Quantum dots (QDs) in biosensing

Quantum dots possess a variety of optical and chemical properties that make them an excellent
candidate for sensing applications. QDs have recently been used as an appropriate carrier in
biosensors for the detection of a wide range of biomarker, from small molecules to proteins
and nucleic acids. Due to their unique properties, QDs have attracted a lot of attention in the
biosensing area. Many biosensing systems have used QDs to improve their sensitivity, rapidity
and reliability of the biodetecting analysis [1].

A QD-based biosensor coupled with microfluidic devices is reported to be used as an efficient

and adaptable diagnostic tool in the case of a pandemic. Specifically, there is a crucial need to
have reliable and quick detection systems for COVID-19 virus [2]. Therefore, the magnetic
GQDs-based probe developed by Şahin and his co-workers, exhibits ultra-high sensitivity in the
detection of SARS-CoV-2, with a detection limit of 248 particles mL‒1, due to its substantial
magnetic relaxivity. Meanwhile, the ULF NMR system has a detection time of only 2 minutes,
which can significantly enhance detection efficiency. Thus, the magnetic GQDs-based MRSw
combined with ULF NMR can detect SARS-CoV-2 quickly, safely, and precisely. [3]. Ir NRs@CdS
QDs were used as a matrix to immobilize enzymes to develop an ECL ratio biosensor for
detecting organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) [4].

Acrylamide (AM), a possible carcinogen produced during the thermal processing of food, has
irreversible impacts on human health. To detect AM in food products, a simple fluorescent
biosensor based on single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and carbon quantum dots (CQDs) was
designed by Wei et al. In the presence of AM, ssDNA was preferentially connected to AM via
hydrogen bonding, and the degree of fluorescence reduction recorded was lower than in the
absence of AM. Results obtained under ideal conditions showed that the sensing approach for
detecting AM had a low detection limit of 2.41×10⁻⁸ M in the standard solution, and a linear
relationship ranging from 5×10⁻³ to 1×10⁻⁷ M was obtained with a determination coefficient
(R²) of 0.9895 [5].
A label-free multiplexed electrochemical biosensor based on gold nanoparticles/graphene
quantum dots/graphene oxide (AuNPs/GQDs/GO) modified three-array screen-printed carbon
electrode (3SPCE) was successfully developed for the first time by Pothipor and his team, to
detect miRNA-21, miRNA-155, and miRNA-210 biological markers. Their developed
AuNPs/GQDs/GO-based biosensor shows outstanding performances of simultaneous miRNAs
sensing. It provide a linear dynamic range of 0.001 to 1000 pM, with ultrasensitive low
detection limits of 0.04, 0.33, and 0.28 fM for miRNA-21, miRNA-155, and miRNA-210
detection, respectively. It also showed good selectivity and efficiency in the detection of
miRNAs in human serum samples. This multiplex label-free miRNA biosensor offers huge
potential for breast cancer detection [6].

Kamaci et al. designed a novel and efficient ZnO quantum dots-based fluorescent sensor for
the detection of cysteine in various fluids such as bovine serum albumin and tap water. Their
designed fluorescent sensor was extremely selective and sensitive in response to cysteine
detection. Their proposed ZnO QDs-based fluorescent biosensor was shown to have a detection
limit of 0.642 μM and a linear range of 0.1–600 μM, respectively [7].

Rhizomania is the world's most damaging sugar beet disease, caused by the Beet necrotic
yellow vein virus (BNYVV). Polymyxa betae (Keskin) is the only sole known BNYVV vector for
virus transmission between plants [8]. Thus, Safarpour et al. developed a quantum dots FRET-
based biosensor for the efficient detection of Polymyxa betae in sugar beet. The proposed
quantum dots FRET-based biosensor showed 100% sensitivity and specificity, for the detection
of plant pathogenic fungus such as Polymyxa betae vector [9].

Dopamine (DA) is a naturally occurring catecholamine neurotransmitter that plays a role in a

number of biological functions, including the central nervous, renal, cardiovascular, and
hormonal systems [10]. Severe abnormalities or low levels of DA are signs of a variety of
neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease, senile dementia, HIV infection, and
schizophrenia. Therefore, precise and rapid DA detection is essential for the diagnosis and
monitoring of a wide range of disorders [11]. Thus, a novel sensitive nano-biosensor based on
thioglycolic acid (TGA)-a capped cadmium telluride (CdTe) quantum dot (QDs) was reported for
the sensitive and specific detection of DA. The designed QDs-based biosensor shows a linear
working range of 0.5–10 μM, with a detection limit of 0.35 μM. The proposed biosensor had a
maximum recovery of 97% when used to detect tiny amounts of DA in human blood plasma
samples [12]. This approach of TGA-capped CdTe QDs provides a new perspective on
determining DA in low-DA biological fluids.

Witches' broom disease (WBDL), caused by Candidatus Phytoplasma aurantifolia, is the most
serious disease of lime trees in Oman, the United Arab Emirates, and Iran [13]. Therefore, a fast
and rapid detection tool was required for Phytoplasma detection in lime-affected trees. Thus,
Rad et al. [14] constructed a quantum dot (QD)-based nano-biosensor that is sensitive enough
to detect Phytoplasma in infected trees. Their designed quantum dot (QD)-based nano-
biosensor for Phytoplasma was shown to have a high sensitivity and specificity of 100%, with a
detection limit of 5 ca. P. aurantifolia/μl.

Food allergies are becoming a serious public health and food safety concern, affecting an
estimated 3% of adults and 6% to 8% of children. Hence, there is an immediate need for
an accurate, rapid, and sensitive detection tool to monitor food allergens in food products [15].
Therefore, Weng et al. designed a microfluidic system with a quantum dots (Qdots) aptamer
functionalized graphene oxide (GO) nano-biosensor for the rapid detection of food allergen in
food products [16]. Their design tool was simple, quick, and sensitive, with a high level of
sensitivity and selectivity for food allergens.

Vitamin B12 is an important nutrient for human health since it helps in the prevention of
neurological disorders, birth defects, chronic diseases, and keeping brain healthy [17]. It also
plays a role in DNA synthesis, nervous system function, and red blood cell development, among
other biological functions [18]. A person, lack or insufficient Vitamin B-12 may get fatigue,
weakness, constipation, balance issues, mental fogginess, depression, cognitive impairments,
and other symptoms [19]. Therefore, an accurate, simple, sensitive, and rapid detection
approach is required to measure vitamin B-12 concentrations in the cell system. Thus, Wang
and his co-workers [20] developed a low-cost and simple system for synthesising highly
fluorescent biomimetic carbon quantum dots (BCQDs), by pyrolysis of cytidine diphosphate
choline (CDPC) and ethylenediamine. The BCQDs with a strong emission at wavelength 450 nm
displays a high sensitivity and selectivity for vitamin B12 detection. In their proposed approach,
the detection limit (DL) for vitamin B-12 was shown to be as low as 81 nM. Imaging studies with
human cervical cancer cells (HeLa) of the novel method showed that BCQDs could be used as an
excellent fluorescent sensing probe for label-free sensitive and selective detection of vitamin
B12 in biological samples due to their low toxicity and high biocompatibility.

The presence of high amounts of Interleukin-6 (IL-6) protein in the blood has been linked to
variety of pathological inflammation. Hence, Özcan and his team [21] developed a new
molecularly imprinted biosensor for IL-6 protein detection based on graphene quantum dots
(GQDs)/functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (f-MWCNTs) composite to prevent the
wide range of pathogenic inflammation induced by IL-6.

(1) Altintas, Z., Davis, F., & Scheller, F. W. (2017). Applications of quantum dots in
biosensors and diagnostics. Biosens. Nanotechnol. Appl. Health Care Diagn, 3, 185-199.
(2) Şahin, S., Ünlü, C., & Trabzon, L. (2021). Affinity biosensors developed with quantum
dots in microfluidic systems. Emergent Materials, 4(1), 187-209.
(3) Li, Y., Ma, P., Tao, Q., Krause, H. J., Yang, S., Ding, G., & Xie, X. (2021). Magnetic
graphene quantum dots facilitate closed-tube one-step detection of SARS-CoV-2 with
ultra-low field NMR relaxometry. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 337, 129786.
(4) Yang, G., He, Y., Zhao, J., Chen, S., & Yuan, R. (2021). Ratiometric
electrochemiluminescence biosensor based on Ir nanorods and CdS quantum dots for
the detection of organophosphorus pesticides. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 341,
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(5) Wei, Q., Zhang, P., Liu, T., Pu, H., & Sun, D. W. (2021). A fluorescence biosensor based on
single-stranded DNA and carbon quantum dots for acrylamide detection. Food
Chemistry, 356, 129668.
(6) Pothipor, C., Jakmunee, J., Bamrungsap, S., & Ounnunkad, K. (2021). An electrochemical
biosensor for simultaneous detection of breast cancer clinically related microRNAs
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film. Analyst, 146(12), 4000-4009.

(7) Kamaci, U. D., & Kamaci, M. (2021). Selective and sensitive zno quantum dots based
fluorescent biosensor for detection of cysteine. Journal of Fluorescence, 31(2), 401-414.

(8) Galein, Y., Legrève, A., & Bragard, C. (2018). Long term management of Rhizomania
Disease—Insight into the changes of the beet necrotic yellow vein virus RNA-3 observed
under resistant and non-resistant sugar beet fields. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9, 795.

(9) Safarpour, H., Safarnejad, M. R., Tabatabaei, M., Mohsenifar, A., Rad, F., Basirat, M., &
Hasanzadeh, F. (2012). Development of a quantum dots FRET-based biosensor for
efficient detection of Polymyxa betae. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 34(4), 507-
515.

(10) Teniou, A., Rhouati, A., & Catanante, G. (2022). A Simple Fluorescent
Aptasensing Platform Based on Graphene Oxide for Dopamine Determination. Applied
Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 1-13.

(11) Khan, M. Z. H. (2017). Graphene oxide modified electrodes for dopamine

sensing. Journal of Nanomaterials, 2017.

(12) Pourghobadi, Z., Mirahmadpour, P., & Zare, H. (2018). Fluorescent biosensor for
the selective determination of dopamine by TGA-capped CdTe quantum dots in human
plasma samples. Optical Materials, 84, 757-762.

(13) Al-Abadi, S. Y., Al-Sadi, A. M., Dickinson, M., Al-Hammadi, M. S., Al-Shariqi, R., Al-
Yahyai, R. A., & Bertaccini, A. (2016). Population genetic analysis reveals a low level of
genetic diversity of ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma aurantifolia’causing witches’ broom
disease in lime. SpringerPlus, 5(1), 1-11.
(14) Rad, F., Mohsenifar, A., Tabatabaei, M., Safarnejad, M. R., Shahryari, F.,
Safarpour, H., ... & Fotokian, M. (2012). Detection of Candidatus Phytoplasma
aurantifolia with a quantum dots fret-based biosensor. Journal of Plant Pathology, 525-
534.

(15) Zhou, J., Qi, Q., Wang, C., Qian, Y., Liu, G., Wang, Y., & Fu, L. (2019). Surface
plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensors for food allergen detection in food
matrices. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 142, 111449.

(16) Weng, X., & Neethirajan, S. (2016). A microfluidic biosensor using graphene
oxide and aptamer-functionalized quantum dots for peanut allergen
detection. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 85, 649-656.

(17) Nawaz, A., Khattak, N. N., Khan, M. S., Nangyal, H., Sabri, S., & Shakir, M. (2020).
Deficiency of vitamin B12 and its relation with neurological disorders: a critical
review. The Journal of Basic and Applied Zoology, 81(1), 1-9.

(18) Giedyk, M., Goliszewska, K., & Gryko, D. (2015). Vitamin B 12 catalysed
reactions. Chemical Society Reviews, 44(11), 3391-3404.

(19) Sangle, P., Sandhu, O., Aftab, Z., Anthony, A. T., & Khan, S. (2020). Vitamin B12
supplementation: preventing onset and improving prognosis of
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(20) Wang, M., Liu, Y., Ren, G., Wang, W., Wu, S., & Shen, J. (2018). Bioinspired
carbon quantum dots for sensitive fluorescent detection of vitamin B12 in cell
system. Analytica chimica acta, 1032, 154-162.

(21) Özcan, N., Karaman, C., Atar, N., Karaman, O., & Yola, M. L. (2020). A novel
molecularly imprinting biosensor including graphene quantum dots/multi-walled carbon
nanotubes composite for interleukin-6 detection and electrochemical biosensor
validation. ECS Journal of Solid State Science and Technology, 9(12), 121010.