Cells

Cell Fractionation  Chromatin : consist of DNA and proteins

 Plasma membrane : enclosing the cell
 Is a technique which takes cells apart and  Ribosome : complexes that make proteins
separates major organelles and other  Golgi apparatus : synthesis, modification,
subcellular structures  to identify its sorting, and secretion of cell products
functions  Lysosome : digestive  hydrolyzed
 At the bottom of the tube, it will forming a  Mitochondrion : cellular respiration, ATP
pellet generation
 At low speed : the pellet consist of large  Peroxisome : have various specialized
components metabolic functions, produces hydrogen
 At high speed : the pellet consist of small peroxide (as a by-product) then converts it to
components water
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic  Microvilli : increase the cells surface area
 Cytoskeleton : reinforces cell’s shape,
 Prokaryotic : bacteria, archaea function in cell movement
 Eukaryotic : protest, fungi, animals, plants  Microfilament
 All types of cells are bounded by plasma  Intermediate filaments
membrane (a selective barrier)  Microtubule
 Cytosol is not liquid, but more jellylike  Centrosome : initiation if microtubule,
substance contains a pair of centrioles
 Major differences between pro and eu are :  Flagellum : motility structure, composed of a
the location of their DNA cluster of microtubules within an extension of
 pro : the DNA is concentrated in a certain the plasma membrane
region called nucleoid (not a membrane  Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) : membrane
enclosed region) synthesis and other synthetic process,
 eu : the DNA is located in nucleus metabolic process
 The structure of prokaryotic :  Rough
 Smooth

Plant Cell

 Cell walls : maintains cell shape and protects

cell from mechanical damage, made of
cellulose, polysaccharides, and protein
 Plasmodesmata : channel that connect the
 In prokaryotic, their cytoplasm are organized
cytoplasm of adjacent cell
into different region
 Chloroplast : converts energy of sunlight to
 The smallest bacteria cells are mycoplasmas
chemical energy
 Larger organism do not generally have larger
 Central vacuole : storage, breakdown of waste
cells, but they are just have more cells
products, and hydrolysis of macromolecules
 High ratio of surface area to volume is
(nantinya vakuola akan membesar dan
important (especially in cells that exchange a
menonjol yang merupakan salah satu
lot : like intestinal cells  have microvilli to
mekanisme yang terjadi pada pertumbuhan
increase their surface area)
tanaman)
Animal Cell

 Nucleus :
Nucleus
 Nuclear envelope : double membrane,
perforated by pores, continuous with ER  Contains most of the genes (some other are
 Nucleolus : involved in production of located in mitochondria and choloroplast)
ribosome (a nucleus have one or more  The nuclear envelope is double membrane
nucleoli) and is perforated by pore structure
  At the lip of each pore, the inner and outer  Are complexes made of ribosomal RNA and
membrane of nuclear envelope are continuous proteins.
 At each pore, there are pore complex that  Not membrane bounded and thus are not
lines each pore and regulates the entry and considered as an organelles.
exit of protein, RNAs, and large  Cell that active in protein synthesis has a lot
macromolecule of ribosomes and has prominent (menonjol)
 Nuclear lamina is the nuclear side of the nucleoli.
envelope that form a netlike array of protein  Human pancreas cell, which makes many
filaments that maintains the shape of nucleus digestive enzymes, has a few millions of
by mechanically supporting the nuclear bound ribosomes.
envelope.  Ribosomes build protein in two cytoplasmic
 Nuclear matrix is a framework of protein locales, in cytosol and outside the RE.
fibers extending throughout the nuclear  Free ribosome that suspended in cytosol and
interior. bound ribosomes that attached to the outside
 Nuclear lamina and nuclear matrix may help part of the RE are structurally identical.
organize the genetic material.  Proteins that made on free ribosome :
 DNA is organized into discrete units called enzymes that catalyze the first steps of sugar
chromosomes. Each chromosomes contains breakdowns.
one long DNA molecule associated with
 Bound ribosomes generally make proteins that
many proteins.
are destined for insertion into membrane, such
 Proteins help to coil the DNA molecule.
as lysosome.
 The complex of DNA and the proteins is
called chromatin.
 Chromosomes will coil when the cell are
going to divide. Endomembrane System
 Human cell has 46 chromosomes in nucleus ,
 Includes :
but the sex cell (23)
 The nuclear envelope
 Ribosomal RNA is synthesized from
 The RE
instruction in the DNA.
 The Golgi apparatus
 In the nucleolus, proteins that imported from
 Lysosomes
the cytoplasm are assembled with rRNA into
 Various kinds of vesicles and vacuoles
large and small subunits of ribosome. These
 The plasma membrane.
subunits then exit the nucleolus via pores to
 The task :
go to the cytoplasm then the subunits can be
 Synthesis of proteins
assembled into a complete ribosome.
 Transport of the proteins into membrane
 The nucleus directs protein synthesis by
and organelles or out of the cell
synthesizing messenger RNA (mRNA)
 Metabolism and movement of lipids
according to the instructions provided by the
 Detoxification of poisons
DNA.
 Vesicles are a sacs made of membrane.
 The mRNA then transported to the cytoplasm
via nuclear pores.
 In the cytoplasm, ribosomes translate the
mRNA genetic message into the primary Endoplasmic Reticulum
structure of specific polypeptide.
 Is an extensive network of membranous
tubules and sacs called cisternae.
 The ER membrane separates the internal
compartment of the ER (ER
lumen/cavity/cisternal space) from the
cytosol.
 The space between the two membrane of the
nuclear envelope is continuous with the
lumen.
Ribosomes  Smooth ER are lacks of ribosomes.
 Rough ER are studded with ribosomes.  Most types of proteins that secreted are
 Smooth ER functions : glycoprotein (protein + carbohydrates).
 Synthesis of lipids  Rough ER grows in place by adding
 Metabolism of carbohydrates membrane proteins and phospholipids to its
 Detoxification of drugs and poisons own membrane.
 Storage of calcium ions
The Golgi Apparatus
 Enzymes on the smooth ER are important in
the synthesis of lipids, including oils, steroids,  A place where products of ER are being
and new membrane phospholipids. modified and stored and the sent to other
 Steroids that produced in the smooth ER : sex destinations.
hormones of vertebrates and the various  Secretion cells has large Golgi apparatus.
steroidshormones secreted by the adrenal  Consists of flattened membranous sacs called
glands. cisternae.
 Other enzymes in the smooth ER help  Membranes of cisternae on opposite side of
detoxify drugs and poisons, especially in the the stack differing in thickness and molecular
liver cells. compositions.
 Detoxification : adding hydroxyl groups to  Cis face is located near the ER.
drug molecules, making them more easier to  Buds from the ER will fusing with Cis face
flushed by the body. membrane.
 Example of the drugs metabolism by the  Trans face is the face where vesicles pinch
smooth ER : sedative phenobarbital and other off and travel to other sites.
barbiturates.
 Glycoproteins formed in the ER have their
 Barbiturates and alcohol induce the carbohydrates modified, first in the ER, then
proliferation (rapid increase) of smooth ER, thay pass through the Golgi.
thus increasing the rate of detoxification. This
 The Golgi removes some sugar monomers
can increase the body tolerance of the drugs.
and substitutes others, producing a large
 Barbiturates abuse can decrease the variety of carbohydrates.
effectiveness of antibiotics and other useful
 Membrane phospholipids may also be altered
drugs.
(changed) in the Golgi.
 In muscle cells, the smooth ER membrane
 Golgi also manufactures some
pumps calcium ions from the cytosol to the
macromolecules : pectins and other
ER lumen.
noncellulose polysaccharides.
 When the muscle cell is stimulated by a nerve
 The cisternae of the Golgi actually progress
impulse, calcium ions rush back across the ER
forward from the cis to the trans face,
membrane into the cytosol  trigger
carrying and modifying their cargo as the
contraction of the muscle cells. move.
 In other cell type, calcium ion release from  The Golgi products will given an
the smooth ER trigger different response, such identification tags, such as phosphate groups.
as secretion of vesicles carrying newly
synthesized proteins. Lysosomes
 Functions of the rough ER :
 Protein synthesis  Is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes
that many eukaryotic cells use to dugest
 Certain pancreatic cells synthesize the insulin
macromolecules by hydrolyzed them.
protein in the ER and secrete this hormones
into the bloodstream.  Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic
environment.
 The polypeptide chain grows in the bound
ribosome  the chain is threaded into the ER  If a lysosomes breaks open or leaks its
contents, the released enzymes are not very
lumen through pore in the membrane 
active because the cytosol has a near-neutral
polypeptide fold into its functional shape 
pH.
secretory protein is formed  depart from the
 But excessive leakage can destroy the cell by
ER wrapped in vesicles. self-digestion.
  The hydrolytic enzymes are made by rough  Small vacuoles can hold reserves (cadangan)
ER and then transferred to the Golgi for of important organic molecules  such as the
further processing. proteins that stockpiled in the seeds
 Some lysosomes probably arise by budding  Vacuoles can also protect plant against
from the trans face of the Golgi. herbivores by storing compounds that are
 The proteins on the inner surface of the poisonous or unpalatable to animals.
lysosomal membrane are not destroyed by its  Some vacuoles also contains pigments  such
own enzymes because the proteins has three- as the red and blue pigments of petals that
dimensional shape that protect the vulnerable he;p attract pollinating insects to flowers.
bonds from enzymatic attacks.  Central vacuoles : contain cell sap (plant
 Amoebas and many other unicellular eat by cell’s main repository (gudang) of inorganic
phagocytosis. ions including potassium and chloride 
 In phagocytosis, the food vacuole formed and developed by the coalescence of smaller
then fuses with a lysosomes  the digestion vacuoles
products then pass into the cytosol and  Central vacuoles plays a major role in growth
become nutrients for the cell. of plant cells, which enlarge as the vacuole
 White blood cell also use the phagocytosis absorbs water, enabling the cell to become
mechanism. larger with a minimal investment in
 Autophagy : a process where lysosomes use cytoplasm.
their own hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the
cell’s own organic material. Mitochondria and Chloroplast
 Damaged organelles or small amounts of  Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the
cytosol becomes surrounded by a double organelles that convert energy to forms that
membrane (of unknown origin) and then a cells can use for work.
lysosome fuses with the membrane. The  Mitochondria are the site of cellular
products then released to the cytosol for reuse. respiration, the metabolic process that uses
 Cell that uses this mechanism are human liver oxygen to drive the generation of ATP by
cells. extracting energy from sugars, fats, and other
 Lack functioning of lysosomal hydrolytic fuels.
enzymes can cause some disease.  Chloroplast are the site of photosynthesis, a
 Example : Tay-Sachs  a lipid digesting process that converts solar energy to chemical
enzymes is missing or inactive, so the brain energy by absorbing sunlight and using itu to
becomes impaired by an accumulation of drive the synthesis of organic compounds
lipids in the cells. such as sugars from carbon dioxide and water.
Vacuoles  Both mitochondria and chloroplast have the
same origins.
 Are large vesicles derived from the ER and  Endosymbiont theory : early ancestor of
Golgi. eukaryotic cell engulfed an oxygen-using-
 The vacuolar membrane is selective in non-photosynthetic prokaryotic cell. The
transporting solutes  so the solution inside engulfed cell formed a relationship with the
the vesicle is different from the cytosol. host cell in which it was enclosed, forming an
 Food vacuoles formed by a phagocytosis. endosymbiont.
 Contractile vacuoles : to pump excess water  Then the host cell and its endosymbiont
out of the cell to maintain suitable merged into a single organism  a eukaryotic
concentration of ions and molecules inside the cell with a mitochondrion.
cell  owned by unicellular eukaryotes that  Evidences :
living in fresh water.  Mitochondria and chloroplast have two
 Plants and fungi have certain vacuoles that membrane surrounding them. (chloroplast
carry out enzymatic hydrolysis  like also gave an internal system of
lysosome in animal cells. membranous sacs).
 Mitochondria and chloroplast contain
ribosome, as well as multiple cellular
 DNA molecules associated with their  Stroma : the fluid outside the thylakoids
inner membranes to synthesize some containing the chloroplast DNA and ribosome
organelles proteins on ribosome. as well as many enzymes.
 Mitochondria and chloroplast are  So the three compartments of chloroplast is :
autonomous organelles that grow and  The intermembrane space
reproduce within the cell.  The stroma
 The thylakoid space
Mitochondria
 Chloroplast is dynamic : its change shape,
 Cells that move or contract have more divide, and move around the cell with
mitochondria than less active cells. mitochondria and other organelles along the
 Each of the two membranes is a phospholipids tracks of cytoskeleton.
bilayer with a unique collection of embedded  Chloroplast is a kinds of plastid.
proteins.  Other plastid :
 The outer membrane is smooth, but the inner  Amyloplast : colorless organelle that
membrane is convoluted with infoldings stores starch (amylose)  particularly in
called cristae. roots and tubers.
 The inner membrane divides the mitochondria  Chromoplast : has pigments that give
into two internal space. fruits and flowers their orange and yellow
 The first space is intermembrane space, region hues.
between the inner and outer membrane.
 The second space is mitochondrial matrix.
 The matrix contains many different enzymes,
mitochondrial DNA, and ribosomes.
 The enzymes are used to catalyzed the steps
of cellular respiration.
 The enzymes and other proteins are built into
the inner membrane.
 The cristae give the inner mitochondrial
membrane large surface area, thus enhancing
the productivity of cellular respiration. Peroxisomes
 Mitochondria is not motionless, its moving
around, changing shape, and fusing or  Is a specialized metabolic compartments
dividing in two. bounded by a single membrane.
 Mitochondria in living cell form a branched  Contain enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms
tubular network. from various substrates and transfer them to
oxygen producing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
Chloroplast as a by-product.
 Some peroxisome use oxygen to break fatty
 Contain green pigment chlorophyll, along acid down into smaller molecules that are
with enzymes and other molecules that transported to mitochondria and used as fuel
function in the photosynthetic production of for cellular respiration.
sugar.
 In liver, peroxsisome detoxify alcohol and
 Found in leaves and other green organ of other harmful compounds by transferring
plants and algae. hydrogen from the poisons to oxygen.
 Its contents are partitioned from the cytosol  The H2O2 formed by peroxisome is itself
by an envelope consisting of two membranes toxic, but the organelle also contains an
separated by a very narrow intermembrane enzyme that convert H2O2 into water.
space.
 Glyoxysomes : specialized peroxisome that
 Inside the chloroplast is another membranous contains enzymes that initiate the conversion
system in the form of flattened, of fatty acids to sugar, which emerging
interconnected sacs called thylakoid. seedling uses as a source of energy and
 Thylakoids are stacked, each stack is called carbon until it can produce its own sugar by
granum.
 photosynthesis  found in fat-storing tissues of  Is a hollow rods constructed from a globular
plant seeds. protein called tubulin.
 Peroxisome grow larger by incorporating  Each tubulin protein is a dimer, a molecule
proteins made in cytosol and ER, as well as made up of two subunits.
lipid made in the ER and within the  Tubulin dimer consist of α-tubulin and β-
peroxisome itself. tubulin.
 They increase their number by splitting in two  Microtubules grow in length by adding
when they reach a certain size. tubulin dimer, they can also be diassembled
and their tubulin used to build microtubules
elsewhere in the cell.
 The orientation of tubulin dimers is causing
two ends of a microtubule are slightly
different  one end can add or release tubulin
dimers at a much higher rate than the other 
Cytoskeleton its called “plus end” because the “on” and
“off “ rates are much higher.
 Is a network of fibers extending throughout
 Main functions :
the cytoplasm.
 Maintenance of cell shape (compression-
 There are three kinds :
resisting “girders)
 Microtubules
 Cell motility (cilia or flagella)
 Microfilaments
 Chromosome movements
 Intermediate filaments
 Organelle movements
 Cytoskeleton is giving mechanical support to
 Microtubules guide vesicles from the ER to
the cell and maintains its shape.
the Golgi and from Golgi to plasma
 Cytoskeleton is stabilized by a balance
membrane.
between opposing forces that exerted
 In animal cell, microtubules grow from a
(dikerahkan) by its elements.
centrosome.
 It can be quickly be dismantled in one part of
 Within the centrosome is a pair of centrioles,
the cell and reassembled in a new location,
each composed of nine sets of triplets
changing the shape of the cell.
microtubules arranged in a ring.
 Cell motility includes both changes in cell
 Specialized arrangement of microtubules is
location and movements of cell parts 
responsible for the beating of flagella and cilia
requires the interaction between cytoskeleton
(a microtubule-containing extension).
and motor proteins.
 Sperm cell, algae, and some plants cell have
 Example of this interaction :
flagella and cilia as their locomotor
 Cytoskeletal elements and motor proteins
appendages (alat gerak tambahan).
work together with plasma membrane
 When cilia and flagella held in place as part of
molecules to allow whole cells to move
tissue layer, they can move fluid over the
along fibers outside the cell.
surface of the tissue  such as in the ciliated
 Inside the cell, vesicle and other
lining of the trachea that sweeps mucus
organelles often use motor protein to
containing debris out of the lung  also in the
move to their destinations along a track
provided by cytoskeleton. cilia lining of the oviduct that help move an
 Vesicle containing neurotransmitter egg toward uterus.
molecules migrate to the tips of axons  Motile cilia occur in large number, but
that release these molecules as chemical glagella are just one or a few per cell.
signals to adjacent nerve cell.  A cilium may also act as a signal-receiving
 The cytoskeleton also manipulate plasma antenna for the cell  usually non-motile 
membrane, bending it inward to form only one per cell
food vacuoles or other phagocytic  Membrane proteins of on this kind of cilium
vesicles. transmit molecular signals from the cells
environment to its interior  triggering
Microtubules
 signaling pathways that may lead to changes
in the cells activity.
 Cilium signaling appears to be crucial to brain
function and to embryonic development.
 Motile cilia and flagella share a common
structure:
 Each has a group of microtubules
sheathed in an extension of the plasma
membrane
 Nine doublets of microtubules are Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
arranged in a ring, with two single
microtubules in its center.  Are thin solids rods of twisted double chain
 Called a “9+2” pattern (non-motile has that built from molecules of a globular protein
“9+0”) called actin.
 This arrangements is anchored in the cell by a  Can form structural networks when certain
basal body (has “9+0” pattern) proteins bind along the side of such a filament
 The basal body of fertilizing sperm’s and allow a new filament to extend as a
flagellum enters the egg and becomes a branch.
centriole.  Present in all eukaryotic cells
 Bending movements of cilia and flagella  Main functions :
involve large motor proteins called dyneins.  Maintenance of cell shape (tension-
 A typical dynein protein has two feet that bearing elements)
walk along the microtubule of the adjacent  Changes in cell shape
doublet using ATP (one foot maintains  Muscle contraction
contact while the other releases and reattaches  Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells
one step farther along the microtubule)  Cell motility (amoeboid movement)
 The outer doublets and two central  Division of animal cells
microtubules are held together by a flexible  Cortical microfilaments : a three dimensional
cross linking proteins network formed by microfilaments just inside
 The walking movements is coordinated, so it the plasma membrane that helps support the
happens on one side of the circle at a time. cells shape  gives the cells a cortex
 Cortex : outer cytoplasmic layer that have
semisolid consistency like a gel (contrast with
the more fluid state of the interior cytoplasm)
 Bundles of microfilaments make up the core
of microvilli, a delicate projections that
increase the cell’s surface area  found in a
nutrient-absorbing intestinal cells.
 Interaction between actin filaments and
myosin causing the contraction of muscle
cells.
 Pseudopodia : extending cellular extension 
found in amoeba.
 Cytoplasmic streaming : a circular flow of
cytoplasm that caused by the interaction of
actin and myosin  speeds the distribution of
materials within the cells.
 Cell Walls

 Protects the plant cells, maintains its shape,

prevents excessive uptake of water, and hold
up the plant against the force of gravity.
 The exact chemical compositions of the cell
wall varies from the species to species.
 Microfibrils that made of polysaccharides
Intermediate Filaments cellulose are synthesized by an enzyme called
cellulose synthase and secreted to
 Only found in the cell of certain animal,
extracellular space  become embedded in a
including vertebrates.
matrix of other polysaccharides and other
 Main functions :
proteins.
 Maintenance of cell shape (tension-
bearing elements)  Young plant cell first secretes a relatively thin
 Anchorage of nucleus and certain other and flexible wall called the primary cell wall.
organelles  Between the primary cell walls of adjacent
 Formation of nuclear lamina cell there is the middle lamella.
 Is constructed from a particular molecular  Middle lamella : a thin layer rich in sticky
subunit belonging to a family of proteins polysaccharides called pectins  act as glue.
whose members include keratins.  Pectins is also used in cooking as a thickening
 Are more permanent fixture  not easy to agent in jams and jellies.
disassembled and reassembled  even after  Some plant cells strengthen its wall by
cells die, they often still persist. secreting hardening substances into primary
 Example : cell walls.
 The outer layer of our skins consists of  Other cell add secondary cell wall between
dead skin cells full of keratins filaments. the plasma membrane and the primary wall.
 Chemical treatments that remove  The secondary wall often deposited in several
microfilaments and microtubules drom laminated layers that has a strong and durable
the cytoplasm of the living cells leave a matrix that affords the cell protection and
web of intermediate filaments that retains support.
its original shape.  Plasmodesmata = channel.
 Nucleus typically sits within a cage made of Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
intermediate filaments, fixed in location by
branches of the filaments that extend into the  The main ingredients of the ECM are
cytoplasm. glycoproteins and other carbohydrate-
 The network of intermediate filaments anchor containing molecules secreted by the cells.
the microfilaments supporting the intestinal  Most abundant glycoproteins is collagen.
microvilli.  The collagen fibers are embedded in a
network woven out of proteoglycans.
 A proteoglycans molecule consists of a small
core protein with many carbohydrate chains
covalently attached.
  Proteoglycans complexes form when
proteoglycans molecules are non-covalently
attached to a single long polysaccharides
molecules.
 Cell are attached to the ECM via fibronectins
(a kinds of glycoproteins).
 Fibronectins and other ECM proteins bind to
cell-surface receptor proteins called integrins
that are built into the plasma membrane.
 Integrins are in a position to transmit signals
between the ECM and the cytoskeleton an
thus to integrate changes occurring outside
and inside the cell.
 By communicating with a cell through
integrins, the ECM can regulate a cells
behavior.
 Example :
 Some cells in developing embryo migrate
along specific pathways by matching the
orientation of their microfilaments to the
grains of fibers in the ECM.
 ECM can influence the activity of genes
in the nucleus. Information about CEM
probably reaches the nucleus by a
combination of mechanical (involves
fibronectins, integrins, and
microfilaments) and chemical signaling
pathways.

Cells Junction