Module-2

3. CAD and computer graphics Software

THE DESIGN PROCESS

The general process of design is characterized by Shigley an iterative process consisting of
six phases.

1. Recognition of needs
2. Problem definition
3. Synthesis
4. Analysis & optimization
5. Evaluation
6. Presentation
1. Recognition of need (1) involves the realization by someone that a problem exists that a
thoughtful design could solve. This recognition might mean identifying some deficiency in a
current machine design by an engineer or perceiving some new product opportunity by a
salesperson.

(2) Involves a thorough specification of the item to be designed. This specification includes
the physical characteristics, function, cost, quality, and operating performance. Synthesis

(3) and analysis (4) is closely related and highly interactive. Consider the development of a
certain product design: Each of the subsystems of the product must be conceptualized by
the designer, analyzed, improved through this analysis procedure, redesigned, analyzed
again, and so on. The process is repeated until the design has been optimized within the
constraints imposed on the designer. The individual components are then synthesized and
analyzed into the final product in a similar manner. Evaluation

(5) Is concerned with measuring the design against the specifications established in the
problem definition phase. This evaluation often requires the fabrication and testing of a
prototype model to assess operating performance, quality, reliability, and other criteria. The
final phase in the design procedure is the presentation of the design. Presentation

(6) Is concerned with documenting the design by means of drawings, material

specifications, assembly lists, and so on. In essence, documentation means that the design
database is created.

Application of Computers in Design

Computer-aided design (CAD) is defined as any design activity that involves the effective
use of a computer to create, modify, analyze, or document an engineering design. CAD is
most commonly associated with the use of an interactive computer graphics system,
referred to as a CAD system. The term CAD/CAM system is also used if it includes
manufacturing as well as design applications. Companies using CAD systems have reaped
the following benefits

• Increased design productivity. The use of CAD helps the designer conceptualize the
product and its components, which in turn helps reduce the time required by the designer
to synthesize, analyze, and document the design.

• Increased available geometric forms in the design. CAD permits the designer to
select among a wider range of shapes, such as mathematically. Defined contours, blended
angles, and similar forms that would be difficult to create by manual drafting techniques.

• Improved quality of the design. The use of a CAD system with appropriate
hardware and software capabilities permits the designer to do a more complete
engineering, analysis and to consider a larger number and variety of design alternatives. The
quality of the resulting design is thereby improved.
 • Improved design documentation. The graphical output of a CAD system results in
better documentation of the design than what is practical with manual drafting.The
engineering drawings are superior, with more standardization among the drawings, fewer
drafting errors, and greater legibility. In addition, most CAD pack-ages provide automatic
documentation of design changes, which includes who made the changes, as well as when
and why the changes were made.

• Creation of a manufacturing data base. In the process of creating the

documentation for the product design (geometric specification of the product, dimensions
of the components, materials specifications, bill of materials, etc.), much of the required
data base to manufacture the product is also created.

• Design standardization. Design rules can be included in CAD software to

encourage the designer to utilize company-specified models for certain design features; for
example, to limit the number of different hole sizes that can be used in the design. This
simplifies the hole specification procedure for the designer and reduces the number of drill
bit sizes that must be inventoried in manufacturing.

The output of the creative design process includes huge amounts of data that must be
stored and managed. These functions are often accomplished in a modern CAD system by a
product data management module. A product data management (PDM) system consists of
computer software that provides links between users (e.g., designers) and a central data
base. The data base stores engineering design data such as geometric models, product
structures (e.g., bills of material), and related documentation. The software also manages
the data base by tracking the identity of users, facilitating and documenting engineering
changes, recording a history of the engineering changes on each part and product, and
providing similar documentation functions. With reference to the six phases of design
defined previously, a CAD system can facilitate four of the design phases, as indicated in
Table 23.1 and illustrated in Figureas an overlay on the design process.

Geometric Modeling. Geometric modeling involves the use of a CAD system to develop a
mathematical description of the geometry of an object. The mathematical description,
called a geometric model, is contained in computer memory. This permits the user of the
CAD system to display an image of the model on a graphics terminal and to perform certain
operations on the model. These operations include creating new geometric models from
basic building blocks available in the system, moving the images around on the screen,
zooming in on certain features of the image, and so forth. These capabilities permit the
designer to construct a model of a new product or to modify an existing model.

There are various types of geometric models used in CAD. One classification distinguishes
between two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) models. Two-dimensional
models are best utilized for design problems, such as flat objects and layouts of buildings. In
the, first CAD systems developed in the early 1970s, 2-D systems were used principally as
automated drafting systems. They were often used for 3-D objects, and it was left to the
designer or draftsman to properly construct the various views of the or solid models. A wire-
frame model uses interconnecting lines (straight line segments) to models of complicated
since the true 3-D model can be displayed in various views and from different angles.

Geometric models in CAD can also be classified as being either wire-frame models or solid
models. A wire frame models uses interconnecting lines to depict the object as illustrated.
Wire frame. geometries can become somewhat confusing because all of the lines depicting
the shape of the object are usually shown, even the lines representing the other side of the
object. Techniques are available for removing these so-called hidden lines, but even with
this improvement, wire-frame representation is still often confusing. In solid modeling,
Figure, an object is modeled in solid three dimensions, providing the user with a vision of
the object that is similar to the way it would be seen in real life. More important for
engineering purposes, the geometric model is stored in the CAD system as a 3-D solid
model.

Two other features in CAD system models are color and animation. The value of color is
largely to enhance the ability of the user to visualize the object on the graphics screen. For
example, the various components of an assembly can be displayed in different colors,
permit-ting the parts to be more readily distinguished. An limation capability permits the
operation of mechanisms and other moving objects to be displayed on the graphics
monitor.
Engineering Analysis. After a particular design alternative has been developed, some
form of engineering analysis often must be performed as part of the design process. The
analysis may take the form of stress-strain calculations, heat transfer analysis, or dynamic
simulation. The computations are often complex and time consuming, and before the
advent of the digital computer, these analyses were usually greatly simplified or even
omitted in the design procedure. The availability of software for engineering analysis on a
CAD system greatly increases the designer's ability and willingness to perform a more
thorough analysis of a proposed design. The term computer-aided engineering (CAE) is
often used for engineering analyses performed by computer. Examples of engineering
analysis software in common use on CAD systems include

 Mass properties analysis. This involves the computation of such features of a solid
object as its volume, surface area, weight, and center of gravity. It is especially
applicable in mechanical design. Prior to CAD, determination of these properties
often required painstaking and time-consuming calculations by the designer.
 Interference checking. This CAD software examines 3-D geometric models
consisting, of multiple components to identify interferences between the
components. It is useful in analyzing mechanical assemblies, chemical plants, and
similar multi component designs.
 Tolerance analysis. Software for analyzing the specified tolerances of a product's
components is used (1) to assess how the tolerances may affect the product's
function and performance, (2) to determine how tolerances may influence the ease
or difficulty of assembling the product, and (3) to assess how variations in
component dimensions may affect the overall size of the assembly.
 Finite element analysis. Software for finite element analysis (FEA), also known as
finite element modeling (FEM), is available for use on CAD systems to aid in stress-
strain, heat transfer, fluid flow, and other engineering computations. Finite element
analysis is a numerical analysis technique for determining approximate solutions to
physical problems described by differential equations that are very difficult or
impossible to solve. In FEA, the physical object is modeled by an assemblage of
discrete interconnected nodes (finite elements), and the variable of interest (e.g.,
stress. strain, temperature) in each node can be described by relatively simple
mathematical equations. Solving the equations for each node provides the
distribution of values of the variable throughout the physical object.
 Kinematic and dynamic analysis. Kinematic analysis studies the operation of
mechanical linkages and analyzes their motions. A typical kinematic analysis
specifies the motion of one or more driving members of the subject linkage, and the
resulting motions of the other links are determined by the analysis package.
Dynamic analysis extends kinematic analysis by including the effects of the mass of
each linkage member and the resulting acceleration forces as well as any externally
applied forces.
  Discrete-event simulation. This type of simulation is used to model complex
operational systems, such as a manufacturing cell or a material handling system, as
events occur at discrete moments in time and affect the status and performance of
the sys-tem. For example, discrete events in the operation of a manufacturing cell
include parts arriving for processing or a machine breakdown in the cell. Measures
of the status and performance include the status of a given machine in the cell (idle
or busy) and the overall production rate of the cell. Current discrete-event
simulation software usually includes an animated graphics capability that enhances
visualization of the system's operation.

Design Evaluation and Review. Design evaluation and review procedures can be
augmented by CAD. Some of the CAD features that are helpful in evaluating and reviewing a
proposed design include

• Automatic dimensioning. These routines determine precise distance measures between

surfaces on the geometric model identified by the user.

• Error checking. This term refers to CAD algorithms that are used to review the accuracy
and consistency of dimensions and tolerances and to assess whether the proper design
documentation format has been followed.

• Animation of discrete-event simulation solutions. Discrete-event simulation was described

above in the context of engineering analysis. Displaying the solution of the discrete-event
simulation in animated graphics is a helpful means of presenting evaluating the solution.
Input parameters, probability distributions, and other factors can be changed to assess their
effect on the performance of the system.

• Plant layout design scores. A number of software packages are available for facilities
design, that is, designing the floor layout and physical arrangement of equipment in a
facility. Some of these packages provide one or more numerical scores for each plant layout
design which allow the user to assess the merits of the alternative with respect to material
flow, closeseness ratings and similar factor.

The traditional procedure in designing a new product includes fabrication of a proto-type

before approval and release of the product for production. The prototype serves as the
"acid test" of the design, permitting the designer and others to see, feel, operate, and test
the product for any last-minute changes or enhancement of the design. The problem with
building a prototype is that traditionally very time consuming in some cases months are
required to make and assemble all of the parts. Motivated by the need to reduce this lead
time for building the prototype, engineers have developed several new approaches that rely
on the use of the geometric model of the product residing in the CAD data file. We mention
two of these approaches here: (1) rapid prototyping and (2) virtual prototyping.
 Rapid prototyping is a general term applied to a family of fabrication technologies that
allow engineering prototypes of solid parts to be made in minimum lead time . The common
feature of the rapid prototyping processes is that they fabricate the part directly from the
CAD geometric model. This is usually done by dividing the solid object into a series of layers
of small thickness and then defining the area shape of each layer. For example, a vertical
cone would be divided into a series of circular layers, the circles becoming smaller and
smaller toward the vertex of the cone. The rapid prototyping processes then fabricate the
object by starting at the base and building each layer on top of the preceding layer to
approximate the solid shape. The fidelity of the approximation depends on the thickness of
each layer. As layer thickness decreases, accuracy increases. There are a vari-ety of layer-
building processes used in rapid prototyping. The most common process, called
stereolithography, uses a photosensitive liquid polymer that cures (solidifies) when sub-
jected to intense light. Curing of the polymer is accomplished using a moving laser beam
whose path for each layer is controlled by means of the CAD model. A solid polymer pro-
totype of the part is built up of hardened layers, one on top of another.

Virtual prototyping, based on virtual reality technology, involves the use of the CAD
geometric model to construct a digital mock-up of the product, enabling the designer and
others to obtain the sensation of the real physical product without actually building the
physical prototype. Virtual prototyping has been used in the automotive industry to
evaluate new car style designs. The observer of the virtual prototype is able to assess the
appearance of the new design even though no physical model is on display. Other
applications of virtual prototyping include checking the feasibility of assembly operations,
for example, parts mating, access and clearance of parts during assembly, and assembly
sequence.

Automated Drafting. The fourth area where CAD is useful (step 6 in the design process) is
presentation and documentation. CAD systems can be used as automated drafting machine
to prepare highly accurate engineering drawings quickly. It is estimated that a CAD system
increases productivity in the drafting function by about fivefold over manual preparation of
drawings.
SOFTWARE CONFIGURATION OF A GRAPHICS SYSTEM

In the operation of the graphics system by the user, a variety of activities takes place which
can be divided into three categories:

• Interact with the graphics terminal to create and alter images on the screen.

• Construct a model of something physical out of the images on the screen. The models are
sometimes called application models.

• Enter the model into computer memory and/or secondary storage.

In working with the graphics system, the user performs these various activities in
combination rather than sequentially. The user constructs a physical model and inputs it to
memory by interactively describing images to the system. The reason for separating these
activities in this fashion is that they correspond to the general configuration of the software
package used with the interactive computer graphics system. The graphics software can be
divided into three modules according to a conceptual model suggested by Foley and Van

Dam.

• The graphics package also called the graphics system

• The application program

• The application database

This software configuration is illustrated in Fig. 5.1. The central module is the application
program. It controls the storage of data into and retrieves data out of the application
database. The application program is driven by the user through the graphics package which
is also known as the graphics system.
The application program is implemented by the user to construct the model of a physical
entity whose image is to be viewed on the graphics screen. Application program are written
for particular problem areas. Problem areas in engineering design would include
architecture, construction, mechanical components, electronics, chemical engineering and
aerospace engineering. Problem areas other than design would include flight simulators,
graphical display of data, mathematical analysis and even art work. In each case, the
application software is developed to deal with images and conventions which are
appropriate for that field.
The graphics package is the software support between the user and the graphics terminal. It
manages the graphical interaction between the user and the system. It also serves as the
interface between the user and the application software.
The graphics package consists of input subroutines and output subroutines. The input
routines accept input commands and data from the user and forward them to the
application program. The output subroutines control the display terminal and converts the
application models into two-dimensional or three-dimensional graphical pictures.
The third module in the ICG software is the database. The database contains mathematical,
numerical and logical definitions of the application models such as electronic circuits,
mechanical components, automobile bodies and so on. It also includes alphanumeric
information associated with the models, such as bills of materials, mass properties and other
data. The contents of the database can be readily displayed on the CRT or plotted out in the
hard copy form.
FUNCTIONS OF GRAPHICS PACKAGE

1. Generation of Graphic Elements

A graphic element in computer graphics is a basic image entity such as a dot (or point), line
segment, circle and so on. The collection of elements in the system could also include
alphanumeric characters and special symbols. There is often a special hardware component
in the graphic system associated with the display of many of the elements. This speeds up
the process of generating the element. The user can construct the application model out of
a collection of elements available in the system.

The term primitive is often used in reference to graphic elements. Accordingly, a primitive is
a three-dimensional graphic element such as a sphere, cube or cylinder. In three-
dimensional wire frame models and solid modelling, primitives are used as building blocks
to construct the 3D model of the particular object of interest to the user.

2. Transformations

Transformations are used to change the image on the display screen and to reposition the
item in the database. Transformations are applied to the graphic elements in order to aid
the user in constructing an application model. These transformations include enlargement
and reduction of the image by a process called scaling, repositioning the image or
translation and rotation.

3. Display Control and Windowing Functions

This function set provides the user with the ability to view the image from the desired angle
and at the desired magnification. In effect it makes use of various transformations to display
the application model the way the user wants it shown. This is sometimes referred to as
windowing because the graphic screen is like a window being used to observe the graphics
model. The notion is that the window can be placed wherever desired in order to look at the
object being modelled.

Another aspect of display control is hidden line removal. In most graphic systems, the
image is made up of lines used to represent a particular object. Hidden line removal is the
procedure by which the image is divided into its visible and invisible (or hidden) lines. In
some systems, the user must identify which lines are invisible so that they can be removed
from the image to make it more understandable. In other systems the graphics package is
sufficiently sophisticated to remove the hidden lines from the picture automatically.

4. Segmenting Functions

segmenting functions provide users with the capability to selectively replace, delete or
otherwise modify portions of the image. The term segment refers to a particular portion of
the image which has been identified for purposes of modifying it. The segment may define a
single element or logical grouping of elements that can be modified as a unit. Storage type
CRT tubes are unsuited to segmenting functions. To delete or modify a portion of the image
on a storage tube requires erasing the entire picture and redrawing it with the changes
incorporated. Raster scan refresh tubes are ideally suited to segmenting functions because
the screen is automatically redrawn 30 or more times per second. The image is regenerated
each cycle from a display file, a file used for storage that is part of the hardware in the raster
scan CRT. The segment can readily be defined as a portion of that display file by giving it a
name. The contents of that portion of the file would then be deleted or altered to execute
the particular segmenting function.

5. User Input Functions

User input functions constitute a critical set of functions in the graphics package because
they permit the operator to enter commands or data to the system. The entry is
accomplished by means of operator input devices. The user input functions must of course
be written specifically for the particular component of input devices used on the system.
The extent to which the user input functions are well designed has a significant effect on
how "friendly" the system is to the user that is how easy it is to work on the system.

The input functions should be written to maximize the benefits of the interactive feature of
ICG. The software design compromise is to find the optimum balance between providing
enough functions to conveniently cover all data entry situations without flooding the user
with so many command that they cannot remember. One of the goals that are sought after
by software designers in computer graphics is to simplify the user interface so that a
designer with little or no programming experience can function effectively on the system.
CONSTRUCTING THE GEOMETRY

The Use of Graphics Elements

The graphics system accomplishes the definition of the model by constructing it out of
graphic elements. These elements are called by the user during the construction process
and added one by one to create the model. There are several aspects about this
construction process which will be discussed.

First, as each new element is being called but before it is added to the model, the user can
specify its size, its position and its orientation. These specifications are necessary to form
the model to the proper shape and scale. For this purpose the various transformations are
utilized.

A second aspect of the geometric construction process is that graphics elements can be
subtracted as well as added. Another way of saying this is that the model can be formed out
of negative elements as well as positive elements.

Figure illustrates this construction feature for a two-dimensional object, C. The object is
drawn by subtracting circle B from rectangle A.

A third feature available during model building is the capability to group several elements
together into units which are sometimes called cells. A cell, in this context, refers to a
combination of elements which can be called to use anywhere in the model. For example, if
a bolt is to be used several places in the construction of a mechanical assembly model, the
bolt can be formed as a cell and added anywhere to the model. The use of graphic cells is a
convenient and powerful feature in geometric model construction.

Defining the Graphic Elements

The user has a variety of different ways to call a particular graphic element and position it
on the geometric model. These components are maintained in the database in the
mathematical form and referenced to a three-dimensional coordinate system. For example,
a point would be defined simply by its x, y and z coordinates. A polygon would be defined as
an ordered set of points representing the corners of the polygon. A circle would be defined
by its centre and radius. Mathematically, a circle can be defined in the x, y plane by the
equation: (x — m) 2 + (y — n) 2 = r2

TRANSFORMATION IN GRAPHICS
Geometric transformations provide a means by which an image can be enlarged in size, or
reduced, rotated, or moved. These changes are brought about by changing the co-ordinates
of the picture to a new set of values depending upon the requirements.

CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS USED IN GRAPHICS AND WINDOWING

Transformations can be carried out either in 2-dimensions or in 3-dimensions. The theory of
two-dimensional transformations. This is then extended to three dimensions.

When a design package is initiated, the display will have a set of co-ordinate values.
These are called default co-ordinates. A user co-ordinate system is one in which the
designer can specify his own co-ordinates for a specific design application. These screen
independent co-ordinates can have large or small numeric range, or even negative values,
so that the model can be represented in a natural way. It may, however, happen that the
picture is too crowded with several features to be viewed clearly on the display screen.
Therefore, the designer may want to view only a portion of the image, enclosed in a
rectangular region called a window. Different parts of the drawing can thus be selected for
viewing by placing the windows. Portions inside the window can be enlarged, reduced or
edited depending upon the requirements. Figure shows the use of windowing to enlarge the
picture.
VIEW PORT
It may be sometimes desirable to display different portions or views of the drawing in
different regions of the screen. A portion of the screen where the contents of the window
are displayed is called a view port. Let the screen size be X = 0 to 200 and Y = 0 to 130. A
view port can be defined by the co-ordinates say X1 = 65, X2 = 130, Y1 = 50 and Y2 = 100, If
we use the same window as in previous Fig. the definition of this view port will display the
image in the right hand top quarter of the screen shown in fig choosing different view ports
multiple views can be placed on the screen. Second Fig shows four views of a component
displayed using view port commands.
2-D TRANSFORMATIONS
In computer graphics, drawings are created by a series of primitives which are represented
by the co-ordinates of their end points. Certain changes in these drawings can be made by
performing some mathematical operations on these co-ordinates. The basic transformations
are scaling, translation and rotation

SCALING

Changing the dimensions of window and view port, it is possible to alter the size of
drawings. This technique is not satisfactory in all cases. A drawing can be made bigger by
increasing the distance between the points of the drawing. In general, this can be done by
multiplying the co-ordinates of the drawing by an enlargement or reduction factor called
scaling factor, and the operation is called scaling. Referring to Fig P1 (30, 20) represents a
point in the XY plane. In matrix form, P1 can be represented as:

P1 = [30, 20]

If we multiply this by a matrix

 An example of scaling in the case of a triangle is shown in Fig. 3.11. Fig. 3.11 (a)
shows the original picture before scaling. Fig. 3.11 (b) shows the triangle after the co-
ordinates are multiplied by the scaling matrix

TRANSLATION

Moving drawing or model across the screen is called translation. This is accomplished by
adding to the co-ordinates of each corner point the distance through which the drawing is
to be moved (translated). Fig. 3.12 shows a rectangle (Fig. 3.12 (a)) being moved to a new
position (Fig. 3.12 (b)) by adding 40 units to X co-ordinate values and 30 units to Y co-
ordinate values. In general, in order to translate drawing by (Tx , Ty) every point X, Y will be
replaced by a point X1 , Y1
ROTATION

Another useful transformation is the rotation of a drawing about a pivot point. Consider Fig.
3.13. Point P1(40, 20) can be seen being rotated about the origin through an angle, 0 = 45°,
in the anti-clockwise direction to position P2. The co-ordinates of P2 can be obtained by
multiplying the co-ordinates of P1 by the matrix
HOMOGENEOUS TRANSFORMATIONS

Each of the above transformations with the exception of translation can be represented as a
row vector X, Y and a 2 X 2 matrix. However, all the four transformations discussed above
can be represented as a product of a 1 X 3 row vector and an appropriate 3 X 3 matrix. The
conversion of a two-dimensional co-ordinate pair (X, Y) into a 3-dimensional vector can be
achieved by representing the point as [X Y 1]. After multiplying this vector by a 3 x 3 matrix,
another homogeneous row vector is obtained [X1 Y1 1]. The first two terms in this vector
are the co-ordinate pair which is the transform of (X, Y). This three dimensional
representation of a two dimensional plane is called homogeneous co-ordinates and the
transformation using the homogeneous co-ordinates is called homogeneous
transformation. The matrix representations of the four basic transformations are given
below.
COMBINATION'TRANSFORMAT1ONS

Sequences of transformations can be combined into a single transformation using the

concatenation process. For example, consider the rotation of a line about an arbitrary point.
Line AB is to be rotated through 45° in anticlockwise direction about point A (Fig 3.16(a)).
Fig. 3.16(b) shows an inverse translation of AB to A1B1. A1B1 is then rotated through 45° to
A2B2. The line A2B2 is then translated to A3B3