UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO

RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY
Norman Paul M. Deg-aoan, RPm
Paulyn Ann S. Marcos, RPm
 UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH IN
PSYCHOLOGY
Intended Learning Outcome
• Determine and discuss the basic concepts in conducting
research in the field of psychology.
 UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH IN
PSYCHOLOGY
LESSON 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

◈ Nonscientific Approaches in Acquiring Knowledge

◈ Research and Scientific Method
◈ Differences Between Science and Pseudoscience
◈ Differences Between Research and Problem Solving
◈ Research Process
◈ Common Sources of Research Topic
◈ Related Literature
◈ Research Hypothesis
NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH
METHOD OF
TENACITY EMPIRICAL
METHODS
- holding on to
beliefs because - uses observation
they have been or direct sensory
accepted as facts experience to
or because of •NONSCIENTIFIC obtain knowledge.
superstition
APPROACHES
IN ACQUIRING RATIONAL
METHOD OF KNOWLEDGE METHOD
INTUITION
- uses logical
- information is reasoning through
accepted on the logically combined
basis of hunch or METHOD OF assumptions
“gut feeling” AUTHORITY (premise) to form a
conclusion
- a person relies on (argument)
information from
an expert in the
subject area.

- method of faith
 NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH
• RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD
▪ RESEARCH
- a systematic inquiry, varying in technique and method, directed towards the clarification and/or
resolution of problems or question posed by an individual
- utilizes scientific method
▪ SCIENTIFIC METHOD
- approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions and systematically
finding answers through direct and indirect observations
Comparison of the
Formation of Creation of a Data Collection
Observation Collected Data to
Hypothesis Testable Prediction and Evaluation the Hypothesis
- identifying other - applying the
- observations are factors (variables) hypothesis to a
commonly generalized associated with the specific, observable, - evaluating the
through inductive observation real-world situation prediction using direct
- the data may
reasoning that uses a observation
support, refute, or
small set of - possible explanation - deductive reasoning:
refine the hypothesis
observations as basis for the observation uses a general - actual research or
for the formation of a which describes the statement to conclude data collection
general statement relationship among about specific
variables examples
 NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH
• RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD
▪ OTHER ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Science is
Empirical

Science is Science is
Public Objective
 NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH
• DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE
SCIENCE PSEUDOSCIENCE
- includes testable and refutable theory - negative results are discarded or
Theoretical or hypothesis wherein negative results explained without altering the original
Foundation are acknowledged and accepted theory

- objective and unbiased evaluation - subjective evidence (e.g., testimonials,

Objectivity vs.
anecdotes)
Subjectivity

- able to adapt to new evidence through - remains stagnant as it ignores non

continuous testing supporting evidence and treats criticism as
Adaptability
personal attack

- grounded in past science and - creates new disciplines and techniques

Theoretical established theories that are unconnected to established
Basis theories and empirical evidence
 NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH
• DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RESEARCH AND PROBLEM SOLVING

RESEARCH PROBLEM SOLVING

➢ there may not be a problem, only interest in ➢ there is always a problem to be solved
answering a question or survey
➢ rigorous and broad ➢ less rigorous and less broad.

➢ the research problem is not necessarily ➢ the problem has to be specifically defined and
specifically defined definitely identified
➢ intended to solve some kind of problem ➢ does not always involve research

➢ conducted to make a contribution to general ➢ intended to solve a problem

knowledge
➢ concerned with broad problems, recurrent ➢ concerned with a specific problem
phenomena and wide application through
generalization
 NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

• RESEARCH PROCESS

ANALYTICAL
- topic/problem
DESIGN PHASE
PHASE - communication
identification - data gathering
and utilization of
and collection - preparing and
- planning phase the results
- literature review assessing the data
- observations,
- research plan - research
- objective framing interviews, surveys - thematic maps,
formulation Manuscript
transcripts,
statistical analyses
- detailed
CONCEPTUALIZATION EMPIRICAL DESSIMINATION
Procedure/s
PHASE PHASE PHASE
 NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

• RESEARCH PROCESS (Gravetter & Forzano, 2018)

1. Find a Research Idea:
Select a Topic and Search the Literature to
Find an Unanswered Question

10. Refine/Reformulate
8. Evaluate the Data 9. Report the Results 2. Form a Hypothesis
Your Research Idea

3. Determine How You

7. Conduct the Study Will Define and
Measure Your Variables

4. Identify the Participants or Subjects for the

6. Select a Research 5. Select a Research
Study, Decide How They Will Be Selected, and Plan
Design Strategy
for Their Ethical Treatment
NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH
• COMMON SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPIC
Personal Interests and Curiosities

Casual Observation

Reports of Others’ Observation

Practical Problems or Questions

Behavioral Theories
 NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH
• RELATED LITERATURE
SOURCES PURPOSE

➢ Primary Source ➢ Goals

- firsthand report of observations or results - gain a general familiarity with the current
written by individual/s who conducted the research in your specific area of interest
research and made the observations - find a small set of research studies that will
- typically published in scientific journals serve as the basis for your own research idea

› examples: empirical journal articles, theses, ➢ identify a knowledge gap

dissertations, conference presentations
➢ provides introductory elements that should be
➢ Secondary Source logically organized to support and justify the
- description or summary of another person’s purpose of the study
work

› examples: books and textbooks, review

articles or meta-analyses, introductory section
of research reports, newspaper and magazine
articles
NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

POSITIVE

- positive
LOGICAL
statement about
the existence of
something
• RESEARCH
HYPOTHESIS
TESTABLE REFUTABLE

- possibility to - possibility to
be observed obtain results
and/or contrary to the
measured hypotheses
 UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH IN
PSYCHOLOGY
LESSON 2: DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES

◈ Variables
◈ Types of Quantitative Variables
◈ Constructs and Operational Definition
◈ Validity of Measurement and Reliability of Measurement
◈ Relationship Between Validity and Reliability
 DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
• VARIABLES
- characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals
- anything that has a quantity or quality that varies
- research aims to explain variance which pertains to the difference that occurs naturally in the world or
as a result of manipulation

▪ NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ▪ EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

➢ Descriptive Studies INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

- variables are not manipulated, rather, they VARIABLE (IV) VARIABLE (DV)
are observed as they naturally occur and - presumed effect
associations between them are studied - presumed cause - assumes the
- all variables are considered to be dependent - variable that is change/s brought
variables since they are studied in relation to manipulated by about by the
other variables the researcher independent
- commonly variable
› example: how diabetes is related to a referred to as the - commonly
person’s genetic heritage X variable referred to as the
Y variable
 DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
• VARIABLES
▪ EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

› example: EXTRANEOUS OR ERRONEOUS VARIABLES

INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE (IV) - variables that are not intentionally measured but may
- effects of classical music influence the outcome of the experiment
to reading ability
➢ Confounding Variables
- a type of extraneous variable which affects variables
- effects of nutrition to DEPENDENT that are not spuriously related
reading ability VARIABLE (DV) - may lead to the assumption that the independent
variable affects the dependent variable when in reality, a
third variable is accountable for the relationship

› example:
Age (Confounding Variable)

Activity Level (IV) Weight Gain (DV)

 DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
• TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES
▪ DISCRETE VARIABLES ▪ CONTINUOUS VARIABLES

- the values on a given set of data are distinct - the values on a given set of data can take on
and separate any value within a finite or infinite interval

- characterized by gaps or interruptions in the - assumes any value within a specified interval
values that it can assume of values assumed by the variable

- countable - infinite

- nothing in between - always something in between

› examples: › examples:
number of languages, height
number of books in a shelf length
number of people in a family speed
 DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
• CONSTRUCTS AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
- most variable in quantitative research are hypothetical entities known as

▪ CONSTRUCTS (hypothetical constructs)

- attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory

- can be influenced by external stimuli and, in turn, can influence external behaviors

External Stimuli Construct External Behavior

▪ THEORY
- in behavioral sciences, these are set of statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular
behavior
- organizes and unifies different observations of the behavior and its relationship with other
variables which may generate predictions about the behavior
 DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
• CONSTRUCTS AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
▪ OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

- procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable that cannot be observed or directly
measured
- specifies a measurement procedure (set of operations) for measuring an external, observable
behavior and uses the resulting measurements as a definition and a measurement of the
hypothetical construct

› example: definition and measurement of IQ

- how the variable or construct is used in the research which should be based from previous
studies or theories

- limitations:
(1) important components of a construct may be left out
(2) often include “extra” components that are not part of the construct being measured
 DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
• VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
▪ CONSISTENCY OF A RELATIONSHIP

- validity and reliability of measurements are often measured through the demonstration of the
consistency of relationship between two different measures

- the set of scores is presented in a scatter plot which depict the pair of scores as a single point
with the horizontal position being determined by the first score and the vertical position being
determined by the second score
 DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
• VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
▪ CONSISTENCY OF A RELATIONSHIP

DIFFERENT FORMS OF RELATIONSHIP

POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP NO CONSISTENT RELATIONSHIP

- when the value of one variable is increased, the

value of another variable increases

- the measures change in the same direction

› example: as height increases, so does weight

NEGATIVE RELATIONSHIP

- when a variable is increased, the value of another

variable decreases

- the measures change in the opposite direction

› example: as exercise are introduced (increased),

weight decreases
 DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
• VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
▪ VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT
- degree to which the measurement process measures the variable that it claims to measure
FACE CONTENT CONTENT VALIDITY CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
VALIDITY VALIDITY
- correlation between the scores of - existing psychological theory or
the test being validated (predictor) previous studies which can support
- extent to which the test is a and the criterion what the test items are measuring
representative of a body of PREDICTIVE CONCURRENT CONVERGENT DIVERGENT
content consisting of topics VALIDITY VALIDITY VALIDITY VALIDITY
- simplest and and processes
- consistency
least scientific
between two
definition - done through inspection of
different
items by a panel of experts
procedures for
- a measurement
measuring the - strong
procedure - construct - scores obtained - little or no
same variable relationship
superficially underrepresentation: failure from a measure relationship
between the scores
appears to to capture important accurately predict between the
- scores from a from two methods
measure what it components of a construct behavior measurements of
new measure are measuring the
claims to according to a two different
related to scores same construct
measure - construct-irrelevant theory constructs
obtained from
variance: scores are
an established
influenced by factors
measure of
irrelevant to the construct
the same variable
 DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
• VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
▪ RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
- stability or consistency of the measurement

- an instrument should produce identical (or nearly identical) results when it is used repeatedly to
measure the same individual under the same conditions

- based on the assumption that the variable being measured is stable or constant

- classical test theory assumes that each person has a true score that would be obtained if there were no
errors in measurement

- the procedure for measurement of variables introduces an error:

Measured Score = True Score + Error or Error = Observed Score – True Score

- tests that are relatively free of error are considered to be reliable

 DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
• VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
▪ RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO
CONSITENCY INCONSISTENCY
- stable attributes of the individual which the - characteristics of the individual, test, or situation
examiner is trying to measure which have nothing to do with the attribute being
measured but may affect test scores

SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERROR

ITEM TEST TEST OBSERVER ENVIRONMENTAL PARTICIPANT

SELECTION ADMINISTRATION SCORING ERROR CHANGES CHANGES
 DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
• VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
▪ RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
SUCCESSIVE SIMULTANEOUS INTERNAL
MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT CONSISTENCY
TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY PARALLEL FORMS INTER-RATER RELIABILITY SPLIT-HALF RELIABILITY
- comparing the scores from - alternative versions of the - degree of agreement - obtained by
two successive measurements measuring instrument are used between two observers (1) splitting the
of the same individuals and for the two measurements items on a questionnaire in
who simultaneously record
calculating a correlation half;
between the two sets of scores - different versions of the test
measurements of the (2) computing a separate
yield almost the same scores behavior score for each half, and then
- time-sampling reliability (3) calculating the degree of
- sampling reliability or consistency between the two
- a reliability coefficient from 0 alternate form reliability scores
(no reliability) to 1 (perfect
reliability) is obtained - different aspects of the test - how well the test components
should be equal (e.g., number contribute to the construct that
- error variance: fluctuation of of items, content, level of is being measured
performance from one test difficulty)
session to another - can be used for any type of
- limitations: test
- limitations: (1) rigorous and
(1) Carryover Effect burdensome
(2) Practice Effect
 DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
• VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
▪ RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
METHOD MEASURE/COEFFICIENT PROCEDURE LIMITATIONS/PROBLEMS
TEST-RETEST - stability - administer test twice with time interval - memory effect
in between - practice effect
- change over time

ALTERNATE - equivalence - create two forms with equal difficulty - difficulty in creating equal
FORMS and discrimination halves
- may reflect change over
time

INTER-RATER - consistency of rating - collect responses by asking two or more - used for free response
raters to independently rate the responses

SPLIT-HALF - internal consistency - (1) create a test and divide it into - uses shorter forms
equivalent halves; use Spearman-Brown - only good if traits are
for odd and even scheme unidimensional
- (2) create a test; score and apply Kuder-
Richardson formula
 DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
• RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
- partially related and partially independent

- reliability is a prerequisite for validity; a

measurement procedure cannot be valid unless
it is reliable

- it is not necessary for a measurement to be

valid for it to be reliable

- an established standards for measurement

units may lead to the accuracy for a
measurement process

› example: inch, liter, pound, second

 UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH IN
PSYCHOLOGY
LESSON 3: PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
◈ Ethical Concerns Throughout the Research Process
◈ Ethical Concerns and Human Participants
◈ American Psychological Association Guidelines
◈ Ethical Issues and Scientific Integrity
◈ Populations and Sample
◈ Sampling and Sample Size
◈ Sampling Techniques
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• ETHICAL CONCERNS THROUGHOUT THE RESEARCH PROCESS
▪ RESEARCH ETHICS
- the responsibility of the researchers to be honest and respectful to individuals who are and will be
involved in the research process and the reports of the results of the study
- rules of conduct when in carrying out a research
- governed by a set of ethical guidelines that assists in making proper decisions and actions
(i.e., American Psychological Association and British Psychological Society)

➢ Basic categories of ethical responsibility:

(1) responsibility to ensure the welfare and dignity of the individuals
(2) responsibility to ensure that public reports are accurate and honest

Ethical Principles Dictate:

Data
Measurement Participant Research Research Data Dissemination
Gathering
Techniques Selection Strategies Design Analysis of Results
Procedure
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• ETHICAL CONCERNS AND HUMAN PARTICIPANTS

▪ HISTORICAL
HIGHLIGHTS - until the end of
WWII, researchers
established their own
ethical standards and
safeguards for huma - major impetus for a
n participants in their shift from
research individualized ethics
to a more formal ➢ Nuremberg Code
guidelines: brutal (Nuremberg Trials,
experiments in Nazi 1947)
concentration camps - ten guidelines for
ethical treatment of
human participants
PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• ETHICAL CONCERNS AND HUMAN PARTICIPANTS
- examples of research with unethical treatment of participants (after Nuremberg Trial):
(1) in 1963, unsuspecting patients have been injected with liver cancer cells
(2) Tuskegee Study – 400 men had been left to suffer with syphilis long after a cure was available
(3) Milgram’s Obedience Study

- note:
(1) small percentage of research being conducted
(2) shaped the guidelines for research ethics

Late 1960s 1974 1979

- U.S. Surgeon General - National Research Act - The Belmont Report:
required all institutions to (National Commission for Ethical Principles and
review proposed research the Protection of Human Guidelines for the
to safeguard human Subjects of Biomedical and Protection of Human
participants Behavioral Research) Subjects of Research
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• ETHICAL CONCERNS AND HUMAN PARTICIPANTS
Belmont Report:

Principle of
Respect for
Persons
(Autonomy)

- consent

Principle of
Principle of Justice
Beneficence
- nonexploitative
selection and
- benefits over risks
treatment
procedures
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION GUIDELINES
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION GUIDELINES
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION GUIDELINES
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION GUIDELINES
▪ NO HARM (PROTECTION OF PARTICIPANTS)
- the researcher is obligated to protect the participant from physical or psychological harm
- identify and minimize risks or whenever necessary, the risk of harm must be justified (i.e., scientific
benefits outweigh temporary harm or greater harm is likely to occur unless some minor risk is accepted)
- participants must be informed of potential risks
- psychological harm is more common during and after the study; hence, the researcher should:
(1) explain what will be done and why
(2) provide a complete explanation and justification for the research after the study is completed
- researcher must monitor the well-being of the participants and halt the study at any sign of trouble
› example: Zimbardo’s Prison/Guard Experiment

o Clinical Equipoise
- in certain studies, participants are randomly assigned to different treatment groups for comparison; if
clinician knows that that one of the treatment conditions are inferior to others, then the participants are
denied the best possible treatment and ethical principle of no harm is violated
- compare equally preferred treatments:
a. there is honest uncertainty about which treatment is best
b. there is honest professional disagreement among experts concerning which treatment is best
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION GUIDELINES
▪ INFORMED CONSENT
- human participants should be given complete information about the research and their roles in it
before agreeing to participate
- components:

(1) information (2) understanding

- inform participants what will be - assent form (special population)

done in the study but do not and consent form (guardian) (3) voluntary
explain why participation
- questions must be answered in a
- inform participants of potential manner that the participants would
risks be able to understand

- most studies provide consent form

 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION GUIDELINES
▪ INFORMED CONSENT
o Components of Informed Consent Forms
Sections of the Form Purpose and Contents
Overview - goals of the study; why is the study being conducted; who is responsible for the study and its execution
Description of - clarification of the experimental conditions, assessment procedures, and requirements of the participants
Procedures
Risks/Inconveniences - statement of any physical and psychological risks; inconveniences and demands to be placed on the participants
- what the participants can reasonably hope to gain from participation (psychological, physical, and monetary
Benefits
benefits)
Costs/Economic - charges to the participants (e.g., in treatment) and payment (e.g., for participation or completing various forms)
Considerations
- assurance that the information is confidential and will only be seen by people who need to do so for the purposes
Confidentiality of research; procedures to assure confidentiality; caveats are included here if it is possible that sensitive information
(e.g., psychiatric information, criminal activity) can be subpoenaed
Alternative Treatments - in an intervention study, alternatives available to the client before or during participation are outlined
- statement that the participant is willing to participate and can decline participation now or later without penalty of
Voluntary Participation
any kind
Questions and Further - statement that the participant is encouraged to ask questions at any time and can contact one or more individuals
Information (listed by name and phone number) who are available for such questions
Signature Lines - place for the participant and the experimenter to sign
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION GUIDELINES
▪ DECEPTION AND DEBRIEFING
➢ Deception
- researcher purposefully withholds information or misleads participants with regards to information about the
study
- forms:
(1) PASSIVE DECEPTION
(2) ACTIVE DECEPTION (COMMISSION)
(OMISSION)
- presenting of misinformation about the study to participants
- withholding or omitting of
- most common form: misleading participants about the specific purpose
information
of the study
- the researcher intentionally
- (a) state an explicit lie about the study, (b) give false information about
does not tell participants some
stimulus materials, (c) give false feedback about a participant’s
information about the study
performance, or (d) use confederates to create a false environment

- informed consent is compromised; the researcher has a special responsibility of safeguarding the participants:
(1) The deception must be justified in terms of some significant benefit that outweighs the risk to the
participants. The researcher must consider all alternatives to deception and must justify the rejection of any
alternative procedures.
(2) The researcher cannot conceal from the prospective participants information about research that is
expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional distress.
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION GUIDELINES
▪ DECEPTION AND DEBRIEFING
- informed consent is compromised; the researcher has a special responsibility of safeguarding the participants:
(3) The researcher must debrief the participants by providing a complete explanation as soon as possible
after participation is completed.
- debriefing: a post-experimental explanation of the purpose of a study that is given to a participant
- purposes:
(a) conveying what (b) counteracting or (c) conveying the (d) explaining the
(e) answering any
the study was really minimizing any educational nature of and
questions the
all about, if negative effects of objective of the justification for any
participant has
deception was used the study research deception used

- things that influence its effectivity:

(b) nature of the deception (d) time interval between the end of the
(a) participants’ (c) sincerity of
(debriefing is less effective study and the delivery of the debriefing
suspicions the experimenter
with active deception) (the sooner the better)

- in some situations, the research design may permit the researcher to inform participants that deception may
be involved and ask the participants for consent to be deceived (i.e., drug research through placebo)
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION GUIDELINES
▪ CONFIDENTIALITY AND ANONIMITY
- collected information can be categorized as:
attitudes and measures of demographic
opinions performance characteristics

➢ CONFIDENTIALITY ➢ ANONIMITY
- practice of keeping strictly secret and private the information or - practice of ensuring that an individual’s
measurements obtained from an individual during a research study name is not directly associated with the
- benefits: Information or measurements obtained from
(1) participants are protected from embarrassment or emotional stress that individual either during the course of the
from public exposure study or in the written report of the research
(2) researchers are more likely to obtain willing and honest participants results

- strategies to ensure confidentiality of data:

(2) researchers use a coding system

(1) no names or other identification
to keep track of which participant
appears on data records
names go with which sets of data
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• ETHICAL ISSUES AND SCIENTIFIC INTERGRITY
▪ FRAUD
➢ ERROR ➢ FRAUD
- honest mistake that occurs in the research process - explicit effort to falsify or misrepresent data
- check and re-check the data to minimize mistakes - fabrication and/or changes made in the data to
support the hypothesis

➢ Reasons for Committing Fraud:

(2) obtain significant

(1) competitive nature of (3) need for success and
findings for publication and
an academic career admiration
research grants

➢ Safeguards against Fraud:

Replication Peer Review

- repetition of a research - takes place when a Data verification through the
study using the same basic researcher submits a research sharing of research data
procedures used in the original article for publication
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• ETHICAL ISSUES AND SCIENTIFIC INTERGRITY
▪ PLAGIARISM
- unethical representation of someone else’s ideas or words as one’s own
- reference citations must be included
- guidelines to prevent plagiarism:
(3) identify any
direct quotes by . (4) be careful
(1) take (2) identify the (6) if in doubt
quotation marks about para- (5) include a
complete notes, source of any about whether a
at the beginning phrasing; use one’s complete list of
including ideas, words, or citation is
and end of the own words references at the
complete citation information that necessary, cite the
quotes, and instead, or use end of the paper
of the source are not one’s own source
indicate where you direct quotes
got them

- for direct quotations:

(1) direct quotes are used very infrequently; they should be used only when it is absolutely necessary;
use of extensive quoting in a paper constitutes lazy writing
(2) when paraphrasing or directly quoting, always include citations as a form of credit
(3) paraphrasing entails rewording the meaning or content, not simply repeating it
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• POPULATIONS AND SAMPLE
▪ POPULATION ▪ SAMPLE
- entire set of individuals of interest to a - set of individuals selected from a population
researcher - usually intended to represent the population
- results are generalized to a population
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• POPULATIONS AND SAMPLE
▪ TARGET POPULATION ▪ ACCESSIBLE POPULATION
- group defined by the researcher’s specific - portion of target population consisting of
interests individuals who are accessible to be recruited as
- typically share one characteristic participants
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• POPULATIONS AND SAMPLE
REPRESENTATIVE
SAMPLE
REPRESENTATIVENESS
- sample with the same
- extent to which the characteristics as the
characteristics of the sample population
accurately reflect the
characteristics of the - generalizability may be
population limited by the specific
characteristics of the
▪ REPRESENTATIVE accessible population
SAMPLES SELECTION BIAS/
BIASED SAMPLE SAMPLING BIAS

- sample with different - participants are selected in a

characteristics from those of manner that increases the
the population probability of obtaining a
biased sample
- may occur by chance or
through biased sampling - sampling procedure favors
the selection of some
individuals over others
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• SAMPLING AND SAMPLE SIZE
▪ SAMPLE SIZE
- general guidelines in choosing a sample size:

(1) law of large numbers

(2) research ethics
- the larger the sample size, the more
- if a sample is too large, then it is
likely it is that values obtained from the
unnecessarily using extra subjects or
sample are similar to the actual values of
participants
the population
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• SAMPLING TECHNIQUES (SAMPLING METHODS/SAMPLING PROCEDURES)
▪ PROBABILITY SAMPLING ▪ NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING
(1) odds of selecting a particular individual are (1) odds of selecting a particular individual are not
known and can be calculated known due to the population size

(2) each individual from the population has a (2) individual probabilities cannot be known; no
specifiable probability (equal chance) of equal chances
selection

(3) random process or random selection: a (3) increased chances for sampling bias and thus,
process that produces an unpredictable outcome biased sample
from a set of possible outcomes wherein each
possible outcome is equally likely to occur
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• SAMPLING TECHNIQUES (SAMPLING METHODS/SAMPLING PROCEDURES)
▪ PROBABILITY SAMPLING
SIMPLE RANDOM SYSTEMATIC STRATIFIED RANDOM CLUSTER
SAMPLING SAMPLING SAMPLING SAMPLING
- most basic
- useful when population is divided
- each individual has an equal
into subgroups/strata
chance of being selected
- each individual is independent - useful when individuals are
- each of the different subgroups
of others - begins by listing all is adequately represented
clustered in pre-existing
individuals and randomly groups
- process: picking a starting point - identify specific subgroups;
(1) define the population - random selection of groups
select equal-sized random
(2) list all the members - uses the kth interval formula samples using the steps from
(3) use a random process
K=N/n simple random sampling; combine - advantages:
K = interval width subgroup samples (1) relatively quick and easy
- principal methods:
(1) sampling with replacement N = population (2) measurement of
N = sample size - distorted picture of the Individuals can be done in
- selected individual is recorded
population as certain subgroups groups
as a sample then returned for
- less random than simple may be underrepresented
the next selection
- probability is constant random sampling but produces - disadvantages:
- Proportionate Stratified
(2) sampling without replacement higher representativeness (1) independence of
Random Sampling
- selected individual is recorded
- the composition of sample
individual scores
and is removed from the next
matches the composition of the
selection
population
- probability changes
 PARTICIPANT SELECTION AND ETHICAL ISSUES
• SAMPLING TECHNIQUES (SAMPLING METHODS/SAMPLING PROCEDURES)
▪ NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING
CONVENIENCE SNOWBALL PURPOSIVE QUOTA
SAMPLING SAMPLING SAMPLING SAMPLING

- researchers use as participants

those individuals who are easy
to get
- useful when population is
- referral system divided into subgroups/strata
- selection based on availability
- judgmental, selective or
and willingness to respond
- initial sample members are subjective sampling - subgroups/strata are usually
asked to refer other individuals based on variables that are
- weak due to limited
who meet the criteria - relies on the judgment of the relevant to the study
knowledge about respondents
researcher in selecting
and lack of randomization
- people who share the same participants - may also use proportionate
characteristics know each other stratified random sampling to
- little control over
- includes the use of a set of ensure that the composition of
representativeness; strong
- useful for participants who criteria the sample matches the
possibility of bias
are hard to find composition of the population
- easier, less expensive, more
timely