozone is essential for
protecting life on Earth. Ozone in the stratosphere is formed when an oxygen molecule
(O2) is broken apart into two separate oxygen atoms (O) by high-energy ultra violet (UV)
solar radiation. Each of the resulting oxygen atoms (O) in turn reacts with an oxygen
molecule (O2) creating ozone (O3). Once produced, ozone can absorb UV radiation
breaking the molecule to regenerate an oxygen molecule and a single oxygen atom. So,
while ozone is continually being replenished, it is also continually being destroyed. If the
rate of ozone creation is equal to the rate of destruction, the total amount will remain the
same. Because there is so much oxygen in our atmosphere, this "ozone-oxygen cycle" is
continuously absorbing UV radiation.

6.2.1 The Ozone Layer

Ozone makes up a very small proportion of the gases in our atmosphere and most of
it is concentrated in a portion of the stratosphere roughly 17-30 km above the surface. This
region, called the ozone layer, acts as a protective shield that protects life on the surface of
the Earth by absorbing most of the harmful portions of the high-energy UV radiation
coming from the sun. UV is subdivided into three types namely UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C. Of
these three types, UV-A is the least energetic and least harmful but can cause some damage
to living cells, resulting in sunburns and skin damage. UV-A is also not absorbed by ozone
in the stratosphere and is therefore transmitted through the atmosphere to the surface of
the Earth. UV-C is the most harmful and most energetic of all UV but is strongly absorbed in
both the thermosphere and the stratosphere and does not make it to the Earth's surface.
UV-C is the one responsible for the splitting of oxygen molecules in the stratosphere that
leads to the formation of ozone. When ozone absorbs UV it regenerates oxygen atoms and
releases heat which warms the upper part of the stratosphere. Since UV-C does not make it
to the Earth's surface, the most harmful form of UV radiation that reaches the surface is UV-
B. However, the amount of UV-B that reaches Earth's surface is significantly reduced
because most of it is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere. Ozone is the only known gas
that absorbs UV-B.
Natural conditions in the stratosphere sustain a dynamic balance between the
creation and destruction of ozone which helps to ensure the continued existence of the
ozone layer. Any disruption of this balance that results in a higher rate of ozone destruction
than ozone creation would result in depletion of ozone. Ozone depletion, consequently,
leads to significant increase in the amount of harmful UV-B radiation that reaches the
Earth's surface and this what we are talking about when we discuss the ozone problem.

6.2.2 The Ozone Hole

The Ozone Hole is not really a "hole" but rather an area where the thickness of the
ozone layer is greatly reduced. This hole is a result of ozone depletion that occurs every
year during the Antarctic spring and was first reported to the public by the British
Antarctic Survey in 1985. The thickness of the ozone layer above the Antarctic continued to
decline while the geographic area covered by the ozone hole continued to increase,
reaching its lowest concentration (thickness) in 1994 and largest geographic area in 2000.
Recent data shows that ozone concentration globally and in the Arctic and Antarctic is no
longer declining.
During the long winter months of darkness over the Antarctic, atmospheric
temperatures drop, creating unique conditions for chemical reactions that are not found
anywhere else in the atmosphere. During this time, the Antarctic air mass is isolated from
the rest of the atmosphere and circulates around the pole in what is known as the polar
vortex. This isolation allows temperatures to drop low enough to create ice crystals at high
altitudes. Ozone, nitric acid, sulfuric acid and other chlorine containing molecules are
absorbed on the surfaces of these ice particles. When the sun rises over the Antarctic in the
southern spring (October), light rapidly releases free chlorine atoms into the stratosphere.
The chlorine atoms react with ozone breaking it down to molecular oxygen and an oxygen
atom. The polar vortex keeps the ozone-depleted air inside the vortex from mixing with the
undepleted air outside the vortex, hence the formation of an ozone hole.

6.2.3 Ozone Depletion

Global ozone concentrations change periodically with regular natural cycles such as
changing seasons, winds, and long-time scale sun variations. Concentrations of ozone in the
atmosphere are measured in parts per billion (ppb). Scientists have been measuring ozone
since the 1920's using ground-based instruments that look skyward. Satellite
measurements of concentrations of atmospheric Ozone began in 1970 and continue today.
Ozone depletion occurs when the rate at which ozone is broken down is greater
than the rate of its creation, interfering with the dynamic balance between creation and
destruction that maintains the ne layer When this happens, the amount of harmful UV-B
radiation that reaches the Earth's surface Increases. Ozone depletion was first identified
over the Antarctic. Scientists suggested that reactions involving man-made chlorine-
containing compounds were responsible for depleting ozone in the stratosphere. This
hypothesis was based mostly on the physical and chemical properties of these compounds
and knowledge about atmospheric conditions.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are man-made compounds made up of chlorine,
fluorine and carbon. These compounds were commonly used as propellants in everyday
products such as shaving cream, hair spray, deodorants, paints and insecticides and as
coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners. CFCs are extremely stable molecules and do
not react with other chemicals in the lower atmosphere, part of the reason why they were
considered a safe choice. Their stability means that they tend to remain in the atmosphere
for a very long time. With the constant movement of air in the lower atmosphere, CFCs
eventually make their way into the stratosphere. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation in the
stratosphere breaks them apart, releasing chlorine atoms. Free chlorine (Cl) atoms then
react with ozone molecules, taking one oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and
leaving an oxygen molecule (O2). The ClO reacts with other atoms freeing up the Cl making
it available to react with another ozone molecule, repeating the cycle over and over
resulting in ozone depletion.
 lf each chlorine atom released from a CFC molecule destroyed only one ozone
molecule, CFCs would pose very little threat to the ozone layer. However, when a chlorine
monoxide molecule encounters a free atom of oxygen, the oxygen atom breaks up the
chlorine monoxide, stealing the oxy- gen atom and releasing the chlorine atom back into
the stratosphere to destroy another ozone molecule. These two reactions happen over and
over again, so that a single atom of chlorine, acting as a catalyst, destroys many molecules
(about 100,000) of ozone. The consequence of stratospheric ozone depletion is increased
levels of UV-B radiation reaching the Earth's surface, posing a threat to human health and
the environment.

6.2.4 The Montreal Protocol

International policy efforts to restrict production of ozone depleting CFCs
culminated in the treaty known as the Montreal Protocol in which signing nations agreed to
cut CFC production in halt by 1998. At least five follow-up agreements since then helped to
deepen the cuts, advanced timetables for compliance, and addressed additional ozone-
depleting substances such as halons, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). Most countries around the world have phased out
production of the substances covered by the agreements and industry has been able to shift
to safer alternative chemicals. As a result, there's evidence that the Antarctic ozone hole
has stopped growing worse, although recovery is not expected anytime soon. Phasing out
CFCS and HCFCs is also beneficial in protecting the earth's climate, as these substances are
also very damaging greenhouse gases.
As part of the United States' commitment to implementing the Montreal Protocol,
the U.S. Congress amended the Clean Air Act, adding provisions for protection of the ozone
layer. Most importantly, the amended Act required the gradual end to the production of
chemicals that deplete the ozone layer. The Clean Air Act amendments passed by Congress
requires the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop and implement
regulations for the responsible management of ozone-depleting substances in the United
States. Under the Clean Air Act, EPA has created several regulatory programs to address
numerous issues, including:
 ending the production of ozone-depleting substances,
 ensuring that refrigerants and halon fire extinguishing agents are recycled properly,
 identifying safe and effective alternatives to ozone-depleting substances,
 banning the release of ozone-depleting refrigerants during the service, maintenance,
and disposal of air conditioners and other refrigeration equipment,
 requiring that manufacturers label products either containing or made with the
most harmful ozone depleting substances.
6.3 OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution refers to the introduction, into the atmosphere, of substances that have
harmful effects on humans, other living organisms, and the environment either as solid
particles, liquid droplets or gases. Air pollution can result from natural processes such as
dust storms, forest fires, and volcanic eruptions, or from human activities such as biomass
burning, vehicular emissions, mining, agriculture, and industrial processes. Improved
technology and government policies have helped reduce most types of outdoor air
pollution in many industrialized countries including the United States, in recent decades.
However, outdoor air quality is still a problem in less industrialized nations, especially in
megacities of rapidly industrializing nations such as China and India.
Outdoor pollutants can come from stationary (point) sources or mobile (nonpoint)
sources. Stationary sources have a fixed location, for example power plant smokestacks,
burning, construction sites, farmlands and surface mines among others. Mobile sources of
air pollutants move from place to place while emitting pollutants. Examples of mobile
sources include vehicles, aircrafts, ships, and trains.
Pollutants are categorized into two major types based on how they originated
namely primary and secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants are those released directly
from the source into the air in a harmful form. The primary pollutants that account for
nearly all air pollution problems are carbon monoxide (58%), volatile organic compounds
(VOCs, 11%), nitrogen oxides (156), sulfur dioxides (15%), and particulate material (3%).
Secondary pollutants are produced through reactions between primary pollutants and
normal atmospheric compounds. For example, ground-level ozone forms over urban areas
through reactions, powered by sunlight, between primary pollutants (Oxides of nitrogen)
and other atmospheric gases such as VOCs.

6.3.1 Criteria Pollutants

Under the Clean Air Act, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes air
quality standards to protect public health and the environment. EPA has set national air
quality standards for six common air pollutants namely: 1) carbon monoxide; 2) ground-
level ozone; 3) nitrogen dioxide; 4) Sulfur dioxide; 5) lead; and 6) particulate matter (also
known as particle pollution). Of the six pollutants, particle pollution and ground-level
ozone are the most widespread health threats. EPA calls these pollutants "criteria" air
pollutants because it regulates them by developing human health-based and/or
environmentally based criteria (science-based guidelines) for setting permissible levels.
The set of limits based on human health is called primary standards. Another set of limits
intended to prevent environmental and property damage is called secondary standards.
1. Carbon Monoxide (CO): is a colorless, odorless gas emitted from combustion
processes, specifically, the incomplete combustion of fuel. Nationally and,
particularly in urban areas, the majority of CO emissions to ambient air come from
mobile sources. CO can cause harmful health effects by reducing oxygen delivery to
the body's organs (like the heart and brain) and tissues. At extremely high levels, CO
can cause death.
2. Ground-level ozone (O3): is a colorless gas with a slightly sweet odor that is not
emitted directly into the air, but is created by the interaction of sunlight, heat, oxides
 of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Ozone is likely to reach
unhealthy levels on hot sunny days in urban environments. Emissions from
industrial facilities and electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and
chemical solvents are some of the major sources of NO x and VOCs.
3. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2): is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as "oxides
of nitrogen, " or "nitrogen oxides (NO)." Other nitrogen oxides include nitrous acid
and nitric acid. NO2 is a yellowish-brown to reddish-brown foul-smelling gas that is
a major contributor to Smog and acid rain. Nitrogen oxides result when atmospheric
nitrogen and oxygen react at the nigh temperatures created by combustion engines.
Most emissions in the U.S. result from combustion in vehicle engines, electrical
utility, and industrial combustion.
4. Sulfur dioxide (SO2): Sulfur dioxide is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known
as "Oxides of sulfur." The largest sources of SO2 emissions are from fossil fuel
combustion at power plants (73%) and other industrial facilities (20%). Smaller
sources of SO2 emissions include industrial processes such as extracting metals
from their ores, and the burning of high sulfur containing fuels by locomotives, large
ships, and non-road equipment.
5. Lead (Pb): is a metal found naturally in the environment as well as in manufactured
products. The major sources of lead emissions have historically been from vehicles
(such as cars and trucks) and industrial sources. As a result of EPA's regulatory
efforts to remove lead from gasoline, emissions of lead from the transportation
sector dramatically declined by 95 percent between 1980 and 1999, and levels of
lead in the air decreased by 94 percent during that time period. The major sources
of lead emissions today are ore and metal processing and piston-engine aircraft
operating on leaded aviation gasoline. Today, the highest levels of lead in air are
usually found near lead smelters.
6. Particulate material (PM), sometimes known simply as "particulates" refers to solid
particles and liquid droplets suspended in the air we breathe. Particulate pollution
is made up of a variety of components, including acids (nitrates and sulfates),
organic chemicals, metals, soil or dust particles, and allergens (pollen and mold
spores). The size of the particles in directly linked to their potential for causing
health problems. Particles that are 10 micrometers in diameter or smaller generally
pass through the throat and nose and enter the lungs. EPA groups these into two
types: "inhalable coarse particles, " with diameters larger than 2.5 micrometers and
smaller than 10 micrometers and "fine particles," with diameters that are 2.5
micrometers and smaller. How small is 2.5 micrometers? Think about a single hair
from your head. The average human hair is about 70 micrometers in diameter -
making it 30 times larger than the largest fine particle. Our respiratory systems are
equipped to filter larger particles out of the air once it is inhaled. However, the lungs
are vulnerable to both coarse particles (PM 10), and fine particles (PM2.5). These can
slip past the respiratory system's natural defenses and get deep into the lungs and
some may even get into the bloodstream. Coarse particles come from road dust
while fine particles come from combustion processes.

6.3.2 Volatile Organic Compounds

 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are carbon-containing chemicals emitted as
gases from natural and human-made sources. Natural sources of VOCs include plants, the
largest source, and bacteria in the guts of termites and ruminant animals. These
compounds are generally oxidized to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. VOCs are of great concern because they are precursors for the formation of
ozone, a secondary air pollutant.
A large number of synthetic organic chemicals such as benzene, toluene,
formaldehyde, viny chloride, chloroform, and phenols are widely used as ingredients in
countless household products. Paints, paint strippers, varnishes, many cleaning,
disinfecting, cosmetic, degreasing, and hobby products all contain VOCs. Fuels are also
made up of organic chemicals. All of these products can release organic compounds while
you are using them, and, to some degree, when they are stored. The ‘new car smell’
characteristic of new cars is from a complex mix of dozens of VOC. Also, concentrations of
many VOCs are consistently higher indoors (up to ten times higher) than outdoors. They
are often held responsible for sick building syndrome, an illness resulting from indoor
pollution in which the specific cause is not identified.

6.3.3 Smog
Smog is a mixture of air pollutants (sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, and
particulates) that often form over urban areas as a result of fossil fuel combustion. The
term was coined from the terms "smoke" and "fog" referring to a brownish haze that
pollutes the air, greatly reducing visibility and making it difficult for some people to
breathe. There are two main types of smog industrial and photochemical smog. Industrial
smog is produced primarily by the burning of fossil fuels which produces carbon dioxide
(from complete combustion), carbon monoxides (from partial combustion), sulfur, and
mercury. The sulfur reacts with other chemicals in the atmosphere producing several
sulfur compounds including sulfur dioxide. These compounds along with particulate
material make up industrial smog. Photochemical smog is formed when sunlight drives
chemical reactions between primary pollutants from automobiles and normal atmospheric
compounds. The product is a mix of over 100 different chemicals with the most abundant
being ground-level ozone.

6.3.4 Toxic pollutants

Toxic air pollutants, also known as hazardous air pollutants, are those pollutants
that are known or suspected to cause cancer or other serious health effects, such as
reproductive effects or birth defects, or adverse environmental effects. Examples of toxic
air pollutants include benzene, which is found in gasoline; perchloroethylene, which is
emitted from some dry-cleaning facilities; methylene chloride, which is used as a solvent
and paint stripper by a number of industries; and others such as dioxin, asbestos, toluene,
and metals such as cadmium, mercury, chromium, and lead compounds.
Most air toxics originate from human-made sources, including mobile sources (e.g.,
cars, trucks, buses) and stationary sources (e.g., factories, refineries, power plants), as well
as indoor sources (e.g., some building materials and cleaning solvents). Some air toxics are
also released from natural sources such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires. Exposure to
air toxics is mainly through breathing but some toxic air pollutants such as mercury can
deposit onto soils or surface waters, where they are taken up by plants and ingested by
animals and are eventually magnified up through the food chain. Like humans, animals may
experience health problems if exposed to sufficiently high quantities of air toxics over time.
6.4 INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

In both developed and developing nations, indoor air pollution poses a greater
health risk than outdoor air pollution. According to the World Health Organization (WHO)
and other agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), indoor air
generally contains higher concentrations of toxic pollutants than outdoor air. Additionally,
people generally spend more time indoors than outdoors, hence, the health effects from
indoor air pollution in workplaces, schools, and homes are far greater than outdoor. Indoor
pollution sources that release gases or particles into the air arc the primary cause of Indoor
air quality problems in homes. Inadequate ventilation can increase indoor pollutant levels
by not bringing in enough outdoor air to dilute emissions from indoor sources and by not
carrying indoor air pollutants out of the home.
Outdoor air enters and leaves a building by infiltration, natural ventilation, and
mechanical ventilation. In infiltration, outdoor air flows into the house through openings,
joints, and cracks in walls, floors, and ceilings, and around windows and doors, In natural
ventilation, air moves through opened windows and doors. Air movement associated with
infiltration and natural ventilation is caused by air temperature differences between
indoors and outdoors and by wind. Finally, there are a number of mechanical ventilation
devices, from outdoor-vented fans that intermittently remove air from a Single room, such
as bathrooms and kitchen, to air handling systems that use fans and duct work to
continuously remove indoor air and distribute filtered and conditioned outdoor air to
strategic points throughout the house. The rate at which outdoor air replaces indoor air is
described as the air exchange rate. When there is little infiltration, natural ventilation, or
mechanical ventilation, the air exchange rate 1s low and pollutant levels can increase. High
temperature and humidity levels can also increase concentrations of some pollutants.
There are many sources of indoor air pollution in any home. These include
combustion sources such as oil, gas, kerosene, coal, wood, and tobacco products; building
materials and furnishings as diverse as deteriorated, asbestos-containing insulation, wet or
damp carpet, and cabinetry or furniture made of certain pressed wood products; products
for household cleaning and maintenance, personal care, or hobbies; central heating and
cooling systems and humidification devices. Pollutants causing indoor air pollution can also
originate from outside sources such as radon, pesticides, and outdoor air pollution. Radon
is a naturally occurring radioactive gas produced from the decay of uranium in rock. If a
building/home is constructed in an area with uranium containing rock, the gas can seep
through the foundations and accumulate in basements. Exposure to radon can cause lung
cancer.
The relative importance of any single source depends on how much of a given
pollutant it emits and how hazardous those emissions arc. In some cases, factors such as
how old the source is and whether it is properly maintained are significant. For example, an
improperly adjusted gas stove can emit significantly more carbon monoxide than one that
iS properly adjusted. Some sources, such as building materials, furnishings, and household
products like air fresheners, release pollutants more or less continuously. Other sources,
related to activities carried out in the home, release pollutants intermittently. These
include smoking, the use of unvented or malfunctioning stoves, furnaces, or space heaters,
the use of solvents in cleaning and hobby activities, the use of paint strippers in
redecorating activities, and the use of cleaning products and pesticides in housekeeping.
High pollutant concentrations can remain in the air for long periods after some of these
activities.
Risks from indoor air pollution differ between less industrialized and industrialized
nations. Indoor pollution has a greater impact in less industrialized nations where many
people use cheaper sources of fuel such as wood, charcoal, and crop waste among others
for cooking and heating, often with little or no ventilation. The most significant indoor
pollutant, therefore, is soot and carbon monoxide. In industrialized nations, the primary
indoor air health risks are cigarette smoke and radon.
6.5 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON HUMAN HEALTH

The World Health Organization (WHO) and other international agencies recognize
air pollution as a major threat to human health. Numerous scientific studies have linked air
pollution to a variety of health problems (Table 6.2) including: aggravation of respiratory
and cardiovascular diseases; decreased lung function; increased frequency and severity of
respiratory symptoms such as difficulty breathing and coughing; increased susceptibility to
respiratory infections; effects on the nervous system, including the brain, such as lQ loss
and impacts on learning, memory, and behavior; cancer; and premature death. Immediate
effects of air pollution may show up after a single exposure or repeated exposures. Other
health effects may show up either years after exposure has occurred or only after long or
repeated periods of exposure
Immediate effects of air pollution include irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat,
headaches, dizziness, and fatigue. Such immediate effects are usually short-term and
treatable. Sometimes the treatment is simply eliminating the person's exposure to the
source of the pollution, if it can be identified. Symptoms of some diseases, including
asthma, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and humidifier fever, may also show up soon after
exposure to some indoor air pollutants.

Pollutant Sources Health Effects

Ground-level Secondary pollutant typically formed Decreases lung function and
Ozone (03) by chemical reaction of volatile causes respiratory symptoms,
organic compounds (VOCs) and NOx such as coughing and shortness
in the presence of sunlight. of breath; aggravates asthma
and other lung diseases leading
to increased medication use,
hospital admissions, emergency
department (ED) Visits, and
premature mortality.
Particulate Emitted or formed through chemical Short-term exposures can
Matter (PM) reactions fuel combustion (e.g., aggravate heart or lung diseases
burning coal, wood, diesel); industrial leading to respiratory
processes; agriculture plowing, field symptoms, increased
burning); and unpaved roads. medication use, hospital
admissions, ED visits, and
premature mortality; long-term
exposures can lead to the
development of heart or lung
discase and premature
mortality.
Lead Smelters (metal refineries) and other Damages the developing
metal industries, combustion of nervous system, resulting in IQ
leaded gasoline in piston engine loss and impacts on learning,
aircraft; waste incinerators; and memory, and behavior in
battery manufacturing. children. Cardiovascular and
 renal effects in adults and early
effects related to anemia.
Oxides of Fuel combustion (e.g, electric utilities, Aggravate lung diseases leading
Nitrogen industrial boilers, and vehicles) and to respiratory symptoms,
(NOx) wood burning hospital admissions, and ED
visits; increased susceptibility to
respiratory infection.
Carbon Fuel combustion (especially vehicles), Reduces the amount of oxygen
Monoxide industrial processes, fires, waste reaching the body's organs and
(CO) combustion, and residential wood tissues; aggravates heart
burning. disease, resulting in chest pain
and other symptoms leading to
hospital admissions and ED
visits.
Sulfur Fuel combustion (especially high- Aggravates asthma and
Dioxide (SO2) sulfur coal) electric utilities and increased respiratory
industrial processes; and natural symptoms. Contributes to
sources such as volcanoes. particle formation with
associated health effects.
Table 6.2: Sources and health effects of criteria pollutants
Source: www.cpa.gov

The likelihood of immediate reactions to air pollutants depends on several factors.

Age and preexisting medical conditions are two important influences. Some sensitive
individuals appear to be at greater risk for air pollution-related health effects, for example,
those with pre-existing heart and lung diseases (e.g, heart failure, ischemic heart disease,
asthma, emphysema, and chronic bronchitis), diabetics, older adults, and children. In other
cases, whether a person reacts to a pollutant depends on individual sensitivity, which
varies tremendously from person to person. Some people can become sensitized to
biological pollutants after repeated exposures, and it appears that some people can become
sensitized to chemical pollutants as well.
6.6 ACID RAIN

Pure rainfall is slightly acidic, pH 5.6, because water reacts with atmospheric carbon
dioxide to produce weak carbonic acid. When higher than normal amounts of nitric and
sulfuric acid occur in the atmosphere, the result is precipitation with a pH below 5.6 which
is referred to as acid rain. Acid rain incudes both wet deposition (rainfall, snow, fog) and
dry deposition (particulates). Acid rain formation result from both natural sources, such as
volcanoes and decaying vegetation, and man-made sources, primarily emissions of sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) resulting from fossil fuel combustion. In the United
States, roughly /s of all SO: and % of all NO% come from electric power generation that
relies on burning fossil fuels, like coal. Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the
atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form various acidic compounds.
The result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. When sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides are released from power plants and other sources, prevailing winds blow
these compounds across state and national borders, sometimes over hundreds of miles.
Regions of greatest acidification tend to be downwind from heavily industrialized source
areas of pollution.
Acid rain is a serious environmental problem that is particularly damaging to lakes,
streams, and forests and the plants and animals that live in these ecosystems, as well as to
infrastructure. Some of the impacts include:
 Leaching of soil nutrients such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium out of
the topsoil, altering soil chemistry and harming plants and soil organisms.
 Acid rain causes the release of substances that are toxic to trees and other
plants, such as aluminum, into the soil. Scientists hypothesize that this
combination of loss of soil nutrients and increase of toxic aluminum may be
one way that acid rain harms trees. Such substances also wash away in the
runoff and are carried into streams, rivers, and lakes.
 Damage to automotive paints and other coatings. The reported damage
typically occurs on horizontal surfaces and appears as irregularly shaped,
permanently etched areas.
 Acidic particles contribute to the corrosion of metals (such as bronze) and
the deterioration of paint and stone (such as marble and limestone). These
effects significantly reduce the societal value of buildings, bridges, cultural
objects (such as statues, monuments, and tombstones).
 Sulfates and nitrates that form in the atmosphere contribute to visibility
impairment, meaning we cannot see as far or as clearly through the air.
Sulfate particles account for 50 to 70 percent of the visibility reduction in the
eastern part of the U.S., affecting our enjoyment of national parks, such as the
Shenandoah and the Great Smoky Mountains.
 6.7 AIR POLLUTION LEGISLATION

ln 1930, 63 people died and 1000 were sickened in Belgium when a phenomenon
referred to as temperature inversion caused pollutants to be trapped near the surface,
leading to a sudden spike in atmospheric sulfur levels. In October 1948, a thick cloud of air
pollution formed above the industrial town of Donora, Pennsylvania. The cloud which
lingered for five days, killed 20 people and caused sickness in 6,000 of the town's 14,000
people. In 1952, the infamous London fog in which acid aerosols trapped in the lower
atmosphere killed 4000 people. Events like these alerted us to the dangers that air
pollution poses to public health.

6.7.1 Clean Air Act

In the United States, several federal and state laws were passed, including the
original Clean Air Act of 1963, which established funding for the study and cleanup of air
pollution. But there was no comprehensive federal response to address air pollution until
Congress passed a much stronger Clean Air Act in 1970. That same year Congress created
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and gave it the primary role in carrying out the
law. Since 1970, EPA has been responsible for a variety of Clean Air Act programs to reduce
air pollution nationwide. The Clean Air Act is a federal law covering the entire country.
However, states, tribes and local governments do a lot of the work to meet the Act's
requirements. For example, representatives from these agencies work with companies to
reduce air pollution. They also review and approve permit applications for industries or
chemical processes.

6.7.2 EPA's Role

EPA's mission is basic health and environmental protection from air pollution for all
Americans. To achieve this mission, EPA implements a variety of programs under the Clean
Air Act that focus on:
 reducing outdoor, or ambient, concentrations of air pollutants that cause smog,
haze, acid rain, and other problems.
 reducing emissions of toxic air pollutants that are known to, or are suspected ot,
causing cancer or other serious health effects; and
 phasing out production and use of chemicals that destroy stratospheric ozone.

Under the Clean Air Act, EPA sets limits on certain air pollutants, including setting limits
on now much can be in the air anywhere in the United States. The Clean Air Act also gives
EPA the authority to limit emissions of air pollutants coming from sources like chemical
plants, utilities, and steel mills. Individual states or tribes may have stronger air pollution
laws, but they may not have weaker pollution limits than those set by EPA. EPA must
approve state, tribal, and local agency plans for reducing air pollution. If a plan does not
meet the necessary requirements, EPA can issue sanctions against the state and, if
necessary, take over enforcing the Clean Air Act in that area. EPA assists state, tribal, and
local agencies by providing research, expert studies, engineering designs, and funding to
Support clean air progress. Since 1970, Congress and the EPA have provided several billion
dollars to the states, local agencies, and tribal nations to accomplish this.
6.7.3 State and Local Governments' Role
It makes sense for state and local air pollution agencies to take the lead in carrying
out the Clean Air Act. They are able to develop solutions for pollution problems that require
special understanding of local industries, geography, housing, and travel patterns, as well
as other factors. State, local, and tribal governments also monitor air quality, inspect
facilities under their jurisdictions and enforce Clean Air Act regulations. States have to
develop State Implementation Plans (SIPs) that outline how each state will control air
pollution under the Clean Air Act. A SIP is a collection of the regulations, programs and
policies that a state will use to clean up polluted areas. The states must involve the public
and industries through hearings and opportunities to comment on the development of each
state plan.

6.7.4 Outcomes of the Clean Air Act

For more than forty years, the Clean Air Act has cut pollution as the U.S. economy
has grown. The combined emissions of the six criteria pollutants have continued to
decrease while population, gross domestic product, energy consumption, and vehicle miles
travelled have all continued to increase. The following is a summary of some of the
accomplishments of the Clean Air Act
 Clean Air Act programs have lowered levels of the six criteria pollutants -
particulates, ozone, lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide - as
well as numerous toxic pollutants.
 From 1970 to 2012, aggregate national emissions of the six common pollutants
alone dropped an average of 72 percent while gross domestic product grew by 219
percent. This progress reflects efforts by state, local and tribal governments; EPA;
private sector companies; environmental groups and others.
 The emissions reductions have led to dramatic improvements in the quality of the
air that we breathe.
 These air quality improvements have enabled many areas of the country to meet
national air quality standards set to protect public health and the environment. For
example, all of the 41 areas that had unhealthy levels of carbon monoxide in 1991
now have levels that meet the health- based national air quality standard. A key
reason is that the motor vehicle fleet is much cleaner because of Clean Air Act
emissions standards for new motor vehicles.
 Airborne lead pollution, a widespread health concern before EPA phased out lead in
motor vehicle gasoline under Clean Air Act authority, now meets national air quality
standards in most areas of the country.