School of MACE, University of Manchester

Vibrations MDOF Systems

PART 1

ANALYSIS OF MULTIPLE DEGREES-OF-FREEDOM DISCRETE SYSTEMS

1. Degrees of Freedom of Vibrating Systems

1.1 Definitions of Degrees of Freedom

Brief Definition

Degrees of freedom: Number of independent coordinates required to specify motion of a vibrating

discrete system

Single degree-of-freedom (SDOF) → 1 coordinate required

Multiple degrees-of-freedom (MDOF) → many coordinates required

distributed mass
& stiffness
n DOF system infinite DOF system

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Formal Definitions

The number of degrees of freedom of a system is

(1) the number of independent spatial coordinates (rectilinear or angular) necessary to define
its configuration i.e. the geometric location of all the masses (and inertias) of the system.
(2) the number of spatial coordinates necessary to specify its configuration minus the number
of equations of constraint.

Independent Coordinates
• also called Generalised Coordinates
• represent degrees of freedom of system
• not necessarily a set of Cartesian coordinates

Example of Independent & Dependent Coordinates

• The 4 Cartesian coordinates x1, y1 and x2, y2
are not independent because:
x12 + y12 = L12 and (x2 - x1)2 + (y2 - y1)2 = L22
• But the 2 polar coordinates 1 and 2
are independent
• Therefore, the system has 2 DOF

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1.2 Examples of single-degree-of-freedom systems

(a) Spring mass systems

- m constrained to move only in vertical

direction about static equilibrium position 0

∴ only one spatial co-ordinate x(t)

required to define its configuration

 SDOF

(b) Torsional pendulum

- heavy disk of inertia J & shaft with

negligible mass of torsional stiffness Kt

- system constrained to oscillate

about longitudinal axis of shaft

∴ system configuration specified by

single co-ordinate (t)

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(c) Mass-spring-cantilever system

- cantilever mass negligible

 cantilever = spring only

- m constrained to vertical motion

∴ have m & equivalent spring ke

where ke = f(k, kc)

(d) Mass-pulley-spring system

- assume no slippage between cord & pulley

- cord is inextensible
- though system has 2 mass elements
m & J, associated displacements
x (t) & (t) are not independent
- either x(t) or (t) can
specify configuration of system

 system is SDOF

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(e) Spring-loaded flyball governor

- governor rotating with constant angular velocity 

- when disturbance (such as variation of angular

velocity i.e. acceleration) is applied, its vibratory
motion can be described in terms of (t) alone.

(f) Simple pendulum

- constrained to approve in x-y plane

- configuration can be defined by [x(t), y(t)]
or by (t) alone

- (x, y) co-ordinates not independent as they are related

by the following equation of constraint x2 + y2 = L2
where length L of pendulum is assumed constant

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1.3 Examples of Two-degrees-of-freedom Systems

(a) Two-mass-two-spring system

- m1, m2 constrained to vertical motion

- the two spatial co-ordinates necessary to

define the configuration are x1(t) and x2(t)

(b) Mass-Spring System

- in 2.1.2 (b) it was a SDOF

- here m is allowed to oscillate along the axis

of the spring and to swing from side to side
i.e. 2 degrees of freedom for m given by x(t) and (t)

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(c) Conical or spherical pendulum

- 3-D pendulum
- positions described by either spherical co-ords
[(t), (t)] or cartesian co-ords [x(t), y(t), z(t)]

- cartesian co-ords related by the following equation

of constraint: x2 + y2 + z2 = L2
where length L of pendulum is assumed to be constant

∴ pendulum has only 2 degrees of freedom.

(d) Rigid body supported by 2 springs

- 2 co-ordinates necessary to specify configuration

namely:
translasiton of c.of.g., x(t)
rotation about c.of.g., (t)

∴ system is a 2DOF

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(e) Double pendulum system

- positions of masses m1 and m2 described either

by polar co-ordinates of cartesian coordinates.
- polar coordinates: 1(t) and 2(t)
 2DOF

- cartesian coordinates: [x1(t), y1(t)]

and [x2(t), y2(t)]
- constraint equations:
x12 + y12 = L12
(x2 - x1)2 + (y2 - y1)2 = L22

∴ 4 spatial coordinates - 2 constraint equations

 2 DOF

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1.4 Examples of 3 degrees of freedom systems

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1.5 Examples of real vibrating systems

Rail Bogies
• They are used to suspend rail coaches from the rail

A railcar bogie subsystem (www.railway-technical.com)

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2DOF Model of a railcar body and bogie (www.railway-

technical.com)
Simple rail bogie (www.railway-technical.com)

• Two bogies suspend a coach with a

bogie at each end of the coach
• A bogie is a complex sub-system
• In the vertical direction, it
effectively gives a 2DOF system
• But there are also lateral vibrations

High speed train (www.lenord.com)

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Internal Combustion Engines

• Crank shaft, cam shaft, valve train, gear and sprocket vibrations

Single cylinder engine with cam-rocker-valve Two cylinder engine with overhead cam and 4 valves per
timing system (www.formula1-dictionary.net) cylinder (www.machinedesign.com)

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Schematic of valve train (Guo et al., J Eng. for

Dynamic model of valve train system (Guo et al., J Eng. for
Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 137 / 101507-1)
Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 137 / 101507-1)

• Discrete system vibrations model for the valve train involves at least 17 degrees-of-freedom (DOFs)
• Vibrations modes shown include translational and torsional vibrations
• Similar complicated vibration models for other engine components

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Automotive Suspensions
• MacPherson Strut
• Helical coil spring
• Shock absorber
• Suspension mounting kit (rubber mount)

Cut-out views of automotive vehicle showing

suspension components [ww.abboudisauto.com,
leacree.blogspot.co.uk, baldoyleautocentre.ie]

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Aircraft Systems

• Vibrations everywhere! But this is true of all other transport systems!!

• Engines, wings, fuselage, empennage and landing gear subsystems all vibrate.

Airbus A380 aircraft taking off (www.komar.org) Schematic of landing gear

(aviation.stackexchange.com)
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• The aero-engine is one of the most
complex vibrating systems.
• Different parts and sub-systems of the
aeroengine experience severe vibrations
that have to be suppressed or designed-
out of the operating frequency (speed)
range of the engine.

Pratt & Whitney PW-4000 Turbofan Engine (one-

putts.com)

Rolls-Royce Trent 900 Engine – 4 of these engines

power the Airbus A380 (www.rolls-royce.com)

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Wind Turbines

• Various parts of a wind turbine vibrate

• Blade, tower and foundation
• Shafts, gears, motor and generator
• Transmission lines and pylons also vibrate

Subsystems of a vertical axis wind turbines (energy.gov)

Horizontal axis wind turbines (www3.imperial.ac.uk) Vertical axis wind turbines (gizmodo.com)
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2. Discretisation of Continuous Systems

• A continuous system, which is also called a distributed parameter system, has an infinite number
of DOF.
• It can be reduced to a simpler N DOF by discretisation.

Consider a simplified aircraft wing (shown).

• mass & stiffness distributed
• infinite DOF

It can be reduced to a simpler discrete system or

lumped parameter system as shown.

Notes: (1) wing root assumed clamped

(2) m2 includes mass of engine/store

• The distributed mass has been lumped at positions y1, y2 and y3.
• The wing has been reduced to a 3 DOF system.

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2.1 Discretisation using Load-Sharing Approach

Consider a uniform cantilevered beam

with distributed parameter.

A simple procedure for reducing the beam

to say n DOF (e.g. 3 DOF as shown) system
is the load-sharing approach.

The procedure is as follows:

• divide beam into n segments (here 3 segments)
• subdivide each segment
• lump each sub-segment to the nearest DOF

Notes:
✓mass at clamped end inactive
✓approach gives mass matrix

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3. Derivation of Equations of Motion

The following 3 methods are to be considered:

• derivation using Newton’s Laws of Motion
• derivation using Lagrange’s Equation
• derivation using Stiffness & Flexibility Influence Coefficients

3.1 Derivation of Equations of Motion by Newton's Laws of Motion

Consider a two degrees-of-freedom system consisting of 2 masses and 3 springs as shown below.

Referring to the free-body diagrams of

the two masses m1 and m2, the
equations of motion can be derived,
using Newton's 2nd law, as

m1 x1 = - k1 x1 - k 2 ( x1 - x 2) + f 1 (t)
m2 x2 = - k 2 ( x 2 - x1) - k 3 x 2

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which can be re-written as

m1 x1 + (k1 + k 2) x1 - k 2 x 2 = f 1 (t) 
 (2.1)
m2 x2 - k 2 x1 + (k 2 + k 3) = 0 

and in matrix form as

m1 0   x1  k1 + k 2 − k 2   x1   f 1 (t )
0 m2   x2   − k 2 k 2 + k 3   x 2   0 
+ = (2.2)


or m{x} + [k ]{x} = { f (t )} (2.3)

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3.2 Derivation of Equations of Motion by Lagrange's Equations

For generalised coordinates qi, Lagrange's equation is

d T T U D
- + + = Qi (2.4)
dt  q  qi  qi  qi

where
= kinetic energy of system ( 1 2 m q i )
2
T

U = potential energy of system ( 1 2 k qi2)

= dissipation energy of system ( 1 2 c q i )

2
D

Qi = generalised external force acting on the system.

For a conservative system (i.e. an undamped system without external forcing), Lagrange's equation
reduces to
d L L
- =0
dt  q i  qi (2.5)

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where L = T - U is called the Lagrangian.

Note: The Lagrange's equation will yield as many equations of motion as the number of degrees of
freedom of the system provided the basic energy expressions of the system are known.

For example, the equations of motion of the two degree-of-freedom system shown in section 3.1 can
be derived by the application of Lagrange's equation. The system has 2 generalised coordinates x1 and
x2. Its energy expressions are as follows.

T = 1 2 m1 x 12 + 1 2 m 2 x 22
U = 1 2 k 1 x12 + 1 2 k 2 ( x1 - x 2 )2 + 1 2 k 3 x 22
D=0

Motion of m1 (coordinate x1)

Equation of motion is:

d T T U D
- + + = Q1
dt  x 1  x1  x1  x 1

Now,

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d T d
= (m 1 x 1) = m x1
dt  x 1 dt
T
=0
 x1
U
= k1 x1 + k 2 ( x1 - x 2)
 x1
D
=0
 x 1
Q1 = f 1 (t)

Thus, the equation of motion of m1 is

m1 x1 + k1 x1 + k 2 ( x1 - x 2) = f 1 (t) (2.6)

Motion of m2 (coordinate x2)

Equation of motion is

d T T U D
- + + = Q1
dt  x 2  x 2  x 2  x 2

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where
d T d
= (m 2 x 2) = m x2
dt  x 2 dt
T
=0
 x2
U
= - k 2 ( x1 - x 2) + k 3 x 2
 x2
D
=0
 x 2
Q2 = 0

Thus, equation of motion of m2 is

m x2 - k 2 ( x1 - x 2) + k 3 x 2 = 0 (2.7)

Eqs (2.6) and (2.7) can be written as

m1 x1 - (k1 + k 2) x1 - k 2 x 2 = f 1 (t) 

 (2.8)
m2 x2 - k 2 x1 + (k 2 + k 3) x 2 = 0 

which are identical to Eq. (2.1) derived by the application of Newton's 2nd law.

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3.3 Derivation of Equations of Motion using Stiffness & Flexibility Influence Coefficients

Equation of motion is:

m{x} + [k ]{x} = { f (t )}
• The mass matrix is obtained simply by inserting the masses in the leading diagonal of the matrix.
• Stiffness influence coefficients are used to derive stiffness matrix, [k]
• Flexibility influence coefficients are used to derive flexibility matrix, [a], from which the stiffness
matrix may be obtained (if necessary) since [k] = [a]-1 (see proof below).

Definition of Stiffness Influence Coefficient kij

“Stiffness influence coefficient kij is the force at point i due to a unit displacement at point
j with all other points being fixed.”

f i = k ij y j
 f 1 = k11 y1 + k12 y 2 + ...
… etc …
 { f } = [k ]{ y} (2.9)

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Definition of Flexibility Influence Coefficient aij

“Flexibility influence coefficient aij is the deflection at point i due to a unit force at point
j when the unit force is the only force acting.”

yi
aij =
fj
 yi = aij f j
 y1 = a11 f 1 + a12 f 2 + ...
… etc …
 { y} = [a]{ f } (2.10)

Relationship Between kij and aij

Combining Eqs (2.9) and (2.10) gives:

{ f } = [k ]{ y} = [k ][a]{ f } (2.11)

 [k ][a] = [ I ] (2.12)
where [I] is the unity or identity matrix.
 [k ] = [a ] −1 (2.13)

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Examples on Stiffness & Flexibility Influence Coefficients

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Derivation of the Flexibility Matrix for Systems Subject to Flexure

The flexibility influence coefficients aij is particularly useful in the case of flexural elements e.g.
plates, beams. This is because such elements include rotations (slopes) as well as translations. In
such cases the kij method is inappropriate. Flexibility influence coefficients can be determined using
any technique which allows one to calculate displacements from applied forces e.g. Area Moment
method, Double Integration method, Macaulay’s method, Myosotis, etc. For ‘standard’ systems,
tables of aij’s are available (see attached).

Example
A cantilevered beam is discretised as a 2 degrees-of-freedom system, state the equation of motion
and derive the mass and flexibility matrices.

Solution
The beam is discretised as follows:

Equations of motion are given by

m{x} + [k ]{x} = { f (t )}
where

a = 
a11 a12 
m= 
0  −1
[k ] = [a] ;
m/2
 0 m / 4 ; a 21 a 22 

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Derivation of aij’s using Area Moment method

Ax1 1 2L
y1 = ; A = A1 + A2 + A3 = P1 L.L; x1 =
EI 2 3
P1 L2 2 L P1 L3
 y1 = =
2 EI 3 3EI
y1 L3
 a 11 = =
P1 3EI

Ax 2 1 P1 L L P1 L L
y2 = ; A = A1 + A2 = . + .
EI 2 2 2 2 2
Ax2 = A1 x1 + A2 x2
A1 x1 + A2 x2 1  1 P1 L L 2  L  P1 L L L 
 y2 = =   + 
EI EI  2 2 2 3  2  2 2 4 
P1 L3  1 1  5P1 L3
 y2 =  + =
EI  24 16  48EI
y2 5L3
 a 21 = =
P1 48EI

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Ax1 1 P2 L L 2 L L
y1 = ; A= . ; x1 =   +
EI 2 2 2 3 2 2
P2 L3 5 L 5 P2 L3
 y1 = =
8 EI 6 48EI
y1 5 L3
 a12 = =
P2 48EI

Ax 2 2 L
y2 = x2 =  
;
EI 3 2
PL3 L PL3
 y2 = =
8 EI 3 24 EI
y2 L3
 a 22 = =
P2 24 EI

L3 16 5
 a =  5 2
48EI  

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Derivation of aij’s Double Integration method

Computations of the one-dimensional elastic bending behaviour of beams solved using:

 M E
= =
y I R
where = bending stress
y = distance from neutral axis to beam fibre
M = bending moment
I = second moment of area
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity
R = radius of curvature
 M
For beam bending stresses use: y = I
d 2v
M E 1
= dx 2 d 2v
For beam bending deflections use: I = R where curvature R  2 3/ 2 
 dv   dx 2
+
   
1
  dx  
M d 2v d 2v M
Thus, =E 2  2
=
I dx dx EI

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Load at Point 1
L P1
X
The bending moment at point X: M = P1 ( L − x )
x
d 2v M P1 v2 v1
Substituting: 2
= = ( L − x)
dx EI EI
dv P1  x2  P  Lx 2 x 3 
=  Lx − + C1 x  v= 1  −  + C1 x + C2
Integrating: dx EI  2   EI  2 6
dv P1  Lx 2 x 3 
x = 0, = 0  C1 = 0 and v = 0  C2 = 0 v=  − 
At dx  EI  2 6
P1  L3 L3  P1L3 v1 L3
x = L, v1 =  −  = a11 = =
At EI  2 6  3EI  P1 3EI
L P1  L3 L3  5 P1L3 v2 L3
x = , v2 =  −  = a21 = =
At 2 EI  8 48  48EI  P1 3EI

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Load at Point 2
M = P2 ( L / 2 − x)
L/2 P2
The bending moment at point X: X
d 2v M P2  L  x
Substituting: = =  − x 
dx 2 EI EI  2  v2 v1
dv P2  Lx x 2  P2  Lx 2 x 3 
=  − + C1 x  v=  −  + C1 x + C2
Integrating: dx EI  2  EI  4 6
2 
dv P2  Lx 2 x 3 
At x = 0, dx = 0  C1 = 0 and v = 0  C2 = 0 
v=  − 
EI  4 6
 dv  L dv L
x = L, v1 = v2 +   . = v x = L + .
At  dx  2 2 2 dx x = L2 2

P2 L3  1 1  P2 L2  1 1  L 5P2 L3 v1 5 L3
a12 = =
 v1 = EI  16 − 48  + EI  4 − 8 . 2 = 48EI  P2 48EI
L P2  L3 L3  2 P1L3 v2 L3
x = , v2 =  −  = a22 = =
At 2 EI  16 48  48EI  P2 24 EI
L3 16 5
 a =  5 2
48EI  

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Derivation of aij’s using Myosotis

• Most problems involving the bending deflection of beams can be solved using the Myosotis
formulae.
• MYOSOTIS is a Greek word meaning "mouse's ear" and used by Greeks to denote a group of
flowers whose leaves look like a mouse's ear.
• The English name for these flowers is forget-me-not which was translated from the German
“Vergissmeinnicht” or French “ne m’oubliez pas”.
• MYOSOTIS is used in engineering to denote formulas that should not be forgotten
• MYOSOTIS  Vergissmeinnicht  ne m’oubliez pas  FORGET-ME-NOT

Using the Myosotis Table of Deflection Formulae gives the following. Note y i =  i

P1 L3 y1 L3
1 =  a 11 = =
3EI P1 3EI

P1 ( L / 2)3 M 1 ( L / 2) 2 PL
2 = + ; M1 =
3EI 2 EI 2
P1L3  1 1  5 P1L3
 2 =  + =
EI  24 16  48EI

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y2 5 L3
 a 21 = =
P1 48EI

L P1 ( L / 2) 3 P1 ( L / 2) 2
 1 =  2 + 2 ;  2 = ; 2 =
2 3EI 2 EI
P1 L3  1 1  5P1 L3
 1 =  + =
EI  24 16  48EI
y2 5L3
 a12 = =
P1 48EI

P2 ( L / 2) 3 y2 L3
2 =  a 22 = =
3EI P2 24 EI

L3 16 5
 a =  5 2
48EI  

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Derivation of aij’s using the Table of Influence Coefficients

From the table,

" "
b3 L3
a11 = ; b=L  a11 =
3EI 3EI
" "
a3 L L3
a22 = ; a=  a22 =
3EI 2 24 EI
" "
a 2 (3b − a) L
a12 = a 21 = ; a= ; b=L
6 EI 2
( L / 2) 2 (3L − L / 2) L3   1  5   5L3
 a12 = a 21 = =      =
6 EI 6 EI   4  2   48EI

L3 16 5
 a =  5 2
48EI  

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BEAM MYOSOTIS

• A beam is an important structural element. Its predominant mode of deformation is bending.

But it also subjected to axial and torsional deformations.
• Most problems involving the bending deflection of beams can be solved using the Myosotis
formulae.
• MYOSOTIS  Vergissmeinnicht  ne m’oubliez pas  FORGET-ME-NOT

1. BEAM BENDING MYOSOTIS

1.1 General Beam Bending

Computations of the one-dimensional elastic bending behaviour of beams solved using:

 M E
= =
y I R

where = bending stress

y = distance from neutral axis to beam fibre
M = bending moment
I = second moment of area
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity
R = radius of curvature

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1.2 Beam Bending Stresses


My y
=
I ; I =  y 2 dA
y 
 
where y = y min and y = y max
M max y max
 max =
I

1.3 Beam Bending Deflections

d 2v
1 dx 2
=
2
M E d v
= R  3/ 2
 dv    dx 2
2
I R ; 1 +   
  dx  
M d 2v d 2v M d 2v
Thus, =E 2  2
= or M = EI dx 2 (Moment Equation)
I dx dx EI

dv
Integration of the Moment Equation once gives the slope,  = dx
Integration of the Moment Equation twice gives the deflection, v
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1.4 Cantilevered Beam Myosotis Formulae

Loading Slope Deflection

 

EI
M
 ML ML2
L  = =
EI 2 EI
Moment M applied at tip

EI F

  FL2 FL3
L = =
2 EI 3EI

Point force F applied at tip

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w/ unit
length
EI 𝑤𝐿3 𝑤𝐿4
  𝜑= 𝛿=
L 6𝐸𝐼 8𝐸𝐼

Uniformly distributed load

(UDL) applied

F
EI 1 EI 2 𝐹𝐿2 𝐹𝐿3
• •
𝜑1 = 𝛿1 =
1 1 2 2 8𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼
L/2 L/2 𝜑2 = 𝜑1 𝛿2 = 𝛿1 + 𝜑1 𝐿

Point force F applied at mid-

point

NOTE: Similar tables can be compiled for beams with other boundary conditions.

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2. BEAM EXTENSION/COMPRESSION MYOSOTIS

2.1 Stress-Strain Relationship

One-dimensional extension/compression elastic stress-strain behaviour of beams given by:

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

where  = axial stress (tensile/compressive)

 = axial strain (tensile/compressive)
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity

2.2 Axial Stiffness

Stress-strain equation gives,

𝐹 𝑥
=𝐸
𝐴 𝐿

where F = force
A = cross-sectional area
x = extension
L = original length

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Thus,
𝐹 𝐸𝐴
𝐾𝑎 = =
𝑥 𝐿

2.3 Buckling

Euler critical buckling load,

𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 𝐿2

Euler critical buckling stress,

𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
𝜎𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 𝐴𝐿2

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3. BEAM TORSION MYOSOTIS

3.1 Torsion of Solid Circular-Section Beams

Computations of the one-dimensional elastic torsion behaviour of beams solved using:

𝜏 𝑇 𝐺𝜃
= =
𝑟 𝐽 𝐿

where  =bending stress

r = distance from neutral axis to beam fibre
T = bending moment
J = polar moment of area
G = Young’s modulus of elasticity
 = angle of twist
L = length

For a shaft of diameter d,

𝜋𝑑 4
𝐽=
32

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3.2 Torsion of Solid Non-Circular-Section Beams

𝜏 𝑇 𝐺𝜃
= =
𝑟 𝑐 𝐿

where c = torsional constant

For rectangular section,

𝑏𝑡 3
𝑐=
3

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(built-in) no rotation (simple support) rotation

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4 General MDOF System Equations & Solution

• continuous systems modelled as lumped multi degree-of-freedom (MDOF) systems resulting in

n degrees of freedom and n equations of motion
• convenient to represent these equations by means of matrices.

Thus, the general equation of motion is

[m]x + [c]x + [k]x = F e j t (2.14)

where [m], [c] and [k] are the mass, damping and stiffness (square) matrices of order n x n, and
x, x , x and F are the acceleration, velocity, displacement and force vectors of order 1 x n
respectively.

The steady-state solution of Eq. (2.14) is of the form

x = X. e j( t- ) = X*. e j t (2.15)

Substituting Eq. (2.15) in Eq. (2.14) gives

(-ω2[m] + jω[c] + [k] ) X* = F (2.16)

 [z]X* = F (2.17)

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where [z] is the complex impedance and X* is a complex vector having amplitude and phase.
5. Free Vibration of Undamped MDOF Systems: Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

The equation of motion of an undamped, free vibrating MDOF system is obtained from Eq.
(2.16) by equating [c] and F to zero. Also, since there is no damping, the complex vector X*
is replaced by a real vector X. Thus, the equation of motion is

(-  2 [m] + [k]) X = 0 (2.18)

There are 2 methods for determining the eigenvalues (natural frequencies) and eigenvectors
(mode shapes) from Eq. (2.18), namely:
• Determinant method
• Matrix iteration

5.1 Obtaining Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors using Determinant Method

* For non-trivial solutions

| -  2 [m] + [k] | = 0 (2.19)

* This is the characteristic or frequency equation which gives a polynomial in (ω2). The n
characteristic roots provide the natural frequencies or eigenvalues.

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* Eigenvectors or mode shapes are found by substituting the eigenvalues back into Eq.
(2.18) and solving for the elements of X assuming that one of these responses is unity.

5.2 Obtaining Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors using Matrix Iteration

The eigenvalue problem states: -  [m] {u} + [k]{u} = {0}

2
(2.20)

i.e. [ D]{u} = {u} where [ D] = [k] [m] ;  = 1/

-1 2
(2.21)

Now any (linear) mode of vibration consists of a summation or contributions from all the other

modes i.e.

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i.e. {u}1 = c1 {u}(1)

+ c 2 {u}( 2)
+ c 3 {u}( 3)
+ . . . + c n {u}(n)
(2.22)
Premultiplying {u}1 by [D] gives:
[ D]{u}1 = c1[ D]{u}(1) + c2 [ D]{u}( 2) + c3 [ D]{u}(3) + . . . + cn [ D]{u}( n ) (2.23)
Now [ D]{u} = 1{u} ; [ D]{u} = 2 {u} ; . . . ; [ D]{u} = n {u}
(1) (1) ( 2) ( 2) (n) (n)
(2.24)

Let [ D ]{u}1 = {u}2 (2.25)

where {u}2 is the second trial vector. Substituting Eqs (2.24) and (2.25) in (2.23) gives

[ D]{u}1 = {u}2 = c11{u}(1) + c2 2 {u}( 2) + c3 3 {u}(3) + . . . + cn n {u}( n ) (2.26)

Since  = 1/  2 , then Eq (2.26) can also be written as,

c1 c1 c1 c1
[ D]{u}1 = {u}2 = {u}(1)
+ {u}( 2)
+ {u}( 3)
+. . .+ {u}(n)

12
22
32
n 2

Similarly, premultiplying {u}2 by [D] gives

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[ D]{u}2 = {u}3 = c11 [ D]{u}(1) + c 2 2 [ D]{u}( 2) + c3 3 [ D]{u}(3) + . . . + c n n [ D]{u}( n )

= c112 {u}(1) + c 2 22 {u}( 2) + c3 32 {u}(3) + . . . + c n 2n {u}( n )
c1 c1 c1 c1
= {u}(1)
+ {u}( 2)
+ {u}( 3)
+ . . .+ {u}(n)

1
4
24
34
n 4

It is easy to see that the pth iteration yields

c1 c1 c1 c1
[ D]{u} p = {u} p +1 = {u}(1)
+ {u}( 2)
+ {u}( 3)
+. . .+ {u}(n)

1
2p
2
2p
3
2p
n2p (2.27)

1 1 1
Since   , the above becomes
 2p
1  2p
2  n2 p

c1
{u} p +1 = {u}(1)

1 2p

• Thus, the (p + 1) trial vector is identical to the 1st mode to within a multiplicative constant i.e. the
iteration converges to the 1st mode.

An additional iteration yields

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c1
{u} p + 2 = {u}(1)

1 2p + 2

If the column vectors {u} p +1 and {u} p + 2 are normalised in the same way we get the ratio for the
1
normalising constant as 12
c1 c1 1
=
i.e. 12p + 2 12p 12

• Thus the iteration process also yields the first natural frequency.

• It should be noted that this method is “error free” if the [D] matrix is properly evaluated i.e. an
error made in the iteration process merely slows down the method but it will still converge to the
correct values.

• If [ D] {u} =  {u} is used, the process converges to the highest eigenvector and eigenvalue.
−1 −1

• Note that this Matrix Iteration Method is also known as the Power Method

• [ D]{u} = {u} converges to the lowest mode (if {u} is well chosen)

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• [ D] {u} =  {u} converges to the highest mode (if

−1 −1
{u} is well chosen)

• If the trial vector {u} is close to an intermediate mode, then [ D]{u} = {u} or
[ D]−1{u} = −1{u} will converge to that mode.

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TUTORIAL SHEET 1: EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Set up the equations of motion in matrix form for the following two degrees-of-freedom systems in
terms of the coordinates given (displacements and rotations are small). Use New Laws, Lagrange’s
Equations or D’Alembert’s Principle (or a mixture!).

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TUTORIAL SHEET 2: EIGENVALUES & EIGENVECTORS

Example 2.1: Aircraft on Undercarriage

Consider a rigid aircraft supported on nose and main undercarriages which are represented by a pair
of springs and dampers as shown below. The aircraft is considered to be rolling over a "rough" runway
whose profile is defined by height h above some datum level.

Considering only the heave (vertical) motion of the centre of mass G, and the pitch (rotational) motion
about G,

(a) derive the equations of motion denoting the heave and pitch motions by y and θ respectively
(b) if the aircraft is sitting on a smooth and level runway and subjected to free vibration, calculate its
natural frequencies given that m = 4000 kg, I = 120000 kgm2, a = 4b = 4m, k2 = 4k1 = 120 kN/m,
c1 = c2 = 0

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Example 2.2

Determine the eigenvalues and

eigenvectors of the system shown
given that k1 = k2 = k3 = k, k4
k5 = 2k, m1 = m2 = m3 = m.

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5.3

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5.4 APPROXIMATE METHODS FOR ESTIMATING NATURAL FREQUENCIES

(1) DUNKERLEY’S METHOD


i =1
i = Trace [ D]; [ D] = [a][ m] = [k ]−1[m]

1 1 1
Trace [ D] = 1 + 2 + ... + n = + + ... +
12  22  n2
Since 1   2 etc
1
Then Trace [ D]  1 
12
Now, Trace [ D] = Trace ([a][ m]) = a11 m11 + a 22 m22 + ... + a nn mnn
1
  a11 m11 + a 22 m22 + ... + a nn mnn
12
• Since the influence coefficient a ii is the deflection at location i due to unit force at location i,
• Then, the term aii mii is due to mii acting alone i.e. without the effect of all other masses.
1
a =
• Also, ii k
ii

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mii 1
 aii mii = = 2
k ii  ii

where  ii is the natural frequency of an equivalent mass-spring system with m ii acting alone at
location i.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
  2   2 +  2 + ... +  2

or  2  2  2
+ + ... +
1 11 22 nn 1 1 2
2 n

1 1 1 1
  Trace [ D] = + + ... +
12 12  22  2n

This is the Dunkerley’s equation.

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Example on Application of Dunkerley’s equation

• A cantilevered beam response measured experimentally using a transducer, such as an

accelerometer, of mass m.

• The angular natural frequency  of the

system (i.e. of beam + transducer) is given by
1 1 1
= +
2 12  22

• where  and  are the angular natural

1 2

frequencies of the beam alone, and of an

equivalent massless beam with mass m at its
tip as shown.

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(2) ENERGY METHODS

• For conservative (i.e. no energy dissipation) systems, the total energy is constant.

 KE + PE = constant; i.e.T + V = constant

Also, Tmax = Vmax

Now, T= 1
2 mx 2
; V = 1
2 kx 2

If x = X sin t , Then x = X sin t ; x max = X ; x max = X

Thus, Tmax = Vmax  1

2 m(X ) 2 = 1
2 kX 2

 2 = k / m

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Applications to Beam/Shaft Systems (Whirling Speeds)

(a) Simply-supported beam/shaft with central load

ys = static deflection due to m

T= 1
2 my 2 = 1
2 m 2 y 2
V = 1
2 ky 2 = 1
2 mgy

mgy s g g

2 = =  = (rad/s)
my s2 ys ys

(b) Simply-supported beam/shaft with several point loads

• Deflection at each point with load applied independently

is given by,
Wi a 2 b 2
yi = where Wi = mi g
3EIL

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The influence of each mass can be isolated as shown below.

For each mass,

mi gyi g
2 = =
mi y i2 yi
where y i ’s are the static deflections due to individual mi ’s.

• Then by the Principle of Superposition, the fundamental frequency of the system can be deduced.

• Thus, by the Energy Method, the fundamental frequency is obtained as,

 =g2m1 y1 + m2 y 2 + ... + mn y n
=g
 mi y i
m1 y1 + m2 y 2 + ... + mn y n
2 2 2
 mi yi2
• Alternatively, using Dunkerley’s Method, the fundamental frequency is obtained as,
1 1 1 1
= + + ... +
 2

2
1  2
2  n2

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(3) RAYLEIGH’S QUOTIENT

• For a discrete MDOF system,

Tmax = 1 2 { y}T [m]{ y} = 1 2  2 { y}T [m]{ y}
Vmax = 1 2 { y}T [k ]{ y}

{ y}T [k ]{ y}
Thus, Tmax = Vmax gives  =
2

{ y}T [m]{ y}

• Alternatively, consider the eigenvalue problem,

[k]{u} =  2 [m] {u}

Let {u} = {u}( r ) , the rth eigenvector.

=  [m] {u}
(r ) 2 (r )
Then [k]{u} r

( r )T
Premultiplying by {u} gives

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{u}( r )T [k]{u}( r ) =  r2 {u}( r )T [m] {u}

(r )

{u}( r )T [k]{u}( r ) K rr
 =
2
r ( r )T (r )
=
{u} [m] {u} M rr

(r )
Replacing {u} by an arbitrary or trial vector {u} gives,
{u}T [k ]{u}
 =2

{u}T [m]{u}
• Note that a wide range of {u} (as shown on graph) still gives good answers.

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TUTORIAL SHEET 3: EQUATIONS OF MOTION, EIGENVALUES & EIGENVECTORS

1. (a) Use Newton’s Laws of Motion to derive the equation of motion for the 2 systems shown.

(b) Use the Energy Method to derive the equation of motion for the 2 systems.

(c) Given that a = L / 3, L = 1.0 m, m = 10 and k = 13.5 kN/m, calculate the angular natural
frequency n of each of the 2 systems.

Note: mass m is attached to

the end of a rod of negligible
a mass and of length L.
k

 

m m
(i) (ii)

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2. (a) Use Newton’s Laws of Motion to derive the equation of motion for the system shown.

(b) Use Lagrange’s Equation to derive the equation of motion for the system.

(c) Using the Determinant Method, derive expressions for the angular natural frequencies, i, and
mode shapes.

(d) Given that m = 10 kg and k = 100 kN/m, calculate the natural frequencies, fi, of the system.

k k

m 2k m
x1 x3
k k

2m

x2

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Examples: Past Examination Questions & Solutions

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3. (a) Define stiffness influence coefficient. When would flexibility influence coefficient be
employed in preference to stiffness influence coefficient?
[6 marks]

(b) The floor of a factory building is modelled as a uniform simply supported beam. The floor
is to support three machines which can be considered as point masses located at points
which are spaced by L/4 as shown in Figure Q3. The machines have a synchronous running
speed of 1800 rev/min and are likely to generate significant out-of-balance forces during
operation.

By using a load sharing approach to lump the mass of the floor at the three co-ordinates y1,
y2, y3 and at the two supports, and by using the Table of Influence coefficients show that
the mass and flexibility matrices are given, respectively, by

3 0 0 3
 9 11 7 
[ M ] = m 0 5 0 and [a] = 11 16 11
L
768EI   (Q3.1)
0 0 3  7 11 9 
where m = M/2, M = MB/2, M is mass of a machine, MB is mass of floor, and E, I, L are
Young’s Modulus, second moment of area and length of floor respectively.
[13 marks]

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(c) Given that MB = 200 kg, EI = 7 x 107 Nm2 and L = 10m, calculate the fundamental natural
frequency of vibration, f1, using the method of matrix iteration.
[10 marks]

(d) If the ratios of the natural frequencies are f2/f1 = 2 and f3/f1 = 3, determine if the floor design
is satisfactory.
[4 marks]

L/4 L/4 L/4

M 2M M

y1 y2 y3

Figure Q3

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3 (a) Explain the difference between the analysis of multi degree-of-freedom systems in physical
space and modal space. State the condition which must exist for the equations of motion to
be fully uncoupled in modal space.
[7 marks]

(b) Under a certain loading condition, a rotor system, which comprises a solid shaft and three
discs, may be represented as having a clamped end as shown in Figure Q3.

(i) Denoting the torsional stiffness of each of the three sections of the shaft as k, and
assuming that the inertia of the shaft is negligibly small compared to the inertia of the
discs, state the equations of motion in matrix form.
[6 marks]

(ii) Using matrix iteration, derive expressions for the lowest natural angular frequency and
the corresponding eigenvector of the system. (Note: do not use more than 5 iterations)
[13 marks]

(iii) Given that G = 80 GN/m2, I = 0.19 kgm2, d = 40 mm, and L = 0.8 m, calculate the
frequency of the first torsional mode and, hence, state whether or not the rotor can be
safely operated at a speed of 1800 rev/min.
[7 marks]

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Note:The torsional stiffness of a shaft which is clamped at one end and subjected to a torque
at the other end is GJ/L where polar moment of area, J = d4/32.

I 2I 2I

k k k

1 2 3

L L L

Figure Q3

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6. Transforming to Modal Coordinates

Steps:

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Examples: Past Examination Questions

1. (a) Discuss the difference between the analysis of multi degree-of-freedom systems in physical
space and modal space. State the condition which must exist for the equations of motion to
be fully uncoupled in modal space.
[7 marks]

(b) A rotor system, which comprises of a solid shaft and three discs, is supported in two bearings
as shown in Figure Q1.

(i) State the equations of motion of the system in matrix form. [6 marks]

(ii) By means of the determinant method, derive expressions for the natural angular
frequencies of the system.
[9 marks]

(iii) Determine the eigenvectors of the system and, hence, show that the modal matrix of the
system is
1 1 1 
[ ] = 1 0 − 1
  (Q1.1)
1 − 1 1 
[7 marks]

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(iv) By applying the transformation {}=[]{}, transform the equations of motion into
modal space.
[7 marks]

L L

k k
I 2I I

1 2 3

Figure Q1

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2. (a) Briefly discuss the term Rigid Body Motion. The discussion should include a statement on
the types of system in which rigid body motion occurs and the nature of the ensuing mode
of vibration.
[6 marks]

(b) Three sledges of masses 2M, M and 2M are connected together by couplings of stiffness k,
as shown in Figure Q2(a), and are placed on an ice rink where they experience negligible
friction.

(i) State the equations of motion of the system in matrix form.

[6 marks]

(ii) By means of the determinant method, derive an expression for the frequency equation
and determine the natural angular frequencies of the system.
[9 marks]

(iii) Determine the eigenvectors of the system and, hence, show that the modal matrix of the
system is
1.00 1.00 0.25 
[ ] = 1.00 0.00 − 1.00
  (Q2.1)
1.00 − 1.00 0.25 

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[6 marks]

(iv) By applying the transformation {X}=[]{}, transform the equations of motion into
modal space.
[6 marks]

x3 x2 x1
k k

2M M 2M

Figure Q2

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7. FORCED VIBRATION ANALYSIS OF MDOF SYSTEMS

There are 2 approaches, namely:

• direct solution in physical space using physical coordinates
• indirect solution via modal space using modal coordinates

7.1 Forced Vibration Analysis of MDOF Systems Using Physical Coordinates

For an MDOF system with generalised physical coordinates given by the vector v , the equations
of motion are given by,
M v + C v + K v = fv (t ) = F e jω.t

where M, C and K are the mass, damping and stiffness matrices. The steady-state solution is of
the form
v = V . e j (t-φ ) = V * . e jω.t
Substituting gives
(- ω2 M +jω.C + K)V = F
*

 Z ( )V * = F
where Z ( ) is the complex impedance matrix and is given by,

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Z ( ) =- ω2 M +jω.C + K
Thus, the complex amplitude vector X* can be expressed by,
V = Z  F = H ( )F
* −1

where H ( ) is known as the frequency response function (FRF) matrix and is given by,
H ( ) = Z ( )−1
• To obtain the frequency response functions (FRFs) of the MDOF system, the complex amplitude
vector V needs to be evaluated at each excitation angular frequency .
*

• This requires the evaluation of the FRF matrix H ( ) at each excitation angular frequency .

• This involves the determination of the complex inverse of the complex impedance matrix
Z ( ) at each excitation angular frequency .
• This approach takes a relatively long time to compute the FRFs e.g. in a previous industrial
project, it took 3 days on a supercomputer to compute 200 points of the FRF of a carbon
composite outlet guide vane for an aero-engine. The finite element model used had about
100,000 degrees-of-freedom.

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7.2 Forced Vibration Analysis of MDOF Systems Using Modal Coordinates

STEPS

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v=R p

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8.

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9. The physical space response in the Time Domain is then given by,

10. The physical space response in the Frequency Domain is obtained from Step 4
as follows.

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It may be shown that the response at point k due to excitation at point l is the element [k, l] of the
FRF matrix H() given by,

n
Vk( j )Vl ( j ) n
Vk( j )Vl ( j )
H kl ( ) =  =
j =1 k j −  2
m j + i  c j j =1 m j (j
2
−  2
+ i 2 j j )
where k and l are the mode shape values of mode j at points k and l, m j ,  j ,  j are the
( j) ( j)
V V
modal mass, modal angular frequency and modal damping ratio of mode j, respectively, and  is
the excitation frequency. An expression similar to this is often used in curve-fitting measured FRF
data.

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TUTORIAL SHEET 3: FORCED VIBRATION ANALYSIS OF MDOF SYSTEMS

1. (a) State the equations of motion in matrix form for the system shown.
(b) Derive expressions for the undamped angular natural frequencies and mode shapes.
(c) By direct solution in physical space using physical coordinates, derive expressions for the
FRFs of the system.
(d) Determine the modal matrix and the modal mass, modal damping and modal stiffness matrices.
(e) By indirect solution via modal space using modal coordinates, derive expressions for the FRFs
of the system.

jt
Note f (t ) = Fe c
k

f(t) m

k x1

k c x2

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