1 CoE 132 Programming and Problem Solving

Programming and Problem

Solving

CoE 132 Programming and Problem Solving

Dr. Dhayaa R. Khudher

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List of Contents
1. Introduction to Computer and Programming
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Hardware
1.2.1 The CPU
1.2.2 Main Memory
1.2.3 Secondary Storage Devices
1.2.4 Input Devises
1.2.5 Output Devises
1.3. Software
1.3.1. System Software
1.3.2. Application Software
1.4. Computer Languages
1.4.1 Machine Language
1.4.2 Assembly Language
1.4.3 High Level Language
1.5. How Computer Store Data
1.6. Storing Numbers
1.7. Checkpoints
2. The programing processes.
3. How a Program works
4. Computer Languages
5. Compilers and Interpreters
5.1 Compiler
5.2 Interpreter
6. The Programmer Skills
7. Generations of Programming Language
8. Choosing a Programming Language
9. Algorithms
9.1 Pseudocode
9.2 Flowchart

10. The IDE Programming Environment

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The Course Description:

The course indicates some reasons for studying programming fundamentals covers the basics of
programming and the C++ programming language, including syntax, fundamental data structure,
algorithms and basic problem-solving, control structures, string manipulation and list processing,
concepts of executive programs.

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1. Introduction to Computer and Programming

1.1 Introduction
Think about some of the different ways that people use computers. In school, students
use computers for tasks such as writing papers, searching for articles, sending email, and
participating in online classes. At work, people use computers to analyze data, make
presentations, conduct business transactions, communicate with customers and
coworkers, control machines in manufacturing facilities, and do many other things. At
home, people use computers for tasks such as paying bills, shopping online,
communicating with friends and family, and playing computer games. Do not forget that cell
phones, car navigation systems, and many other devices are computers too. The uses of computers
are almost limitless in our everyday lives. Computers can do such a wide variety of things
because they can be programmed. This means that computers are not designed to do just one job,
but to do any job that their programs tell them to do.

A program is a set of instructions that a computer follows to perform a task. For example, Figure 1-
1 shows screens from two commonly used programs, Microso Word and Adobe
Photoshop. Microsoft Word is a word processing program that allows you to create, edit,
and print documents with your computer. Adobe Photoshop is an image editing program
that allows you to work with graphic images, such as photos taken with your digital
camera.

Figure 1-1 A word processing program and an image edi ng program.

Programs are commonly referred to as software. Software is essential to a computer

because it controls everything the computer does. All of the software that we use to make
our computers useful is created by individuals working as programmers or software
developers.

1.2 Hardware
The term hardware refers to all of the physical devices, or components, that a computer is made of. A
computer is not one single device, but a system of devices that all work together. Like the
different instruments in a symphony orchestra, each device in a computer plays its own
part. If you have ever shopped for a computer, you’ve probably seen sales literature listing

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components such as microprocessors, memory, disk drives, video displays, graphics cards,
and so on. Unless you already know a lot about computers, or at least have a friend that
does, understanding what these different components do might be challenging. As shown
in Figure 1-2, a typical computer system consists of the following major components:
• The central processing unit (CPU)
• Main memory
• Secondary storage devices
• Input devices
• Output devices

Figure 1-2 Typical components of a computer system

1.2.1 The CPU

When a computer is performing the tasks that a program tells it to do, we say that
the computer is running or executing the program. The central processing unit, or
CPU, is the part of a computer that actually runs programs. The CPU is the most
important component in a computer because without it, the computer could not
run software. In the earliest computers, CPUs were huge devices made of
electrical and mechanical components such as vacuum tubes and switches. Figure
1-3 shows such a device. The two women in the photo are working with the
historic ENIAC computer. The ENIAC, which is considered by many to be the world’s first
programmable electronic computer, was built in 1945 to calculate artillery ballistic tables for
the U.S. Army. This machine, which was primarily one big CPU, was 8 feet tall, 100
feet long, and weighed 30 tons. Today, CPUs are small chips known as

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microprocessors. Figure 1-4 shows a photo of a lab technician holding a modern

microprocessor. In addition to being much smaller than the old electromechanical
CPUs in early computers, microprocessors are also much more powerful.

Figure 1-3 The ENIAC computer (courtesy of U.S. Army Historic Computer
Images)

Figure 1-4 shows a photo of a lab technician holding a modern microprocessor.

1.2.2 Main Memory

You can think of main memory as the computer’s work area. This is where the
computer stores a program while the program is running, as well as the data that
the program is working with. For example, suppose you are using a word
processing program to write an essay for one of your classes. While you do this,
both the word processing program and the essay are stored in main memory.
Main memory is commonly known as random-access memory, or RAM. It is called
this because the CPU is able to quickly access data stored at any random location in RAM.

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RAM is usually a volatile type of memory that is used only for temporary storage
while a program is running. When the computer is turned off, the contents of RAM
are erased. Inside your computer, RAM is stored in chips, similar to the ones
shown in Figure 1-5.

Figure 1-5 Memory chips (photo courtesy of IBM Corporation).

1.2.3 Secondary Storage Devices

Secondary storage is a type of memory that can hold data for long periods of time,
even when there is no power to the computer. Programs are normally stored in
secondary memory and loaded into main memory as needed. Important data,
such as word processing documents, payroll data, and inventory records, is saved
to secondary storage as well. The most common type of secondary storage device
is the disk drive. A disk drive stores data by magnetically encoding it onto a circular
disk. Most computers have a disk drive mounted inside their case. External disk
drives, which connect to one of the computer’s communication ports, are also
available. External disk drives can be used to create backup copies of important
data or to move data to another computer. In addition to external disk drives,
many types of devices have been created for copying data, and for moving it to
other computers. For many years floppy disk drives were popular. A floppy disk
drive records data onto a small floppy disk, which can be removed from the drive.
Floppy disks have many disadvantages, however. They hold only a small amount
of data, are slow to access data, and can be unreliable. The use of floppy disk
drives has declined dramatically in recent years, in favor of superior devices such
as USB drives. USB drives are small devices that plug into the computer’s USB (universal
serial bus) port, and appear to the system as a disk drive. These drives do not actually
contain a disk, however. They store data in a special type of memory known as
flash memory. USB drives, which are also known as memory sticks and flash drives,
are inexpensive, reliable, and small enough to be carried in your pocket. Optical
devices such as the CD (compact disc) and the DVD (digital versatile disc) are also

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popular for data storage. Data is not recorded magnetically on an optical disc, but
is encoded as a series of pits on the disc surface. CD and DVD drives use a laser to
detect the pits and thus read the encoded data. Optical discs hold large amounts
of data, and because recordable CD and DVD drives are now commonplace, they
are good mediums for creating backup copies of data.
1.2.4 Input Devises
Input is any data the computer collects from people and from other devices. The
component that collects the data and sends it to the computer is called an input
device. Common input devices are the keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone,
and digital camera. Disk drives and optical drives can also be considered input
devices because programs and data are retrieved from them and loaded into the
computer’s memory.
1.2.5 Output Devices
Output is any data the computer produces for people or for other devices. It might
be a sales report, a list of names, or a graphic image. The data is sent to an output
device, which formats and presents it. Common output devices are video displays
and printers. Disk drives and CD recorders can also be considered output devices
because the system sends data to them in order to be saved.
1.3 Software
If a computer is to function, software is not optional. Everything that a computer does, from
the time you turn the power switch on until you shut the system down, is under the
control of software. There are two general categories of software: system software and
application software. Most computer programs clearly fit into one of these two
categories. Let’s take a closer look at each.
1.3.1 System Software
The programs that control and manage the basic operations of a computer are generally referred
to as system software. System software typically includes the following types of
programs

1.3.1.1 Operating System

An operating system is the most fundamental set of programs on a computer. The operating
system controls the internal operations of the computer’s hardware, manages all of the
devices connected to the computer, allows data to be saved to and retrieved from storage
devices, and allows other programs to run on the computer. Figure 1-6 shows screens
from three popular operating systems: Windows, Mac, and Linux.

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Figure 1-6 Screens from the Windows Vista, Mac OS X, and Fedora Linux
operating systems

1.3.1.2 Utility Programs A utility program performs a specialized task that enhances the
computer’s operation or safeguards data. Examples of utility programs are virus scanners,
file compression programs, and data backup programs.
1.3.1.3 Software Development Tools Software development tools are the programs that
programmers use to create, modify, and test software. Assemblers, compilers, and
interpreters are examples of programs that fall into this category.
1.3.2 Application Software
Programs that make a computer useful for everyday tasks are known as
application software. These are the programs that people normally spend most of
their me running on their computers. Figure 1-1 shows screens from two
commonly used applications: Microsoft Word, a word processing program, and
Adobe Photoshop, an image editing program. Some other examples of application
software are spreadsheet programs, email programs, web browsers, and game
programs.

1.4 Checkpoint
1.4.1 What is the program?
1.4.2 What is hardware?
1.4.3 List the five major components of a computer system?
1.4.4 What part of the computer actually runs programs?
1.4.5 What part of the computer serves as a work area to store a program and its data
while the program is running?

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1.4.6 What part of the computer holds data for long periods of time, even when there
is no power to the computer?
1.4.7 What part of the computer collects data from people and from other devices?
1.4.8 What part of the computer formats and presents data for people or other devices?
1.4.9 What fundamental set of programs control the internal operations of the
computer’s hardware?
1.4.10 What do you call a program that performs a specialized task, such as a virus
scanner, a file compression program, or a data backup program?
1.4.11 Word processing programs, spreadsheet programs, email programs, web
browsers, and game programs belong to what category of software?

1.5 How Computer Store Data

Concept: All data that is stored in a computer is converted to sequences of 0’s and 1’s.

A computer’s memory is divided into tiny storage locations known as bytes. One byte is
only enough memory to store a letter of the alphabet or a small number. In order to do
anything meaningful, a computer has to have lots of bytes. Most computers today have
millions, or even billions, of bytes of memory. Each byte is divided into eight smaller
storage locations known as bits. The term bit stands for binary digit. Computer scientists
usually think of bits as tiny switches that can be either on or off. Bits aren’t actual
“switches,” however, at least not in the conventional sense. In most computer systems,
bits are tiny electrical components that can hold either a positive or a negative charge.
Computer scientists think of a positive charge as a switch in the on position, and a
negative charge as a switch in the off position. Figure 1-7 shows the way that a computer
scientist might think of a byte of memory: as a collection of switches that are each flipped
to either the on or off position.

Figure 1-7 Think of a byte as eight switches

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1.6 Storing Numbers

A bit can be used in a very limited way to represent numbers. Depending on whether the
bit is turned on or off, it can represent one of two different values. In computer systems,
a bit that is turned off represents the number 0 and a bit that is turned on represents the
number 1. This corresponds perfectly to the binary numbering system. In the binary
numbering system (or binary, as it is usually called) all numeric values are written as
sequences of 0s and 1s. Here is an example of a number that is wri en in binary:
10011101
The position of each digit in a binary number has a value assigned to it. Starting with the
rightmost digit and moving le , the posi on values are 20, 21, 22, 23, and so forth, as
shown in Figure 1-8. Figure 1-9 shows the same diagram with the position values
calculated. Star ng with the rightmost digit and moving le , the posi on values are 1, 2,
4, 8, and so forth.

Figure 1-8 The values of binary digits as powers of 2

Figure 1-9 The values of binary digits

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2. The programing processes.

Step 1: Defining the problem.
The task of defining the problem consists of identifying what it is you know (input-given data),
and what it is you want to obtain (output-the result).

Eventually, you produce a written agreement that, among other things, specifies the kind of
input, processing, and output required.
Example:

What must the program do?

What outputs are required and in what form?
What inputs are available and in what form?

Step 2: Planning the solution.

Two common ways of planning the solution to a problem are to draw a flowchart and to write
pseudocode, or possibly both. A flowchart is a pictorial (graphical) representation of a step-by step
solution to a problem. It consists of arrows representing the direction the program takes and
boxes and other symbols representing actions. It is a map of what your program is going to do
and how it is going to do it.

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Pseudocode is an English-like nonstandard language that lets you state your solution with more
precision than you can in plain English but with less precision than is required when using a formal
programming language. Pseudocode permits you to focus on the program logic without having
to be concerned just yet about the precise syntax of a particular programming language.
Step 3: Code the program.
You will translate the logic from the flowchart or pseudocode-or some other tool-to a
programming language. Program Coding means expressing the algorithm developed for solving a
problem, in a programming language.

Step 4: Test the program.

Almost all programs may contain a few errors, or bugs. Testing is necessary to find out if the
program produces a correct result. Usually, it is performed with sample data. Debugging is the
process of locating and removing errors.

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Types of errors:

Syntax Errors: Violation of syntactic rules in a Programming Language generates syntax errors.
Effect? Interpreter or Compiler finds it in Syntax Check Phase.

Semantic Errors: Doing logical mistakes causes semantic errors in Source code. Effect? Interpreters
and Compilers cannot notice them, but on execution, they cause unexpected results.

Run-time Errors: Occur on program execution. Mostly caused by invalid data entry or tries to use
not existing resources. Effect? It occurs on run time and may crash the program execution.

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Step 5: Document everything.

Documentation is a written detailed description of the programming cycle and specific facts
about the program. Typical program documentation materials include the origin and nature of the
problem, a brief narrative description of the program, logic tools such as flowcharts and pseudocode, data-record
descriptions, program listings, and testing results. Comments in the program itself are also considered an
essential part of documentation.

3. How a Program works

Concept: A computer’s CPU can only understand instructions that are written in machine
language. Because people find it very difficult to write entire programs in
machine language, other programming languages have been invented.
The CPU is the most important component in a computer because it is the part of the computer
that runs programs. Sometimes the CPU is called the “computer’s brain,” and is described as
being “smart.” Although these are common metaphors, you should understand that the CPU is not a
brain, and it is not smart. The CPU is an electronic device that is designed to do specific things. In
particular, the CPU is designed to perform operations such as the following:

 Reading a piece of data from main memory.

 Adding two numbers.
 Subtracting one number from another number.
 Multiplying two numbers.
 Dividing one number by another number.
 Moving a piece of data from one memory location to another.
 Determining whether one value is equal to another value.

As you can see from this list, the CPU performs simple operations on pieces of data. The CPU does
nothing on its own, however. It has to be told what to do, and that’s the purpose of a
program. A program is nothing more than a list of instructions that cause the CPU to perform
operations. Each instruction in a program is a command that tells the CPU to perform a
specific operation. Here’s an example of an instruction that might appear in a program:

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10110000
To you and me, this is only a series of 0s and 1s. To a CPU, however, this is an instruc on to
perform an opera on.1 It is wri en in 0s and 1s because CPUs only understand instruc ons
that are written in machine language, and machine language instructions always have an
underlying binary structure. A machine language instruction exists for each operation that a
CPU is capable of performing. For example, there is an instruction for adding numbers, there
is an instruction for subtracting one number from another, and so forth. The entire set of
instructions that a CPU can execute is known as the CPU’s instruction set.
Note: There are several microprocessor companies today that manufacture CPUs. Some of
the more well-known microprocessor companies are Intel, AMD, and Motorola. If you
look carefully at your computer, you might find a tag showing a logo for its
microprocessor. Each brand of microprocessor has its own unique instruction set,
which is typically understood only by microprocessors of the same brand. For
example, Intel microprocessors understand the same instructions, but they do not
understand instructions for Motorola microprocessors.
The machine language instruction that was previously shown is an example of only one
instruction. It takes a lot more than one instruction, however, for the computer to do anything
meaningful. Because the operations that a CPU knows how to perform are so basic in nature, a
meaningful task can be accomplished only if the CPU performs many operations. For example, if
you want your computer to calculate the amount of interest that you will earn from your savings
account this year, the CPU will have to perform a large number of instructions, carried out in the
proper sequence. It is not unusual for a program to contain thousands or even millions of
machine language instructions. Programs are usually stored on a secondary storage device such
as a disk drive. When you install a program on your computer, the program is typically copied to
your computer’s disk drive from a CD-ROM, or perhaps downloaded from a website. Although a
program can be stored on a secondary storage device such as a disk drive, it has to be copied into
main memory, or RAM, each time the CPU executes it. For example, suppose you have a word
processing program on your computer’s disk. To execute the program, you use the mouse to
double-click the program’s icon. This causes the program to be copied from the disk into main
memory. Then, the computer’s CPU executes the copy of the program that is in main memory.
This process is illustrated in Figure 1-10.

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Figure 1-10 A program is copied into main memory and then executed

When a CPU executes the instructions in a program, it is engaged in a process that is known as
the fetch-decode-execute cycle. This cycle, which consists of three steps, is repeated for each
instruction in the program. The steps are:

1- Fetch A program is a long sequence of machine language instructions. The first step of the
cycle is to fetch, or read, the next instruction from memory into the CPU.
2- Decode A machine language instruction is a binary number that represents a command
that tells the CPU to perform an operation. In this step the CPU decodes the instruction
that was just fetched from memory, to determine which operation it should perform.
3- Execute The last step in the cycle is to execute, or perform, the operation. Figure 1-11
illustrates these steps.

Figure 1-11 The fetch-decode-execute cycle

4. Computer languages
A vocabulary and set of grammatical rules (syntax) for instructing a computer to perform
specific tasks. Programming languages can be used to create computer programs. The term

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programming language usually refers to high-level languages, such as BASIC, C, C++, COBOL,
FORTRAN, Ada, and Pascal.

There are three types of programming language:

4.1 Machine language is a collection of binary digits or bits that the computer reads and interprets. Machine
languages are the only languages understood by computers. While easily understood by computers, machine
languages are almost impossible for humans to use because they consist entirely of numbers.
Computers can only execute programs that are written in machine language. As previously
mentioned, a program can have thousands or even millions of binary instructions, and writing
such a program would be very tedious and time consuming. Programming in machine language would
also be very difficult because putting a 0 or a 1 in the wrong place will cause an error.

4.2 Assembly language

Although a computer’s CPU only understands machine language, it is impractical for people to
write programs in machine language. For this reason, assembly language was created in the
early days of computing as an alternative to machine language. Instead of using binary numbers

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for instructions, assembly language uses short words that are known as mnemonics. For example,
in assembly language, the mnemonic add typically means to add numbers, mul typically means
to multiply numbers, and mov typically means to move a value to a location in memory. When
a programmer uses assembly language to write a program, he or she can write short mnemonics
instead of binary numbers.
Note: There are many different versions of assembly language. It was mentioned earlier that
each brand of CPU has its own machine language instruction set. Each brand of CPU typically
has its own assembly language as well.

Assembly language programs cannot be executed by the CPU, however. The CPU only
understands machine language, so a special program known as an Assembler is used to translate an
assembly language program to a machine language program. This process is shown in Figure 1-12. The
machine language program that is created by the assembler can then be executed by the CPU.

Figure 1-12 An assembler translates an assembly language program to a machine language

program
4.3 High-Level Language
Although assembly language makes it unnecessary to write binary machine language
instructions, it is not without difficulties. Assembly language is primarily a direct substitute for
machine language, and like machine language, it requires that you know a lot about the CPU.
Assembly language also requires that you write a large number of instructions for even the
simplest program. Because assembly language is so close in nature to machine language, it is
referred to as a low-level language. In the 1950s, a new generation of programming languages
known as high-level languages began to appear. A high-level language allows you to create
powerful and complex programs without knowing how the CPU works, and without writing

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large numbers of low-level instructions. In addition, most high-level languages use words that
are easy to understand. For example, if a programmer were using COBOL (which was one of the
early high-level languages created in the 1950s), he or she would write the following instruc on
to display the message Hello world on the computer screen:
DISPLAY "Hello world"
Since the 1950s, thousands of high-level languages have been created. Table 1-1 lists several of
the more well-known languages.

Table 1-1 Programming languages

Language Description
Ada was created in the 1970s, primarily for applications used by the U.S.
Ada Department of Defense. The language is named in honor of Countess Ada
Lovelace, an influential and historic figure in the field of computing.
Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code is a general-purpose
BASIC language that was originally designed in the early 1960s to be simple enough
for beginners to learn. Today, there are many different versions of BASIC.
FORmula TRANslator was the first high-level programming language. It was
FORTRAN
designed in the 1950s for performing complex mathematical calculations.
Common Business-Oriented Language was created in the 1950s, and was
COBOL
designed for business applications.
Pascal was created in 1970, and was originally designed for teaching
programming. The language was named in honor of the mathematician,
Pascal
physicist, and
philosopher Blaise Pascal.
C and C++ (pronounced “c plus plus”) are powerful, general-purpose languages
C and C++ developed at Bell Laboratories. The C language was created in 1972
and the C++ language was created in 1983.
Pronounced “c sharp.” This language was created by Microsoft around the
C#
year 2000 for developing applications based on the Microsoft .NET platform.
Java was created by Sun Microsystems in the early 1990s. It can be used to
develop
Java
programs that run on a single computer or over the Internet from a web
server.
JavaScript, created in the 1990s, can be used in web pages. Despite its name,
JavaScript
JavaScript is not related to Java.
Python, the language we use in this book, is a general-purpose language
created
Python
in the early 1990s. It has become popular in business and academic
applications.
Ruby is a general-purpose language that was created in the 1990s. It is
Ruby increasingly becoming a popular language for programs that run on web
servers.
Visual Basic (commonly known as VB) is a Microsoft programming language
and
Visual Basic software development environment that allows programmers to create
Windowsbased applications quickly. VB was originally created in the early
1990s.

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5. Compilers and Interpreters

Because the CPU understands only machine language instructions, programs that are written
in a high-level language must be translated into machine language. Depending on the language
that a program has been written in, the programmer will use either a compiler or an interpreter to make the
translation.

5.1. Compiler is a program that translates a high-level language program into a separate machine
language program. The machine language program can then be executed any time it is
needed. A compiler reads the whole source code and translates it into a complete machine code program
to perform the required tasks which is output as a new file. This is shown in Figure 1-13. As shown in
the figure, compiling and executing are two different processes.

Figure 1-13 Compiling a high-level program and executing it

5.2. Interpreter is a program that executes instructions written in a high-level language. An

interpreter reads the source code one instruction or line at a time, converts this line into machine
code and executes it. As the interpreter reads each individual instruction in the program, it
converts it to machine language instructions and then immediately executes them. This process
repeats for every instruction in the program. This process is illustrated in Figure 1-14.
Because interpreters combine translation and execution, they typically do not create separate
machine language programs.

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Figure 1-24 Executing a high-level program with an interpreter

The statements that a programmer writes in a high-level language are called source code, or
simply code. Typically, the programmer types a program’s code into a text editor and then
saves the code in a file on the computer’s disk. Next, the programmer uses a compiler to
translate the code into a machine language program, or an interpreter to translate and
execute the code. If the code contains a syntax error, however, it cannot be translated. A
syntax error is a mistake such as a misspelled key word, a missing punctuation character, or
the incorrect use of an operator. When this happens the compiler or interpreter displays an
error message indicating that the program contains a syntax error. The programmer corrects
the error and then attempts once again to translate the program.

NOTE: Human languages also have syntax rules. Do you remember when you took your first
English class, and you learned all those rules about commas, apostrophes,
capitalization, and so forth? You were learning the syntax of the English language.
Although people commonly violate the syntax rules of their native language when
speaking and writing, other people usually understand what they mean. Unfortunately,
compilers and interpreters do not have this ability. If even a single syntax error
appears in a program, the program cannot be compiled or executed. When an
interpreter encounters a syntax error, it stops executing the program.

6. The Programmer Skills

- Programming: Writing computer programs for various purposes.
- Writing: Communicating effectively with others in writing as indicated by the needs of the
audience.
- Reading Comprehension: Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in work-
related documents.
- Critical thinking: Using logic and analysis to identify the strengths and weaknesses of
different approaches.

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- Computer and electronics: Knowledge of electric circuit boards, processors, chips, and
computer hardware and software, including applications and programming.
- Mathematics: Knowledge of numbers, their operations, and interrelationships including
arithmetic, algebra, geometry, calculus, statistics, and their applications.
- Oral expression: The ability to communicate information and ideas in speaking so others
will understand.
- Deductive Reasoning: The ability to apply general rules to specific problems to come up
with logical answers. It involves deciding if an answer makes sense.
- Information Organization: Finding ways to structure or classify multiple pieces of
information.

7. Generations of Programming Language

- The first-genera on languages, or 1GL, are low level languages that are machine
language.
- The second-generation languages, or 2GL, are also low-level languages that generally
consist of assembly languages.
- The third-generation languages, or 3GL, are high level languages such as C.
- The fourth-generation languages, or 4GL, are languages that consist of statements similar
to statements in a human language. Fourth generation languages are commonly used in
database programming and scripts.
- The fifth-generation languages, or 5GL, are programming languages that contain visual
tools to help develop a program. A good example of a fifth-generation language is Visual
Basic.

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8. Choosing a Programming Language

Before you decide on what language to use, you should consider the following:

- Your server platform.

- The server software you run.
- Your budget.
- Previous experience in programming.
- The database you have chosen for your backend

9. Introduction to Algorithms
The Algorithm is a sequence of instructions. A procedure or formula for solving a problem. It was created by
mathematician, Mohammed ibn-Musa al-Khwarizmi. Often used for calculation, data processing and programming.
Algorithms can be expressed in any language.

Algorithms for making things will often be divided into sections;

- The parts/components/ingredients (inputs) required to accomplish the task-

- Actions/steps/methods (processing) to produce the required outcome (output).
For example, to build a model car, the parts (inputs) are needed plus instructions on how to
assemble the car (processing) and the result is the car (output).

Two forms of Algorithm:

9.1 Pseudocode: (which means fake code, because it’s not really programming code) specifies the steps
required to accomplish the task. Pseudocode is a type of structured English that is used to specify an
algorithm. Pseudocode cannot be compiled nor executed, and there are no real formatting or syntax rules.

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Advantages of Pseudocode

- Reduced complexity.
- Increased flexibility.
- Ease of understanding.
Why is Pseudocode Necessary?

The programming process is a complicated one.

• You must first understand the program specifications.

• Then you need to organize your thoughts and create the program.

• You must break the main tasks that must be accomplished into smaller ones in order to be able to

eventually write fully developed code.

• Writing Pseudocode will save you time later during the construction & testing phase of a program's

Development.

How to Write Pseudocode Statements?

There are six basic computer operations

1. A computer can receive informa on Read (information from a file) Get (information from the
keyboard)

2. A computer can put out informa on Write (information to a file) Display (information to the screen)

3. A computer can perform arithme c Use actual mathema cal symbols or the words for the symbols

Example:

Add number to total

Total = total + number

+, -, *, /

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Calculate, Compute also used

4. A computer can assign a value to a piece of data. There are three cases:

a- to give data an initial value

Initialize, Set
b- to assign a value as a result of some processing

x=5+y

c- to keep a piece of information for later use (Save, Store).

5. A computer can compare two piece of information and select one of two alternative actions

IF condition THEN

some action

ELSE

alternative action

ENDIF
6. A computer can repeat a group of ac ons

WHILE condition (is true)

some action

ENDWHILE
Or you can use For expression

FOR a number of times

some action

ENDFOR

Data Dictionaries

The pseudocode by itself doesn't provide enough information to be able to write program code. Data
Dictionaries are used to describe the data used in the PseudoCode. The standard data types used in
Pseudo Code are Integer, Double, String, Char and Boolean.

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Example 1:

Finding average of any three numbers.

We might usually specify the procedure of solving this problem as “add the three numbers and divide by
three”. Here, Read (or Ask) and Write (or Say) are implied. However, in an algorithm, these steps have to
be made explicit. Thus, a possible algorithm is:

Step 1 Start

Step 2 Read values of X, Y, Z

Step 3 S = X + Y + Z

Step 4 A = S / 3

Step 5 Write value of A

Step 6 Stop

Example 2:

Finding square and cube.

Step1 Start

Step2 Read value of N

Step3 S = N * N

Step4 C = S * N

Step5 Write values of S, C

Step6 Stop

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Example 3:

Finding biggest of two numbers.

Step1 Start

Step2 Read A, B

Step3 If A > B, then BIG = A, otherwise BIG = B

Step4 Write BIG

Step5 Stop

Exercises:

Write a Pseudocode for these problems.

1. S = (A + B + C) / Y

2. Convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit.

3. Area of Circle (πr2)

4. Volume of Sphere (πr3)

5. Average speed =Distance traveled/Time taken

9.2 Flowchart: A flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. These flowcharts play a vital role in the
programming of a problem and are quite helpful in understanding the logic of complicated and lengthy problems.
Once the flowchart is drawn, it becomes easy to write the program in any high-level language.

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A flowchart can therefore be used to:

– Define and analyze processes

– Build a step-by-step picture of the process for analysis, discussion, or communication

– Define, standardize or find areas for improvement in a process.

9.2.1 Flowchart Symbols:

Start and end symbols

Arrows: Showing what's called "flow of control" in computer science. An arrow coming from one symbol
and ending at another symbol. Represents that control passes to the symbol the arrow points to.

Processing steps: Represented as rectangles. Examples: “Add 1 to X"; "replace iden fied part"; "save
changes" or similar

Input/Output: Represented as a parallelogram.

Examples: Get X from the user; display X.

Conditional or decision: Represented as a diamond (rhombus). These typically contain a Yes/No question
or True/False test.

Display: Indicates a process flow step where information is displayed to a person (e.g., PC user, machine
operator).

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Rules for Flowchart

1- Every flow chart has a START symbol and a STOP symbol.

2- The flow of sequence is generally from the top of the page to the bottom of the page. This can
vary with loops which need to flow back to an entry point.
3- Use arrow-heads on connectors where flow direction may not be obvious.
4- There is only one flow chart per page.
5- A page should have a page number and a title.
6- A flow chart on one page should not break and jump to another page.
7- A flow chart should have no more than around 15 symbols (not including START and STOP).

Advantages of Using Flowcharts

1- Communication: Flowcharts are better way of communicating the logic of a system to all
concerned.
2- Effective analysis: With the help of flowchart, problem can be analysed in more effective way.
3- Proper documentation: Program flowcharts serve as a good program documentation, which is
needed for various purposes.
4- Efficient Coding: The flowcharts act as a guide or blueprint during the systems analysis and
program development phase.
5- Proper Debugging: The flowchart helps in debugging process.
6- Efficient Program Maintenance: The maintenance of operating program becomes easy with the
help of flowchart. It helps the programmer to put efforts more efficiently on that part.

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Example 1:

Add two numbers entered by the user.

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Example 2:

Find the largest among three different numbers entered by the user.

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Example 3:

Find the Fibonacci series till term ≤ 1000.

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Example 4: To show that some steps in a program might be necessary.

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Common Features of All Program

All programs could be structured in the following four ways:

- Sequences of instructions. The programs flow from one step to the next in strict sequence.
- Branches. The program reaches a decision point and if the result of the test is true then the
program performs the instruc ons in Path 1, and if false it performs the ac ons in Path 2.
- Loops. The program steps are repeated continuously until some test condition is reached,
at which point control then flows past the loop into the next piece of program logic.
- Modules. The program performs an identical sequence of actions several times. For
convenience these common actions are placed in a module, which is a kind of mini-program
which can be executed from within the main program.

10. The IDE Programming Environment

An Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a software application that helps programmers
develop software code efficiently. It increases developer productivity by combining
capabilities such as software editing, building, testing, and packaging in an easy-to-use
application. Just as writers use text editors and accountants use spreadsheets, software
developers use IDEs to make their job easier.
You can use any text editor to write code. However, most integrated development environments
(IDEs) include functionality that goes beyond text editing. They provide a central interface for common
developer tools, making the software development process much more efficient. Developers can
start programming new applications quickly instead of manually integrating and configuring
different software. They also don't have to learn about all the tools and can instead focus on just
one application.

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