HTO Laboratory Manual Revised
HTO Laboratory Manual Revised
For Students
Heat Transfer Operations Lab
CHE 325
Heat Transfer Operations Lab enables the students to apply the understanding of heat transfer
mechanisms such as conduction, convection and radiation for understanding the performance
of various heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, condensers, boilers, evaporators
etc. used in almost all the chemical and related industries. The HTO lab manual concentrates
on the concepts involved in modes of heat transfer i.e. conduction, convection and radiation,
heat transfer by convection (Natural & Forced Convection), the application of dimensional
analysis like Reynold’s, Prandtl and Nusselt, Biot, Rayleigh, grashoff number to convection,
radiation mode of heat transfer and its applications, the concept of film and overall heat
transfer coefficients, Heat Exchanger types and relevant parameters such as pressure drop
control and heat loss control.
Recommended Books:
1. Serth, R. W. and T. Lestina “Process Heat Transfer: Principles, Applications and Rules of
Thumb” 2014. Elsevier Science.
2. Kern Donald Q. “Process Heat Transfer” 1997. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
3. Cengel Yunus A. “Heat Transfer-A Practical approach” 2003. McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
4. Incropera Frank P., De Witt David P. “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer” 5th Ed.
2002. John Wiley and Sons.
5. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-I 1999. The English Book
Society and Pergamon Press
6. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-II, 5th Ed. 2002. The English
Book Society and Pergamon Press
7. Hewitt, G.F. and Shires, G.L. and Bott, T.R. “Process Heat transfer” 1994. CRC Press.
8. J. P. Holman “Heat Transfer” 2002 McGraw-Hill Book Company.
ii
II. Course Learning Outcomes (CLO’s)
Heat Transfer Operations Lab encourages students to understand the basic concepts of
heat transfer mechanism by performing different heat transfer equipment given under
different case studies and varying the experimental parameters. Commonly used heat
transfer equipment such as various types of heat exchangers, evaporators, film
wise/drop wise condensation, conduction through heating rods and composite wall,
radiation heat transfer module and unsteady state head conduction equipment enable
students to signify the working principle of basic heat transfer equipment being used in
different chemical industries and also enable them to trouble shoot in case of equipment
failure. The HTO lab also persuade students to develop and analyze different heat
exchanger systems to develop concepts and techniques for academic research, deal with
issues associated to the operation of computer controlled heat transfer systems in
chemical industries and optimizing the performance of the equipment.
The course learning outcomes for the heat transfer operations lab are presented below:
3. Perform all assigned work in compliance with established policies and procedures.
4. Organize the lab work including lab procedures, results, discussions, analysis and
conclusions through written report and be able to present and communicate at different
levels.
iii
III. PROGRAMME LEARNING OUTCOMES
(PLO`S)
1. Engineering Knowledge
2. Problem Analysis
6. Communication
iv
Safety Rules and Regulations
PRE-CHECKS:
Before starting any laboratory operation, ask and answer the following questions by yourself:
v
LABORATORY SAFETY RULES
1. NO SMOKING IS ALLOWED IN THE LABORATORY PREMISES.
2. Safety glasses must be worn at all times (where applicable) during laboratory periods.
These glasses should be kept between laboratory sessions in the racks provided.
3. Wear apron (lab overall) in the lab when running apparatus and handling liquids.
5. When dangerous chemicals are in use, a second person should be within call.
7. Before operating any valve, switch, etc., know precisely what the effect of your
manipulation will be.
8. Turn off all the valves on cylinders of compressed or liquefied gases when not in use.
9. Students are not allowed to open gas cylinders. Ask the technician.
10. Report all injuries to the instructor and to COMSATS doctor immediately. Dial 1122.
11. Attach a label "Please leave on" on fittings; you need "on" for a long time.
12. Keep all inflammable liquids or gases away from open electrical equipment and other
sources of ignition.
14. Do not leave cables trailing across the floor of the lab.
15. Practice good housekeeping. Clean all spills at once. Return all equipment to proper
storage when not in use. Place all trash in appropriate receptacles.
vi
16. Avoid direct blasts of air on the skin from high-pressure compressed air-lines. Never play
with air hoses.
17. Use special vacuum cleaner from the laboratory for the immediate removal of mercury
spills. The arrangement should be made to contain mercury.
18. Make sure any system being heated is properly vented.
19. Know the location and use of all emergency, protective, and firefighting equipment.
21. Remember that, if a lab smells, do not use it. Inform instructor/lab technician.
22. Do not leave lab while apparatus is on, always inform the instructor if you are in a situation
to leave the lab.
23. When working with others, be especially careful not to drop tools.
24. Do not wear loose clothing or neckties when working with machinery. You will not be
allowed to enter the lab if you are in loose dress or not wearing covered shoes.
25. Report to the instructor any conditions that are safety hazards.
27. Always remember: Safety has only three letters in its alphabet. ABC which
means Always Be Careful!
vii
IV. Instructions for preparing laboratory
reports/books
• Title of experiment
• Objective
• Theory/Concept/Background including relevant pictures
• Procedure
• Observation - Data analysis, discussion
• Useful data/charts/tables
• Safety measurement associated with each experiment
• Application
• References
viii
V. Evaluation/Grading of the overall lab
Assessment Plan
ix
List of Experiments
Measure (C4) the convective heat transfer coefficient “h” using dimensionless numbers in
a. Free Convection
b. Forced Convection
Compare (C4) the value of heat transfer rate (Q) in materials with different thermal
conductivity. Plot and relate the value of “Q” in metallic rods under study.
Measure heat transfer rate (Q) through composite wall and draw temperature profile for the
given system.
Analyze (C4) the effect of cold stream flow rate on the rate of steam condensation. Compare
(C4) the experimental and theoretical values of the overall heat transfer coefficient for:
a. Film wise condensation
b. Drop wise condensation
Examine (C4) the effect of radiations on different bodies (Black/Silver). Compare (C4) the
obtained values with different metallic plates and prove the Stefan Boltzmann law.
x
Experiments 6: Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
Examine (C4) values of experimentally determined overall heat transfer coefficient with
theoretically calculated values for double pipe heat exchanger. Analyze (C4) the effect of
steam pressure and water flow rate on the efficiency of the exchanger.
Analyze (C4) the effect of steam pressure on the economy of the open pan evaporator.
Experiment # 8: Geyser
Analyze (C4) heat transfer efficiency of geyser with varying the water flowrate in case of baffle
installation.
Analyze (C4) the effect of flow rate in unsteady state heat transfer by changing the geometry
of the objects.
Measure (C4) the expansion coefficients for different pipe sections and analyze the obtained
results
xi
Heat Transfer Operation Lab Manual
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
FREE AND FORCED CONVECTION
Pre Lab
1. Objective
1. Measure the convective heat transfer coefficient “h” using dimensionless numbers in
a. Free Convection
b. Forced Convection
Convection:
“Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid
or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid
motion”.
The faster the fluid motion, the greater will be the convective heat transfer. In the absence of any
bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.
The presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat transfer between the solid surface and the
fluid, but it also complicates the determination of heat transfer rates.
Consider the cooling of a hot body by blowing cool air over its top surface. Heat is transferred by the
air adjacent to the block by conduction. The heat is then carried away from the surface by convection,
that is by the combined effects of the conduction within the air is due to random motion of the air
that removes the heated air near the surface and it replaces it by the cooler air.
As is the surface area through which convective heat transfer takes place,
Ts is the surface temperature,
T∞ is the temperature of the fluid far from the surface
In contrast, for the Natural (or free) convection, the flow is induced by buoyancy forces, which arise
from density differences caused by temperature variations in the fluid. In such situation, air that
makes contact with the hot components experiences an increase in temperature and therefore
reduction in density. Since the warm air is now lighter than surrounding air, buoyancy forces induce
a vertical motion and the hot air rising from the boards is replaced by the inflow of air at room
temperature. Boiling and condensation are also grouped under general subject of convection heat
transfer with the application of the dimensional analysis convection heat transport can be defined in
term of Nusselt number. Where the Nusselt number and other dimensionless numbers for convective
heat transfer are co-related with the following equation:
For condition in which only natural convection occurs the velocity is dependent solely on the
buoyancy effects, represented by the Grashof number and the Prandtl number can be omitted and
equation (i) is reduced to:
Nu = f (Gr,Pr)
When forced convection occurs the effects of natural convection are usually negligible and Grashof
number may be omitted and equation (i) is reduced to:
Nu = f (Re,Pr)
All fluid properties are evaluated at film temperature (Tf), where
For perfect ideal gases, the expansion co-efficient β = 1/ Tf , while for liquids and non-ideal gases the
expansion co-efficient must be obtained from property charts.
For all range of Rayleigh number the following formula may be used.
For turbulent flow Ra>109 and For laminar flow Ra < 109
The apparatus consists of a metallic block of specific dimensions (thickness, height etc.) with a
thermometer installed at the top for temperature measurements. The block is heated to a certain
temperature and then allowed to cool under open air. The same procedure is repeated under forced
convection phenomena by cooling it under some external source such as fan. The change in
temperature is noted and heat transfer co-efficient is calculated to evaluate which mode of convective
heat transfer is more favored i.e. forced or free.
3. Procedure
1. Startup
• Insert the metallic block properly on the burner or heat source.
• Turn on the burner flame.
• Make sure that the block is exposed completely to the burner flames covering all the
below side.
2. Operation
• Note down the room temperature
• Take the metallic block and place it on the stand.
• Place the thermometer in the small cavity present at the top surface of block. Place the
thermometer in cavity after filling it with Aluminum powder.
• Heat the metallic block up to 250(°C), with the help of burner.
• Remove the burner and let the block to cool down in still air (i.e. without fan) condition.
• Note the temperature of block at suitable time interval (e.g. 30 sec or 1.0min).Until the
temperature of the block becomes equal to room temperature.
• Alternately you can record the time after every 10°C decrease in temperature.
3. Shutdown
• After performing the experiment remove the block from burner when it is at room
temperature.
• Make sure that burner is properly off with no gas leakage.
1. Don’t start the burner till the block is properly placed on it.
2. In case the temperature exceeds from the required temperature switch off the burner.
3. Use gloves to operate the equipment.
4. Don’t expose naked skin to hot surface it can cause serious injury.
5. Learn where the safety and first-aid equipment is located. This includes fire extinguishers, fire
blankets, and eye-wash stations.
6. Notify the instructor immediately in case of an accident.
7. If hot surface come into contact with your skin or eyes, flush immediately with copious amount of
water and consult with your instructor.
Work Problem
A fluid flows over a plane surface 1 m by 1 m. The surface temperature is 50oC, the fluid temperature
is 20oC and the convective heat transfer coefficient is 2000 W/m2oC. The convective heat transfer
between the hotter surface and the colder air can be calculated as
= 60000 (W) = 60 kW
5. Application
This mechanism is found very commonly in everyday life, including central heating, air conditioning,
steam turbines and in many other machines. Forced convection is often encountered by engineers
designing or analyzing heat exchangers, pipe flow, and flow over a plate at a different temperature
than the stream.
6. Recommended books:
1. Serth, R. W. and T. Lestina “Process Heat Transfer: Principles, Applications and Rules of
Thumb” 2014. Elsevier Science.
2. Kern Donald Q. “Process Heat Transfer” 1997. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
3. Cengel Yunus A. “Heat Transfer-A Practical approach” 2003. McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
4. Incropera Frank P., De Witt David P. “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer” 5 th Ed.
2002. John Wiley and Sons.
5. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-I 1999. The English Book
Society and Pergamon Press
6. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-II, 5th Ed. 2002. The English
Book Society and Pergamon Press
7. Hewitt, G.F. and Shires, G.L. and Bott, T.R. “Process Heat transfer” 1994. CRC Press.
8. J. P. Holman “Heat Transfer” 2002 McGraw-Hill Book Company.
In Lab
Room Temperature = TR =
Length of metallic block = L =
Diameter of the metallic block = d =
Heat Transfer area (surface area) of the body = A =
ρ C k μ Pr# Gr Ra =Gr*Pr Re
p
Post-Lab
• Findings:
• Display Results:
• Conclusions:
EXPERIMENT NO. 2
Pre Lab
1. Objective
1. Compare the value of “Q” in materials with different thermal conductivity.
2. Plot and relate the value of “Q” in metallic rods under study.
2. Theory
“Heat” is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a result of
temperature difference. The science that deals with the rates of such energy transfers is “heat
transfer”.
There are three modes of heat transfer:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
Conduction:
“Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles
of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interactions between the particles”.
In solids:
It is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by
free electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the:
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ∆𝑻
𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝒌𝑨 = −𝒌𝑨
∆𝒙 ∆𝒙
Where,
k is the thermal conductivity of the material,
A is the cross sectional area,
∆T is the temperature difference
∆x is the change in length. (Distance from the heater)
3. Procedure
1. Startup
• Install the three metallic rods with the heating assembly.
• Note down the dimensions of the metallic rods and hang thermometers at equal distance
to measure metallic rods temperature.
2. Operation
• Switch on the heating system and set specific required temperature.
• At regular time intervals note down the temperature reading at different points along
the length of the available rods.
• Repeat the same procedure for 10 readings.
3. Shutdown
• After performing the experiment turn off the heating system
• Remove all the metallic rods when they reach rooms temperature.
1. Don’t note the reading till the heating system required temperature is attained.
2. In case of high temperature then required switch off the heating system.
3. Use gloves to operate the apparatus.
4. Don’t expose naked skin to hot metallic rod as it can cause serious injury.
5. Learn where the safety and first-aid equipment is located. This includes fire extinguishers,
fire blankets, and eye-wash stations.
6. Notify the instructor immediately in case of an accident.
7. If hot surface come into contact with your skin or eyes, flush immediately with copious
amounts of water and consult with your instructor.
5. Application
removed, or moved from one process stream to another. Understanding the basics of the
heart of this operation is key to any engineers' mastery of the subject.
6. Recommended books:
1. RC Chemical Engineering by J.M. Coulson & J.F. Richardson 6th Edition (387-401)
2. Heat Transfer by J.P, Holman 9th Edition (1-9) & (25-35)
3. Process Heat Transfer by D.Q. Kern Indian Edition (6-13)
4. Serth, R. W. and T. Lestina “Process Heat Transfer: Principles, Applications and Rules of
Thumb” 2014. Elsevier Science.
5. Kern Donald Q. “Process Heat Transfer” 1997. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
6. Cengel Yunus A. “Heat Transfer-A Practical approach” 2003. McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
7. Incropera Frank P., De Witt David P. “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer” 5 th Ed.
2002. John Wiley and Sons.
8. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-I 1999. The English Book
Society and Pergamon Press
9. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-II, 5th Ed. 2002. The English Book
Society and Pergamon Press
10. Hewitt, G.F. and Shires, G.L. and Bott, T.R. “Process Heat transfer” 1994. CRC Press.
11. J. P. Holman “Heat Transfer” 2002 McGraw-Hill Book Company.
In Lab
Observation & Calculation
For Copper rod:
Diameter ID = , OD =
Length L1 = L2 = L3 =
Temperature (○C) Temperature (○C) Temperature (○C)
Sr. # Time (min)
“T1” “T2” “T3”
For SS rod:
Diameter ID = , OD =
Length L1 = L2 = L3 =
Temperature (○C) Temperature (○C) Temperature (○C)
Sr. # Time (min)
“T1” “T2” “T3”
Comparison:
Copper Aluminum S.S
Sr. #
L1 Q L1 Q L1 Q
Trend Lines
▪ Temperature Vs. Length of the tubes
▪ Rate of Heat Transfer Vs. Length of the tube
▪ Rate of Heat Transfer Vs. Time
Post-Lab
• Findings:
• Display Results:
• Conclusions:
EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Pre Lab
1. Objective
Measure heat transfer rate (Q) through composite wall and draw temperature profile for the
given system.
2. Theory
Conduction (heat transfer by diffusion) is the transport of energy from the more energetic to the
less energetic particles of a substance due to a temperature gradient, and the physical mechanism
is that of random atomic and molecular activity. For one-dimensional, steady-state heat conduction
in a plane wall with no heat generation, temperature is a function of the x coordinate only and heat
is transferred exclusively in this direction.
The heat transfer rate (qx) by conduction through a plane wall is directly proportional to
the cross sectional area (A) and the temperature difference (T), whereas it is inversely
proportional to the wall thickness (x).
In addition to single plane wall, heat transfer through composite wall is also important.
Such walls may involve any number of series and parallel layers made of different materials. In the
case of steady state one-dimensional heat conduction with no heat generation, temperature profile
through each layer becomes linear as shown in Figure 2. Heat transfer through composite systems
is usually described by an overall heat transfer coefficient. Simply, the overall heat transfer
coefficient is related to the total thermal resistance.
3. Procedure
1. Startup
Prepared By: Engr. M. Akmal Rana
Page | 16
Heat Transfer Operation Lab Manual
2. Operation
• Wait and let the steady state be achieved.
• After certain time note down the temperature of all three walls.
• By using Fourier’s law of heat conduction, note down the heat transfer co-efficient.
3. Shutdown
• Repeat the experiment following the same procedure for another composite wall
rearranging the sequence of metallic walls.
• After performing the experiment turned off the heating system.
• Remove the metallic walls from the apparatus when they reach to room temperature.
4. Safety and Precautions
1. Don’t switch on heating system till the walls are properly placed.
2. Don’t turn off apparatus until required temperature is attained by the heating system
3. Use gloves to operate the open pan evaporator.
4. Don’t expose naked skin to hot water or steam as it can cause serious injury.
5. Learn where the safety and first-aid equipment is located. This includes fire
extinguishers, fire blankets, and eye-wash stations.
6. Notify the instructor immediately in case of an accident.
5. Application
Composite walls allow us to use any combination of material which results in the
optimization of the heating system with minimum heat losses. It allows us to change the
materials as per our requirement to meet our requirements from strong to less heating as
required for heat sensitive compounds. The resultant composite wall becomes more strong
and efficient.
6. Recommended books:
1. Process Heat Transfer by D.Q. Kern Indian Edition (14-15)
2. Serth, R. W. and T. Lestina “Process Heat Transfer: Principles, Applications and Rules of
Thumb” 2014. Elsevier Science.
3. Kern Donald Q. “Process Heat Transfer” 1997. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
4. Cengel Yunus A. “Heat Transfer-A Practical approach” 2003. McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
5. Incropera Frank P., De Witt David P. “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer” 5th Ed.
2002. John Wiley and Sons.
6. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-I 1999. The English Book
Society and Pergamon Press
7. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-II, 5th Ed. 2002. The English
Book Society and Pergamon Press
8. Hewitt, G.F. and Shires, G.L. and Bott, T.R. “Process Heat transfer” 1994. CRC Press.
9. J. P. Holman “Heat Transfer” 2002 McGraw-Hill Book Company.
In Lab
Observation & Calculation
Length from A → B = L1 =
Length from B → C = L2 =
Length from C → D = L3 =
Temperature at point = T1=
Temperature at point = T2 =
Temperature at point = T3 =
Temperature at point = T4 =
Thickness of Stainless Steel =X2=
Thickness of Aluminum = X1 =
Thermal conductivity of glass wool =0.04W/mK
Thermal conductivity of S.S. =16W/mK
Thermal conductivity of Aluminum =205W/mK
Rate of Heat transfer Q is given as:
T (T1 − T4 )
Q = =
R L1 L L L
K A + 2 K A + 3 K A + 4 K A
gw Al gw. S .S
Post-Lab
• Findings:
• Display Results:
• Conclusions:
EXPERIMENT NO. 4
FILM AND DROP-WISE CONDENSATION
Pre Lab
1. Objective
Analyze (C4) the effect of cold stream flow rate on the rate of steam condensation. Compare (C4)
the experimental and theoretical values of the overall heat transfer coefficient for:
a) Film wise condensation
b) Drop wise condensation
2. Theory
Condensation of a vapor into a liquid is a process involving large heat transfer coefficients and a
phase change. Condensation takes place when a saturated vapor such as steam comes in contact
with a solid whose surface temperature is below saturation temperature, to form a liquid phase such
as water.
Normally, upon condensation of vapor on a surface such as vertical or horizontal tube or other
surface, a film of condensate is formed on the surface and flows over the surface by the action of
gravity. It is the film of liquid between the vapors and surface that provides main impedance to the
heat transfer. This is called film wise condensation.
Drop wise condensation occurs when a vapor condenses on a surface not wetted by the condensate.
For nonmetal vapors, drop wise condensation gives much higher heat transfer coefficients than
those found with film condensation. For instance, the heat transfer coefficient for drop wise
condensation of steam is around 10 times that for film condensation at power station condenser
pressures and more than 20 times that for film condensation at atmospheric pressure. However this
type of condensation is difficult to maintain at industrial level accounting to the factors of
oxidation, fouling and degradation of coating and eventually film condensation occurs. Therefore,
condensers designs are based on the assumption of film wise condensation mostly.
General Description of Film and Drop-wise Equipment
The equipment consists of two pipes enclosed in a container. The material of construction for both
pipes is same except the one pipe surface is polished having smooth surface while other comprise
of rough uneven surface. Steam is passed through both pipes and the condensation phenomena are
noticed in the form of layer and droplets on the two surfaces.
3. Procedure
1. Startup
• Note the room temperature.
• Open all valves and drain all the water already present.
• Set the apparatus so that the water only flows through rough pipe.
2. Operation
• Open the water flow rate valve and pass it through the rough pipe.
• Open the steam valve and try to set the pressure at a constant value in the chamber.
• Steam condenses in the form of film and condensate is obtained at the bottom. Measure the
mass flow rate and temperature of water (at inlet and outlet) and condensate.
• Change the cold water flow rate and do same. Take 3 to 4 more readings.
• All the readings should be taken by keeping safety in the mind.
• Measure the condensate (Steam outlet) temperature.
3. Shutdown
• Repeat the experiment following the same procedure for smooth pipe.
• After performing the experiment turned off the steam.
• Drain all the condensed water and water left over in the evaporator.
• Open safety valve to release all the steam pressure.
4. Safety and Precautions
1. Never splash water to the control panel. This will cause body injury and damage to the
equipment.
2. Never use your bare hand to test the AC Power Supply. It may cause hazardous injury.
3. Cool down the equipment before draining the water inside the glass vessel so that the
heater will not be overheated when there is no water inside the vessel.
4. Make sure tap water used is free from any contamination to prevent blockage inside the
condenser.
5. In case of steam pressure build up open the relief valve.
6. Use gloves to operate the film and drop wise condensation unit .
7. Don’t exposed naked skin to hot water or steam as it can cause serious injury.
8. Learn where the safety and first-aid equipment is located. This includes fire
extinguishers, fire blankets, and eye-wash stations.
9. Notify the instructor immediately in case of an accident.
10. If hot surface come into contact with your skin or eyes, flush immediately with copious
amounts of water and consult with your instructor.
5. Application
Condensation phenomena is used in the designing of condensers being used in heat exchangers of
various designs and come in many sizes, ranging from small units to very large systems. The use
of condensation knowledge helps in designing of pipelines to transport different chemicals on a
large distance from hot sunny to cold climate regions.
6. Recommended books:
1. Process Heat Transfer by D.Q. Kern Indian Edition (252-256)
2. Heat Transfer by J.P, Holman 9th Edition (1-9) & (477-482)
3. Serth, R. W. and T. Lestina “Process Heat Transfer: Principles, Applications and Rules of
Thumb” 2014. Elsevier Science.
4. Kern Donald Q. “Process Heat Transfer” 1997. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
5. Cengel Yunus A. “Heat Transfer-A Practical approach” 2003. McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
6. Incropera Frank P., De Witt David P. “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer” 5th Ed.
2002. John Wiley and Sons.
7. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-I 1999. The English Book
Society and Pergamon Press
8. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-II, 5th Ed. 2002. The English
Book Society and Pergamon Press
9. Hewitt, G.F. and Shires, G.L. and Bott, T.R. “Process Heat transfer” 1994. CRC Press.
10. 8 J. P. Holman “Heat Transfer” 2002 McGraw-Hill Book Company.
In Lab
LMTD U
Ф
Steam (Tsat-Tin)- Mass Heat
Flow rate Tin Tout Tsat Heat
Pressure (Tsat- Flow Transfer
(l/min) (degC) (degC) (degC) Flux
(Psi) Tout)/ln(Tsat- rate Coeffcient
(W/m2)
Tin/Tsat-Tout) (kg/sec) (W/m2.K)
Post-Lab
• Findings:
• Display Results
• Conclusions
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER MODULE
Pre Lab
1. Objective
3. Procedure
1. Startup
• Ensure the main switches of the control panel are off.
• Install the heat source assembly on the holder at one end of horizontal track.
• Install radiometer, aperture and plates on horizontal track.
• Connect the heater supply cable to the power output socket of the control panel.
• Ensure the heater cable is connected to panel.
• Initially (When heater is not ON) thermocouple reading from the plate should indicate
ambient temperature.
• Radiometer should indicate approximately zero on the panel.
• Then (After when heater is ON) the thermocouple/radiometer reading should increase.
• Now your equipment is ready for experiment.
2. Operation
• Follow the basic start-up instructions.
• Connect one of the thermocouple of the target plates on the bench, to record ambient
temperature.
• Position radiometer on the test track at 800mm from the heat source.
• Set the heater temperature to 250oC by heater controller. Monitor T4 reading on the panel.
• When T4 value has stabilized, move the radiometer to 300mm from heated plate. The
reading of radiometer should start to rise. When the value has stabilized, record T1, T4, the
distance X and radiometer reading, R.
• Repeat the above procedure with an increment of 50˚C from 250˚C to 400˚C.
3. Shutdown
• After performing the experiment turn off the main supply to control panel & also switch
off heater.
Radiation heat transfer module entitles students to operate & understand major heat transfer
mechanism namely radiation which has diverse applications in our industry i.e. Solar panels,
furnaces etc.
In Lab
Observation & Calculation
50
ɵ, in Radians = Tan-1 ( )
𝑋
And corrected radiometer reading, Rc = R× C. Whereas C is average correction factor whose value
can be calculated by using following relationship;
C= ∑ rn / n,
F = qr/Rc
Post-Lab
• Findings:
• Display Results:
• Conclusions:
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
Pre Lab
1. Objective
Examine (C4) values of experimentally determined overall heat transfer coefficient with
theoretically calculated values for double pipe heat exchanger.
Analyze (C4) the effect of steam pressure and water flow rate on the efficiency of the
exchanger.
2. Theory
Temperature can be defined as the amount of energy that a substance has. Heat exchangers are used
to transfer that energy from one substance to another. In process units it is necessary to control the
temperature of incoming and outgoing streams. These streams can either be gases or liquids. Heat
exchangers raise or lower the temperature of these streams by transferring heat to or from the
stream.
“Heat exchanger is a device that exchanges the heat between two fluids of different temperatures
that are separated by a solid wall. The temperature gradient , or the differences in temperature
facilitate this transfer of heat.”
In the use of heat exchangers radiation does take place. However, in comparison to conduction
and convection, radiation does not play a major role. Conduction occurs as the heat from the higher
temperature fluid passes through the solid wall. To maximize the heat transfer, the wall should be
thin and made of a very conductive material. The biggest contribution to heat transfer in a heat
exchanger is made through convection.
The double-pipe heat exchanger is one of the simplest types of heat exchangers. It is called a
double-pipe exchanger because one fluid flows inside a pipe and the other fluid flows between that
pipe and another pipe that surrounds the first. This is a concentric tube construction. Flow in a
double-pipe heat exchanger can be co-current or counter-current.
There are two flow configurations:
• Co-current
• Counter current
In this double-pipe heat exchanger a hot process fluid flowing through the inner pipe transfers its
heat to cooling water flowing in the outer pipe. The system is in steady state until conditions
change, such as flow rate or inlet temperature. These changes in conditions cause the temperature
distribution to change with time until a new steady state is reached.
The new steady state will be observed once the inlet and outlet temperatures for the process and
coolant fluid become stable. In reality, the temperatures will never be completely stable, but with
large enough changes in inlet temperatures or flow rates a relative steady state can be
experimentally observed.
Working Principle:
The basic principle of heat exchanger is the transfer of heat between two fluids. Two fluids are
brought in close contact with each other but are prevented from mixing by a physical barrier. The
temperature of the two fluids will soon come to an equilibrium temperature.
The energy from each fluid is exchanged and no extra heat is added or removed. Since the heat in
the process is not constant and the heat amount of the fluids is also not constant thus the Heat
exchanger must be designed in a way that it is suited for all the cases of heat exchange and the
performance is best suited for all conditions. Also the design should be such that the heat exchange
is at a particular rate required by the process. Heat exchangers are originally designed to be over
sized so that in cases of fouling, the surface of heat exchanger is still large enough to carry out
operations. Once cleaned the heat exchanger would be again oversized.
For the use of any heat exchanger the proper study of various technical and economical parameters
is required such as life of heat exchanger, cost per unit area , Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient ,
Low heating value of fuel, Effectiveness, Efficiency , Heat Capacities, Annual variation of
temperatures of fluid under observation.
Various types of heat exchanger follow this general principle. Whether it is a Double Pipe heat
exchanger or Shell and Tube or Plate Heat exchanger or others of various kinds the underlying
principle is same although specifics differ greatly.
Some factors that influence the heat exchanger performance are:
• width of the material of the tubes
• Temperature variation between two fluids
• Thermal Conductivity of the material of fabrication
• Physical features of the exchanger and Surface Area of the tubes
• Type of flow i.e. Counter current or co current or mixed flow
• Properties of the liquid i.e. viscosity, Heat capacity etc.
Explanation:
As with any process the analysis of a heat exchanger begins with an energy and material balance.
Before doing a complete energy balance a few assumptions can be made. The first assumption is
that the energy lost to the surroundings from the cooling water or from the U-bends in the inner
pipe to the surroundings is negligible. We also assume negligible potential or kinetic energy
changes and constant physical properties such as specific heats and density. These assumptions
also simplify the basic heat-exchanger equations.
The determination of the overall heat-transfer coefficient is necessary in order to determine the
heat transferred from the inner pipe to the outer pipe. This coefficient takes into account all of the
conductive and convective resistances (k and h, respectively) between fluids separated by the inner
pipe, and also takes into account thermal resistances caused by fouling (rust, scaling, i.e.) on both
sides of the inner pipe. For a double-pipe heat exchanger the overall heat transfer coefficient, U,
can be expressed as
U=Qh/A.ΔTLMTD
In a heat exchanger the log-mean temperature difference is the appropriate average temperature
difference to use in heat transfer calculations. The equation for the log-mean temperature difference
Where
T1=Hot Stream Inlet Temperature.
Fouling:
Formation of a scale or a deposit on a heat transfer surface is called fouling.
Every single heat exchanger in operation in modern industries is exposed to fouling to
a greater or lesser extent depending on the surface temperature, surface condition
Material of construction, fluid velocity, flow geometry and fluid composition. The
Fouling phenomenon is time dependent and will result in a decrease in thermal
effectiveness of a heat exchanger. Once the thermal effectiveness decreases to a
minimum acceptable level, cleaning of the equipment becomes necessary to restore its
performance.
Types of fouling:
• Precipitation fouling ( due to dissolved salts of Ca & Mg )
Industrial applications:
Heat exchangers are widely used in industry both for cooling and heating large scale industrial
processes. The type and size of heat exchanger used can be tailored to suit a process depending on
the type of fluid, its phase, temperature, density, viscosity, pressures, chemical composition and
various other thermodynamic properties.
In many industrial processes there is waste of energy or a heat stream that is being exhausted, heat
exchangers can be used to recover this heat and put it to use by heating a different stream in the
process. This practice saves a lot of money in industry, as the heat supplied to other streams from
the heat exchangers would otherwise come from an external source that is more expensive and
more harmful to the environment. Heat exchangers are used in many industries, including:
In waste water treatment, heat exchangers play a vital role in maintaining optimal temperatures
within anaerobic digester to promote the growth of microbes that remove pollutants. Common
types of heat exchangers used in this application are the double pipe heat exchanger as well as the
plate and frame heat exchanger .Heat exchangers can be used in food Industry as a process of
cooling down various products in the industry. Large number of products like hazelnut paste and
other types of food pastes are required to be cooled down or heated up in order to be processed
further. For this process Heat exchanger can be used. Ethanol produced from various sources is
gaining popularity worldwide for being the next alternative fuel which will replace the
conventional fossil fuels and help in saving the environment. In the process of ethanol production
a network of heat exchangers is used instead of single or double heat exchangers. The use of heat
exchanger networks fulfills the utilization of waste heat and enables considerable savings of energy
in short payback period.
Limitations:
3. Procedure
1. Startup
2. Operation
• Open the valve which control flow of steam.
• Inlet temperature of steam can be found from steam table corresponding to steam
pressure
• Note down the inlet temperature of cold water.
• Also note down the outlet temperature of cold water.
• Measure the condensate flow rate.
3. Shutdown
• Shut off the hot stream first
• Close the cold water inlet.
3. Do not let Steam to be accumulated in the steam chamber high pressure me cause it to
burst
4. Do not rip the insulation of the exchanger
5. Clean Water must be used to prevent corrosion
6. Learn where the safety and first-aid equipment is located. This includes fire
extinguishers, fire blankets, and eye-wash stations
7. Report any accident immediately
8. In case of fire evacuate the lab immediately
5. Application
Double pipe heat exchanger found its greatest applications in the industries where the total heat
transfer area is small, 100 to 200 ft2 or less, and is usually use in the refineries, fertilizers, food,
petrochemical industries etc.
6. Recommended books:
1. RC Chemical Engineering by J.M. Coulson & J.F. Richardson 6th Edition (414-416)
2. Heat Transfer by J.P, Holman 9th Edition (9-11) & (205-209)
3. Process Heat Transfer by D.Q. Kern Indian Edition (25-34)
4. Serth, R. W. and T. Lestina “Process Heat Transfer: Principles, Applications and Rules of
Thumb” 2014. Elsevier Science.
In Lab
Observation & Calculation
Qc = m Cp ∆T (Watts)
Qloss = Qh – Qc (Watts)
Qc
η= * 100
Qh
Post-Lab
Prepared By: Engr. M. Akmal Rana
Page | 37
Heat Transfer Operation Lab Manual
a. Findings
b. Display Results
c. Conclusions:
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
OPEN PAN EVAPORATOR
Pre Lab
1. Objective
Analyze (C4) the effect of steam pressure on the economy of the open pan evaporator.
2. Theory
What is evaporation?
Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid that occurs from the surface of a liquid into a
gaseous phase that is not saturated with the evaporating substance. The other type of vaporization
is boiling, which is characterized by bubbles of saturated vapor forming in the liquid phase.
Water is transferred from the surface to the atmosphere through evaporation, the process by which
water changes from a liquid to a gas. Approximately 80% of all evaporation is from the oceans,
with the remaining 20% coming from inland water and vegetation. Winds transport the evaporated
water around the globe, influencing the humidity of the air throughout the world. For example, a
typical hot and humid summer day in the Midwestern United States is caused by winds
blowing tropical oceanic air northward from the Gulf of Mexico.
Types of evaporators:
Prepared By: Engr. M. Akmal Rana
Page | 40
Heat Transfer Operation Lab Manual
Pan evaporation is a measurement that combines or integrates the effects of several climate
elements: temperature, humidity, rain fall, drought dispersion, solar radiation, and wind.
Evaporation is greatest on hot, windy, dry, sunny days; and is greatly reduced when clouds block
the sun and when air is cool, calm, and humid. Pan evaporation measurements enable farmers and
ranchers to understand how much water their crops will need.
An evaporation pan is used to hold water during observations for the determination of the quantity
of evaporation at a given location. Such pans are of varying sizes and shapes, the most commonly
used being circular or square. The best known of the pans are the "Class A" evaporation pan and
the "Sunken Colorado Pan". In Europe, India and South Africa, a Symon's Pan (or sometimes
Symon's Tank) is used. Often the evaporation pans are automated with water level sensors and a
small weather station is located nearby.
3. Procedure
1. Startup
• Fill up the open pan with water up to a certain height say 15 cm.
• Set the steam pressure at a certain value say 10 Psi and turn on the equipment.
• Don’t open the steam valve till required pressure is attained.
2. Operation
• Measure the fluid (water) temperature in the open pan evaporator.
• When required steam pressure is attained opened the steam inlet valve in to the evaporator.
• Measure the temperature of the inlet steam.
• Measure the initial water height.
• After certain time say 10 min measure the water level.
• Calculate the height differences indicating the volume evaporated.
• Measure the condensate (Steam outlet) temperature.
3. Shutdown
• Repeat the experiment following the same procedure for another steam pressure say 20 Psi.
• After performing the experiment turned off the steam.
• Drain all the condensed water and water left over in the evaporator.
• Open safety valve to release all the steam pressure.
1. Don’t open the steam valve till the required steam pressure is attained.
2. In case of steam pressure build up open the relief valve.
3. Use gloves to operate the open pan evaporator.
4. Don’t exposed naked skin to hot water or steam as it can cause serious injury.
5. Learn where the safety and first-aid equipment is located. This includes fire extinguishers,
fire blankets, and eye-wash stations.
6. Notify the instructor immediately in case of an accident.
7. If hot surface come into contact with your skin or eyes, flush immediately with copious
amounts of water and consult with your instructor.
5. Application
In Lab
Post-Lab
a. Findings
b. Display Results
c. Conclusions
Experiment NO. 8
Gas Geyser
Pre Lab
1. Objective
Analyze (C4) heat transfer efficiency of geyser with varying the water flowrate in case of
baffle installation.
2. Theory
Water heating is a thermodynamic process that uses an energy source to heat water above its initial
temperature. Typical domestic uses of hot water include cooking, cleaning, bathing, and space
heating. In industry, hot water and water heated to steam have many uses. Domestically, water is
traditionally heated in vessels known as water heaters, kettles, cauldrons, pots, or coppers. These
metal vessels that heat a batch of water do not produce a continual supply of heated water at a
preset temperature. Rarely, hot water occurs naturally, usually from natural hot springs. The
temperature varies based on the consumption rate, becoming cooler as flow increases.
Cold water is provided to the tank by a cold water supply line and controlled by a shutoff valve. It
is important to know where the water supply shut off valve is located so maintenance can be
performed on the tank.
This is the business end of the hot water heater and the hot water line is what supplies all your
sinks, tubs, showers and appliance needing hot water.
The tank jacket itself is made of steel and encloses a pressure tested water storage tank. Between
the storage tank and the tank jacket is insulation to reduce heat loss of the heated water. It is a good
idea to supplement the insulation by adding a fiberglass insulation tank jacket to the outside of the
hot water heater. These are inexpensive and easy to install.
Inside the tank you will see a dip tube. The dip tube is where the cold water supply enters the tank
to be heated by the gas burner. Since cold air and cold water is denser than hot air or hot water, the
cold water sets at the bottom of the tank until it is warmed by the burner and heated enough to rise
(through convection) to the top of the tank where the hot water hangs out.
In glass-lined tanks there will also be a metal rod in the tank, usually magnesium or aluminum)
called a sacrificial anode. The anode rod is bolted and fastened to the top of the tank and extends
deep into the tank. Its purpose is to draw corrosion to itself instead of the metal tank. Some models
do not have a separate anode but combine the function of the anode with the hot outlet. Plastic lines
tanks do not have an anode.
The natural gas or propane is supplied by a pipe having its own gas shutoff valve. Just like you
need to know where the water supply shutoff valve is located, you need to know where the gas line
shutoff is located too. The gas line fees into a gas burner control module that serves as a kind of
thermostat for the water heater. It also controls the ignition of the pilot light.
From the control module we now proceed to the gas burner assembly. This includes the pilot
light and gas burner itself. The pilot light and burner adjustment is key to proper and energy
efficient operation of the water heater. The gas flame should about 1/2 inches in height and should
have blue tips.
The exhaust flue serves two purposes. It exhausts combustion gasses from the burner and it serves
as a type of heat exchanger helping to heat the water in the storage tank. The flue must be properly
exhausted to the outside and there are specific code requirements for the type of flue construction
and acceptable details.
A safety feature of the hot water heater includes the pressure relief valve and discharge pipe. It
operates like the radiator cap on your car. The purpose of this valve is to relieve excessive
temperature or pressure builds up inside the tank if it approaches the limits of the tank's safe design
range. This valve is located on top of the tank and often is threaded directly into the tank top itself.
To test the valve, lift up on the handle slightly and hot water should discharge out of the overflow
pipe.
The hot water tank can build up sediments in the bottom of the tank if left unmaintained and by
draining the tank using the tank drain valve these sediments cannot build up. And if you don't have
sedimentation then that helps to prolong the life of your tank and improve your water quality.
Efficiency of geysers can be improved by increasing the residence time of the flue gases which
increases effective heat transfer’s time as heat transfer is a function of time as well.
Creating turbulence in the flow of fluid in the geyser, as this will break the laminar boundary layer
formation and cause and increase in convective heat transfer co-efficient thus increasing the
efficiency of the heater. This can be done by introducing baffles and fins on the inner pipe of the
geyser which also increases the heat transfer area.
A material with high thermal conductivity will allow more heat transfer through it so an inner pipe
must be of a material with high thermal conductivity. Analogously and conversely the outer pipe
must have a low thermal conductivity in order to minimize the losses to surroundings.
Since we are dealing with water and there are no circuit boards or electrical components installed
there’s no risk of short circuiting etc. if we experience leakages or other malfunctioning.
In Pakistan gas is much cheaper than electricity, so a gas fired heater is much viable solution than
an electric heater.
Gas fired heaters won’t work unless they are filled up with water, hence lesser maintenance is
required. Whereas electrically operated ones do not show such features unless proper control
mechanism is applied.
The only con these geysers have is that they are slower than electrically operated ones.
Geysers are similar to double pipe heat exchanger in that the flue gases flow in the inner pipe and
the liquid or water that is to be heated flows in the annular portion of the assembly. For heating,
burner and pilot are installed at the bottom of the assembly. Thermostats are also installed in the
geysers for controlling the temperature of the heating fluid at certain limit. It is a sort of ON-OFF
control system, which shutdown (blow-off) the burner on reaching a certain temperature level.
Whereas, the pilot remain in burning condition for again switching on the burner when temperature
decrease from a specified limit due to the entry of fresh liquid/water. Geysers contain pressure
relief valve at the top for maintaining the pressure at certain level. The mode of heat transfer that
is conduction, convection and radiation but the most dominant mode is by radiation.
3. Procedure
1. Startup
• Heating is continued until the set point of temperature is reached and burner is
switched-off and gas meter reading is noted
• Withdraw the hot water by feeding the cold water of known temperature at fixed
steady rate (0.06 m3) and note the temperature of both hot and cold water at regular
interval (say after every min.).
3. Vent pipe gets hot, and must not directly touch other materials including walls and
building materials
4. Gas water heater must have adequate incoming air supply to support proper
combustion and venting
5. Application
Gas fired heater (Geyser) is an excellent equipment for heating water for house hold purposes. It
is frequently used in daily life in winter. It applications include hot water for washing and
cleaning.
In Lab
Post-Lab
a. Findings:
b. Display Results:
c. Conclusions:
Experiment NO. 9
Unsteady State Heat Transfer Module
Pre Lab
1. Objective
Analyze (C4) the effect of flow rate in unsteady state heat transfer by changing the geometry
of the objects.
General Description of Instrument
The unsteady state heat transfer module consists of a tank which has provision of heater in it. The
heater is used to heat the water. A small pump is used to circulate water in this tank. The flow is
controlled by a valve. The flow is read out by a Rota meter. The heater’s temp is controlled by set
point given control panel. This control panel also gives us the temperature readings of water and
the object which is placed in it. Thermocouples are used to measure temperatures.
2. Procedure
1. Startup
• Record the starting condition temperatures and then plunge the shape in the flow
duct
2. Recommended Books:
In Lab
Observations & Calculations
So formula becomes
=T3-T1/Ti-T1
Fourier Number:
Fo = αt/r2
Biot Number:
Bi = hr/k
AS: α = k/density* cp
Post-Lab
a. Findings:
b. Display Results:
c. Conclusions:
Experiment No: 10
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Pre lab:
1. Objective:
• Compare values of experimentally determined overall heat transfer coefficient with
theoretically calculated values for Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger.
• Quantify the effect of changing hot and cold side flow rates
2. Theory:
Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that are at
different temperatures while keeping them from mixing with each other. Heat exchangers are
commonly used in practice in a wide range of applications, from heating and air-conditioning
systems in a household, to chemical processing and power production in large plants. Heat
exchangers differ from mixing chambers in that they do not allow the two fluids involved to
mix. In a car radiator, for example, heat is transferred from the hot water flowing through the
radiator tubes to the air flowing through the closely spaced thin plates outside attached to the
3.tubes.
Shell -and- tube heat exchangers contain a large number of tubes (sometimes several hundred)
packed in a shell with their axes parallel to that of the shell. Heat transfer takes place as one
fluid flows inside the tubes while the other fluid flows outside the tubes through the shell.
Baffles are commonly placed in the shell to force the shell-side fluid to flow across the shell to
enhance heat transfer and to maintain uniform spacing between the tubes. Despite their
widespread use, shell- and-tube heat exchangers are not suitable for use in automotive and
aircraft applications because of their relatively large size and weight. Note that the tubes in a
shell-and-tube heat exchanger open to some large flow areas called headers at both ends of the
shell, where the tube-side fluid accumulates before entering the tubes and after leaving them.
Figure 1. The schematic of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger (one-shell pass and one-tube
pass)
Cold water flow is regulated by the control valve on the base unit.
Hot water flow is regulated by the pump’s speed which is controlled in the software and by the
bypass valve.
4. Procedure
5. Safety Precautions:
• There is a risk of electric shock. Always unplug first.
• Do not touch heated surfaces during or at the end of an experiment or place them near
to the items sensitive to heat. The heat source plate will become hot, up to 150°C!
6. Recommended books:
1. Serth, R. W. and T. Lestina “Process Heat Transfer: Principles, Applications and Rules of
Thumb” 2014. Elsevier Science.
2. Kern Donald Q. “Process Heat Transfer” 1997. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
3. Cengel Yunus A. “Heat Transfer-A Practical approach” 2003. McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
4. Incropera Frank P., De Witt David P. “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer” 5 th Ed.
2002. John Wiley and Sons.
5. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-I 1999. The English Book
Society and Pergamon Press
6. Coulson J.M., Richardson J.F. “Chemical Engineering” Vol-II, 5th Ed. 2002. The English
Book Society and Pergamon Press
7. Hewitt, G.F. and Shires, G.L. and Bott, T.R. “Process Heat transfer” 1994. CRC Press.
8. J. P. Holman “Heat Transfer” 2002 McGraw-Hill Book Company
In Lab:
Parallel Flow
Hot water
Cold water
Inlet Outlet Volumetric Inlet Outlet Volumetric
Run # temperature temperature flow rate temperature temperature flow rate
(oC) (oC) (l/min) (oC) (oC) (l/min)
T1=Th,in T3=Th,out Vhot T4=Th,in T6=Th,in Vcold
1
2
3
4
5
Average
Counter Flow
Hot water
Cold water
Inlet Outlet Volumetric Inlet Outlet Volumetric
Run # temperatur
e temperature flow rate temperature temperature flow rate
o
( C) (oC) (l/min) (oC) (oC) (l/min)
T1 = Th,in T3 = Th,out V1 = Vhot T4 = Th,in T6 = Th,in V2 = Vcold
1
2
3
4
5
Average
Post-Lab
a. Findings
b. Display Results
c. Conclusions
Experiment No: 11
Thermal Expansion of Pipes
Pre lab:
1. Objective:
Measure (C4) the expansion coefficients for different pipe sections and analyze the
obtained results.
2. Theory
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, and volume in response
to a change in temperature.
Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance.
When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases. Thus, the molecules
begin vibrating/moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation. Materials
which contract with increasing temperature are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and only
occur within limited temperature ranges (see examples below). The relative expansion (also
called strain) divided by the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of thermal
expansion and generally varies with temperature.
Most solid materials expand upon heating and contract when cooled. Materials generally
change their size when subjected to a temperature change while the pressure is constant. In the
case of solid materials, the pressure does not appreciably affect the size of a solid. Thermal
expansion is a material property that indicative the tendency of the material to change in
volume in response to a change in temperature. Different materials expand by different
amounts.
General Description of the Apparatus:
The Thermal Expansion Training Unit, “TEDT”, allows studying the thermal expansion of
different pipe sections and the thermal expansion force. It comprises original components as
used in heating and sanitation systems. This unit provides measurements for the determination
of the thermal expansion of several pipe sections. The unit includes six pipe sections and one
of these sections is fitted with an expansion compensator to compensate thermal stress in the
pipe. These sections are made of different materials and diameters. Several dial gauges situated
on the pipe sections inlet measure the elongation of the pipes and a force measuring device
allows determining the thermal expansion force. The pipe sections can be individually selected
using the ball valves situated at the pipe section outlet. The cold and hot water connections
made using quick-release couplings. The water inlet temperature can be adjusted by these
connections and a mixing faucet. The inlet and outlet lines include two temperature sensors to
measure the change of temperature
Specifications:
3. Procedure:
Startup:
• Turn on the ON Switch on the Equipment.
• Measure the original Lengths of the adjusted pipes.
• Set the temperature at which the water is to be heated.
Operation:
• Set the flow of the water in the pipes by using flow meter.
• Note down the flow by using flow sensor.
• Once the flow is set start raising the temperature of the water to the desired
temperature.
• Once the desired temperature is set continue the flow for set times.
• After regular intervals note down the reading obtained on the gauge for the elongation
of the individual pipes separately.
Shutdown:
• After noting down the required readings turn off the water supply
• Turn off the electric supply.
• Drain out the hot water carefully.
In Lab :
Initial temperature=T1
Final Temperature=T2
Original Length=L1
Change in length after expansion=L2
No of Type of pipe Change in Original Change in Thermal
Readings Temperature length Length Expansion
delta T L (Original Coefficient
(T1-T2) Length- Alpha
Final
Length) α= del L/delT*L
delta L
1. PVC
2. PE
3. Cu
4. Steel
Post Lab :
c. Findings:
d. Display results
e. Conclusion