Chapter: Introduction & Operating-System

Structures

NARZU TARANNUM (NTR)

DEPT. OF CSE, BRAC UNIVERSITY
 Information of Course Teachers

● Narzu Tarannum
<[email protected]

Operating System Concepts 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Recommended Text book

● Silberschatz, Peter B. Galvin, Greg Gagne,

"Operating System Concepts", Wiley; 9th
edition (2009) ISBN: 978-1-118-06333-0

Operating System Concepts 1.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Course Outline

● Operating Systems Overview and Structures

● Processes Management
● CPU Scheduling
● Threads
● Process Synchronization
● Deadlocks
● Memory Management/ Main memory
● Virtual Memory
● File-System Interface

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 Objectives

● To provide a grand tour of the major operating systems

components
● To provide coverage of basic computer system
organization
● To describe the services an operating system provides
to users, processes, and other systems
● To discuss the different structure of operating system

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 Content of this chapter

● What Operating Systems Do

● Computer-System Organization

● Computer-System Architecture

● Operating-System Structure

● Operating-System Operations

● Storage Structure

● System call

● Protection and Security

● Operating systems Services

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 What is an Operating System?
● A program that acts as an intermediary between a
user of a computer and the computer hardware
● Operating system goals:
● Execute user programs and make solving user
problems easier and make the computer system
convenient to use.
● Use the computer hardware in an efficient
manner.

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 What does an Operating Systems?

It works between users and computer hardware.

● Resource allocator – manages and allocates resources.

● Control program – controls the execution of user programs and

operations of I/O devices .

● Kernel – the one program running at all times (all else being application
programs).
● The kernel is the central module of an operating system (OS). It is
the part of the operating system that loads first, and it remains in
main memory. The kernel code is usually loaded into a protected
area of memory to prevent it from being overwritten by programs or
other parts of the operating system.

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 Primary Functions of an OS

● Processes-management
● Storage-memory management
● Data-file management
● Input/output devices-i/o management
● Network management
● Protection& security

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 Software
The two most common types of software are :
•System software
•Application software.

What is System Software?

System Software refers to the operating system and all

utility programs that manage computer resources at a low
level. Systems software includes compilers, loaders,
linkers, and debuggers.

What is Application Software?

Applications software comprises programs designed for

an end user, such as word processors, database systems,
and spreadsheet programs.

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 Four Components of a Computer System
● Computer system can be divided into four components
● Hardware – provides basic computing resources
CPU, memory, I/O devices
● Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
● Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users
Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video
games
● Users
People, machines, other computers

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 Four Components of a Computer System

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 Computer Startup

● bootstrap program is loaded at

power-up or reboot
Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally
known as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

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 TO UNDERSTAND WHAT OS ARE, WE
MUST FIRST UNDERSTAND HOW THEY
HAVE DEVELOPED.

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 History of OS / Types of OS

● Simple Batch Systems

● Multiprogramming Systems
● Time-Sharing Systems
● Parallel Systems
● Distributed Systems
● Real -Time Systems

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 History of OS/ Types of OS
● Simple Batch Systems: Automatically transfers control from one job to another.

● Multi-programmed Batched Systems: Several jobs are kept in main memory at the
same time, and the CPU is multiplexed among them.

● Time Sharing Systems: Logical extension of multiprogramming.

● Parallel Systems: Multiprocessor systems with more than one CPU

● Distributed Systems: Distribute the computation among several physical processors.

● Loosely coupled system – each processor has its own local memory; processors
communicate with one another through various communications lines, such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines.

● Real-time Systems: Often used as a control device in a dedicated application such as

controlling scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control
systems, and some display systems.

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 Simple Batch Systems

● Automatically transfers control from one job to another.

● Common input-output device are card readers and tape drivers.
● User prepare a job which consisted of program, input data and
control instructions.

Computer
CPU

Input OS Output
User program

Memory

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 Simple Batch Systems
● User prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator.
To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group.

Advantages-

● It saves the time that was being wasted earlier for each individual process in context switching from
one environment to another environment.

● No manual intervention is needed.

Disadvantages

● Executing a series of non-interactive jobs all at one time.

● The output is obtained only after all the jobs are executed.

● Thus,Concepts
Operating System priority can not be implemented if a certain
1.18 job has to be executed on anSilberschatz,
urgent basis.Galvin and Gagne ©2005
 Limitations of Simple Batch Systems

● Not interactive
● Memory is limited
● CPU utilization is poor
● Speed mismatch between I/O device and
CPU

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 Multi-programmed Operating Systems
● Multiprogramming needed for efficiency or maximize CPU utilization.

● Multiprogramming means more than one process in main memory which are ready to
execute.

● Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
● Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute
● A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
● Process generally require CPU time and I/O time, when CPU has to wait (for I/O
for example), OS switches to another job and this idea will continue.

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 Multi-programmed Operating System

❑ Several jobs are kept in main memory at the same

time, and the CPU is multiplexed among them.
Advantages

● High CPU utilization.

● It appears that many programs are allotted CPU

almost concurrently.
● Response time is shorter
Disadvantages

● CPU scheduling is required.

● To accommodate several jobs in memory,

memory management is essential.
❑ Multi-programmed systems provide an
environment in which the various system
resources(like CPU, memory and peripheral
devices) are utilized effectively but they do not
provide for user interaction with the computer
system.
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 Multitasking/Time-Sharing
Systems–Interactive Computing
● Multitasking is multiprogramming with time sharing where CPU executes multiple jobs
by switching among them.

● Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension of multiprogramming, in which CPU

switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running,
creating interactive computing.

● The operating system is able to keep track of where you are in these tasks and go from
one to the other without losing information.

● Response time should be < 1 second

● Time sharing requires an interactive(or hands-on)computer system, which provides direct

communication between the user and the system.

● A time-shared OS allows many users to share the computer simultaneously.

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 Multitasking/Time-Sharing
Systems–Interactive Computing
● Each user has at least one separate program
for executing in memory.
● A program loaded into memory and
executing is called a ⇨process
● ⇨ Job scheduling
● ⇨ CPU scheduling
● If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping
moves them in and out to run from main
memory achieving this goal is virtual
memory.

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 Computer-system Architecture

● Single-processor Systems: If there is only

one general purpose CPU, then the system
is a single-processor system.
● Other special purpose processors are also
present which perform device specific task.

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 Computer-system Architecture

● Multiprocessor Systems/Parallel System:

Multiprocessor systems with more than one CPU
in close communication.
● Tightly Coupled System: processors share memory
and a clock; communication usually takes place
through the shared memory.
❑ HAVE THREE MAIN ADVANTAGES :-
❑ INCREASED THROUGHPUT
❑ ECONOMY OF SCALE
❑ INCREASED RELIABILITY

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 Multiprocessor Systems/Parallel System

● Two Types:
● Symmetric Multiprocessing(SMP):
❑ Each processor runs an identical copy of the
operating system.
❑ Most modern operating systems support SMP.
● Asymmetric Multiprocessing:
❑ Each processor is assigned a specific task;
master processor schedules and allocates work
to slave processors

Operating System Concepts 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Two Types

● Symmetric Multiprocessing ● Asymmetric Multiprocessing

Architecture Example Architecture Example

Master CPU

CPU 1 OS

P1
CPU 2 Slave CPU 1 Slave CPU 2 Slave CPU 3
P2

CPU 3 P3
P1 P2 P3

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 Distributed Systems and Real-time Systems
● Distributed Systems: Distribute the computation among
several physical processors.
● Loosely coupled system – each processor has its
own local memory; processors communicate with one
another through various communications lines, such
as high-speed buses or telephone lines.
● Real-time Systems: Often used as a control device in a
dedicated application such as controlling scientific
experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control
systems, and some display systems.

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 Storage-Device Hierarchy

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 Storage Hierarchy

● Storage systems organized in hierarchy.

● Size
● Speed (Access time)
● Cost
● Volatility
● Caching – Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily

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 A View of Operating System Services

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 Operating System Services

● Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs and

services to programs and users

● One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to

the user:

● User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface

(UI).
Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User
Interface (GUI), Batch interface- in which commands and
directives to control those commands are entered into files, and
those files are executed.

● Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into

memory and to run that program, end execution, either normally or
abnormally (indicating error)

● I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may

involve a file or an I/O device

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 Operating System Services (Cont.)

● One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the user
(Cont.):

● File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest. Programs

need to read and write files and directories, create and delete them, search
them, list file Information, permission management.

● Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same

computer or between computers over a network
Communications may be via shared memory or through message passing
(packets moved by the OS)

● Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors

May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user
program
For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to ensure
correct and consistent computing
Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and programmer’s
Operating System Concepts abilities to efficiently use the
1.33 system Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
 Operating System Services (Cont.)

● Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the
system itself via resource sharing

● Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running

concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
Many types of resources - CPU cycles, main memory, file storage, I/O
devices.

● Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of
computer resources

● Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser or

networked computer system may want to control use of that information,
concurrent processes should not interfere with each other
Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled
Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication,
extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access attempts

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 Operating-System Operations

● An Operating system is Interrupt driven

● Hardware interrupt
Occurs by one of the devices
● Software interrupt (exception or trap)
Request for operating system service
Software error (e.g., division by zero)
A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a
user request.

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 Operating-System operations-protection
❑ We know modern operating systems are interrupt driven.

● Hardware generates interrupt.

● Many errors detected by hardware can be handled by OS.
● Software error handled by exception or trap.
● A trap (or an exception) is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an
error (for example, division by zero or invalid memory access) or by a
specific request from a user program that an operating-system service need to
be performed.
❑ With sharing many processes could be adversely affected by a bug in one program.
Since the operating system and the users program share the hardware and
software resources of the computer system, a properly designed OS must ensure
that an incorrect program can not run and also can not cause other programs to
execute incorrectly.

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 Operating-System operations-protection

● In order to ensure the proper execution

of operating system, we must be able to
distinguish between the execution of the
operating system code and user defined
code.

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 Hardware Protection
❑ The approach taken by most computer system is to provide hardware support that
allows us to differentiate among various modes of execution.

● Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components.

● User mode (1) and Kernel/Monitor/System mode (0)
● Mode bit provided by hardware.
• Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or
system code
• Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in system
mode
• System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user

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 Transition from User to Kernel Mode

● With the mode bit, we can distinguish between a task that is

executed on behalf of the operating system that is ‘zero’ and
‘one’ is executed on behalf of the user. When the computer
system is executing on behalf of a user application , the system
is in user mode .
● when a user application requests a service from the operating
system (via a system call), the system must transition from user
to kernel mode to fulfill the request. This is shown in his figure.

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 System Calls

● A system call is a way for programs to interact with

the operating system.

● A computer program makes a system call when it makes a

request to the operating system's kernel. System call provides
the services of the operating system to the user programs via
Application Program Interface(API).

● Programming interface to the services provided by the OS

● Routines typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)

❖ Note that the system-call names used throughout this text are generic

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 System Calls

● System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file

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 System Call Implementation
● Typically, a number associated with each system call

● System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to these

numbers

● The system call interface invokes the intended system call in OS kernel and
returns status of the system call and any return values

● The caller need know nothing about how the system call is implemented

❑ API – System Call – OS Relationship

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 Types of System Call

Type Windows OS Linux OS

Process Control CreateProcess() fork()

ExitProcess() exit()
WaitForSingleObject() wait()

File Manipulation CreateFile() open()

ReadFile() read()
WriteFile() write()
CloseHandle() close()

Device Manipulation SetConsoleMode() ioctl()

ReadConsole() read()
WriteConsole() write()

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 Types of System Call
Type Windows OS Linux OS

Information GetCurrentProcessID() getpid()

Maintenance SetTimer() alarm()
Sleep() sleep()

Communication CreatePipe() pipe()

CreateFileMapping() shm_open()
MapViewOfFile() mmap()

Protection SetFileSecurity() InitlializeSecurityDescriptor() chmod()

SetSecurityDescriptorGroup() umask()
chown()

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End