INTRODUCTION

Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields.

Electric currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic
field, which acts on other currents and magnetic moments. The most familiar effects occur in
ferromagnetic materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be
magnetized to become
permanent magnets, producing
magnetic fields themselves.
Only a few substances are
ferromagnetic; the most
common ones are iron, nickel
and cobalt and their alloys. The
prefix Ferro- refers to iron,
because permanent magnetism
was first observed in lodestone,
a form of natural iron ore called
magnetite, Fe3O4.Although
ferromagnetism is responsible
for most of the effects of
magnetism encountered in everyday life, all other materials are influenced to some extent by
a magnetic field, by several other types of magnetism. Paramagnetic substances such as
aluminum and oxygen are weakly attracted to an applied magnetic field; diamagnetic
substances such as copper and carbon are weakly repelled; while antiferromagnetic materials
such as chromium and spin glasses have a more complex relationship with a magnetic field.
The force of a magnet on paramagnetic, diamagnetic, antiferromagnetic materials is usually
too weak to be felt, and can be detected only by laboratory instruments, so in everyday life
these substances are often described as non-magnetic. The magnetic state (or magnetic
phase) of a material depends on temperature and other variables such as pressure and the
applied magnetic field. A material may exhibit more than one form of magnetism as these
variables change.

WILLIAM GIBERTS THEORY:

 The earth is a magnet with the magnetic field pointing from the geographic south to
the north. It probably consists of “giant bar magnet” placed approximately along its
axis of rotation.
 When a bar magnet is freely suspended or floated in still water, it points in the north
south direction. The tip towards geographic south is south pole and that towards
geographic north is north pole.
 We cannot isolate the north and south pole.
 It is possible to make magnets out of iron and its alloys.
 MATERIALS

Diamagnetism

Diamagnetism appears in all materials, and is the tendency of a material to oppose an applied
magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a material with
paramagnetic properties (that is, with a tendency to enhance an external magnetic field), the
paramagnetic behavior dominates.[10] Thus, despite its universal occurrence, diamagnetic
behavior is observed only in a purely diamagnetic material. In a diamagnetic material, there
are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any
bulk effect. In these cases, the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions,
which can be understood classically as follows:“When a material is put in a magnetic field,
the electrons circling the nucleus will experience, in addition to their Coulomb attraction to
the nucleus, a Lorentz force from the magnetic field. Depending on which direction the
electron is orbiting, this force may increase the centripetal force on the electrons, pulling
them in towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling them away from the
nucleus. This effect systematically increases the orbital magnetic moments that were aligned
opposite the field, and decreases the ones aligned parallel to the field (in accordance with
Lenz's law). This results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an opposite direction to the
applied field.”

Paramagnetism

In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, i.e. atomic or molecular orbitals
with exactly one electron in them. While paired electrons are required by the Pauli’s
Exclusion Principle to have their intrinsic ('spin') magnetic moments pointing in opposite
directions, causing their magnetic fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align its
magnetic moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is applied, these
magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the applied field,
thus reinforcing it.

Ferromagnetism

A Ferro-magnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired electrons. However, in addition

to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment's tendency to be parallel to an applied field,
there is also in these materials a tendency for these magnetic moments to orient parallel to
each other to maintain a lowered-energy state. Thus, even in the absence of an applied field,
the magnetic moments of the electrons in the material spontaneously line up parallel to one
another.
Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature, called the Curie
temperature, or Curie point, above which it loses its ferromagnetic properties. This is because
the thermal tendency to disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to ferromagnetic
order.

Ferromagnetism only occurs in a few substances; the common ones are iron, nickel, cobalt,
their alloys, and some alloys of rare earth metals

Magnetic Domains

The magnetic moments of atoms in a ferromagnetic material cause them to behave

something like tiny permanent magnets. They stick together and align themselves into small
regions of more or less uniform alignment called magnetic domains or Weiss domains.
Magnetic domains can be observed with a magnetic force microscope to reveal magnetic
domain boundaries that resemble white lines in the sketch. There are many scientific
experiments that can physically show magnetic fields.
When a domain contains too many molecules, it becomes unstable and divides into two
domains aligned in opposite directions so that they stick together more stably as shown at
the right.
When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries move so that the domains aligned
with the magnetic field grow and dominate the structure (dotted yellow area) as shown at
the left. When the magnetizing field is removed, the domains may not return to an un-
magnetized state. This results in the ferromagnetic material's being magnetized, forming a
permanent magnet.

When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain overruns all others to result in
only one single domain, the material is magnetically saturated. When a magnetized
ferromagnetic material is heated to the Curie point temperature, the molecules are agitated
to the point that the magnetic domains lose the organization and the magnetic properties
they cause cease. When the material is cooled, this domain alignment structure
spontaneously returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how a liquid can freeze into a
crystalline solid.

ELECTROMAGNET

An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric

current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off. Electromagnets usually
consist of a large number of closely spaced turns of wire that create the magnetic field. The
wire turns are often wound around a magnetic core made from
a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron; the magnetic core concentrates
the magnetic flux and makes a more powerful magnet.
The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent
magnet is that the magnetic field can be quickly changed by
controlling the amount of electric current in the winding.
However, unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, an
electromagnet requires a continuous supply of current to maintain
the magnetic field.
Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical
devices, such as motors, generators, relays, loudspeakers, hard
disks, MRI machines, scientific instruments, and magnetic
separation equipment. Electromagnets are also employed in
industry for picking up and moving heavy iron objects such as
scrap iron and steel. Electromagnetism was discovered in 1820.
Magnetism, Electricity, and Special Relativity

As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special

relativity, electricity and magnetism are fundamentally
interlinked. Both magnetism lacking electricity, and
electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with
special relativity, due to such effects as length
contraction, time dilation, and the fact that
the magnetic force is velocity-dependent. However,
when both electricity and
magnetism are taken into
account, the resulting theory
(electromagnetism) is fully
consistent with special
relativity. In particular, a
phenomenon that appears
purely electric or purely magnetic to one observer may
be a mix of both to another, or more generally the
relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are
dependent on the frame of reference. Thus, special relativity "mixes" electricity and
magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism, analogous to
how relativity "mixes" space and time into space-time.
All observations on electromagnetism apply to what might be considered to be primarily
magnetism, e.g. perturbations in the magnetic field are necessarily accompanied by a
nonzero electric field, and propagate at the speed of light.

Magnetic Fields in a Material

When electric current is carried in a wire, a magnetic field is formed around it. The magnetic
field lines form concentric circles around the wire. The magnetic field direction depends on
the direction of the current. It can be determined using the "right hand rule", by pointing the
thumb of your right hand in the direction of the current. The direction of the magnetic field
lines is the direction of your curled fingers. The magnitude of the magnetic field depends on
the amount of current, and the distance from the charge-carrying wire. The formula includes
the constant ( ). This is called the permeability of free space, and has a value
. The unit of magnetic field is the Tesla (T).

B = magnetic field magnitude (Tesla, T)

μ0= permeability of free space ( )
I = magnitude of the electric current (Amperes, A)
r = distance (m)

MAGNETIC FIELD

A magnetic field is the magnetic effect of electric currents and magnetic materials. The

magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude (or
strength); as such it is represented by a vector field. The term is used for two distinct but
closely related fields denoted by the symbols B and H, where H is measured in units
of amperes per meter (symbol: A⋅m−1 or A/m) in the SI. B is measured in tesla (symbol: T)
and newton per meter per ampere (symbol: N⋅m−1⋅A−1 or N/ (m⋅A))
in the SI. B is most commonly defined in terms of the Lorentz
force it exerts on moving electric charges.
Magnetic fields can be produced by moving electric charges and the
intrinsic magnetic moments of elementary particles associated with
a fundamental quantum property, their spin. In special relativity,
electric and magnetic fields are two interrelated aspects of a single
object, called the electromagnetic tensor; the split of this tensor
into electric and magnetic fields depends on the relative velocity of the observer and charge.
In quantum physics, the electromagnetic field is quantized and electromagnetic interactions
result from the exchange of photons.
In everyday life, magnetic fields are most often encountered as a force created by permanent
magnets, which pull on ferromagnetic materials such as iron, cobalt, or nickel, and attract or
repel other magnets. Magnetic fields are widely used throughout modern technology,
particularly in electrical engineering and electro mechanics. The Earth produces its own
magnetic field, which is important in navigation, and it shields the Earth's atmosphere
from solar wind. Rotating magnetic fields are used in both electric motors and generators.
Magnetic forces give information about the charge carriers in a material through the Hall
Effect. The interaction of magnetic fields in electric devices such as transformers is studied in
the discipline of magnetic circuits.

Magnetic Field Lines

Mapping the magnetic field of an object is simple in principle. First, measure the strength and
direction of the magnetic field at a large number of locations (or at every point in space).
Then, mark each location with an arrow (called a vector) pointing in the
direction of the local magnetic field with its magnitude proportional to the
strength of the magnetic field.
An alternative method to map the magnetic field is to 'connect' the arrows
to form magnetic field lines. The direction of the magnetic field at any point
is parallel to the direction of nearby field lines, and the local density of field
lines can be made proportional to its strength.
Magnetic field lines are like streamlines in fluid flow, in that they represent
something continuous, and a different resolution would show more or fewer
lines. An advantage of using magnetic field lines as a representation is that
many laws of magnetism (and electromagnetism) can be stated completely
and concisely using simple concepts such as the 'number' of field lines
through a surface. These concepts can be quickly 'translated' to their
mathematical form. For example, the number of field lines through a given surface is
the surface integral of the magnetic field. Various phenomena have the effect of "displaying"
magnetic field lines as though the field lines were physical phenomena. For example, iron
filings placed in a magnetic field, form lines that correspond to 'field lines'. Magnetic field
"lines" are also visually displayed in polar auroras, in which plasma particle dipole
interactions create visible streaks of light that line up with the local direction of Earth's
magnetic field.
Field lines can be used as a qualitative tool to visualize magnetic forces.
In ferromagnetic substances like iron and in plasmas, magnetic forces can be understood by
imagining that the field lines exert a tension, (like a rubber band) along their length, and a
pressure perpendicular to their length on neighboring field lines. 'Unlike' poles of magnets
attract because they are linked by many field lines; 'like' poles repel because their field lines
do not meet, but run parallel, pushing on each other. The rigorous form of this concept is
the electromagnet stress-energy tensor.

Magnetic Fields and Permanent Magnets

The magnetic field of permanent magnets can be quite complicated, especially near the
magnet. The magnetic field of a small straight magnet is proportional to the
magnet's strength (called its magnetic dipole moment m). The equations are non-trivial and
also depend on the distance from the magnet and the orientation of the magnet. For simple
magnets, m points in the direction of a line drawn from the south to the north pole of the
magnet. Flipping a bar magnet is equivalent to rotating its m by 180 degrees.
The magnetic field of larger magnets can be obtained by modelling them as a collection of a
large number of small magnets called dipoles each having their own m. The magnetic field
produced by the magnet then is the net magnetic field of these dipoles. And, any net force on
the magnet is a result of adding up the forces on the individual dipoles.
There are two competing models for the nature of these dipoles. These two models produce
two different magnetic fields, H and B. Outside a material, though, the two are identical (to a
multiplicative constant) so that in many cases the distinction can be ignored. This is
particularly true for magnetic fields, such as those due to electric currents that are not
generated by magnetic materials.

Magnetic Field Model and H-Field

It is sometimes useful to model the force and torques between two magnets as due to
magnetic poles repelling or attracting each other in the same manner as the Coulomb
force between electric charges. This is called the Gilbert model of magnetism, after William
Gilbert. In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by magnetic charges that are 'smeared'
around each pole. These magnetic charges are in fact related to the magnetization field M.
The H-field, therefore, is analogous to the electric field E, which starts at
a positive electric charge and ends at a negative electric charge. Near the
North Pole, therefore, all H-field lines point away from the North Pole
(whether inside the magnet or out) while near the South Pole (whether
inside the magnet or out) all H-field lines point toward the South Pole. A
north pole, then, feels a force in the direction of the H-field while the
force on the South Pole is opposite to the H-field.
In the magnetic pole model, the elementary magnetic dipole m is formed
by two opposite magnetic poles of pole strength qm separated by a small
distance vector d, such that m = qm d. The magnetic pole model predicts
correctly the field H both inside and outside magnetic materials, in particular the fact that H is
opposite to the magnetization field M inside a permanent magnet.
Since it is based on the fictitious idea of a magnetic charge density, the Gilbert model has
limitations. Magnetic poles cannot exist apart from each other as electric charges can, but
always come in north/south pairs. If a magnetized object is divided in half, a new pole
appears on the surface of each piece, so each has a pair of complementary poles. The
magnetic pole model does not account for magnetism that is produced by electric currents.

Force between Magnets

The force between two small magnets is quite complicated and depends on the strength and
orientation of both magnets and the distance and direction of the magnets relative to each
other. The force is particularly sensitive to rotations of the magnets due to magnetic torque.
The force on each magnet depends on its magnetic moment and the magnetic fieldof the
other.
To understand the force between magnets, it is useful to examine the magnetic pole
model given above. In this model, the H-field of one magnet pushes and pulls on both poles
of a second magnet. If this H-field is the same at both poles of the second magnet then there
is no net force on that magnet since the force is opposite for opposite poles. If, however, the
magnetic field of the first magnet is non-uniform (such as the H near one of its poles), each
pole of the second magnet sees a different field and is subject to a different force. This
difference in the two forces moves the magnet in the direction of increasing magnetic field
and may also cause a net torque.
This is a specific example of a general rule that magnets are attracted (or repulsed depending
on the orientation of the magnet) into regions of higher magnetic field. Any non-uniform
magnetic field, whether caused by permanent magnets or electric currents, exerts a force on
a small magnet in this way.
The details of the Amperian loop model are different and more complicated but yield the
same result: that magnetic dipoles are attracted/repelled into regions of higher magnetic
field. Mathematically, the force on a small magnet having a magnetic moment m due to a

magnetic field B is: where the gradient ∇ is the change of the quantity m · B per unit distance
and the direction is that of maximum increase of m · B. To understand this equation, note
that the dot product m · B = mBcos (θ), where m and B represent the magnitude of
the m and B vectors and θ is the angle between them. If m is in the same direction as B then
the dot product is positive and the gradient points 'uphill' pulling the magnet into regions of
higher B-field (more strictly larger m · B). This equation is strictly only valid for magnets of
zero size, but is often a good approximation for not too large magnets. The magnetic force on
larger magnets is determined by dividing them into smaller regions each having their
own m then summing up the forces on each of these very small regions.
Magnetic Torque on Permanent Magnets
If two like poles of two separate magnets are brought near each other, and one of the
magnets is allowed to turn, it promptly rotates
to align itself with the first. In this example, the
magnetic field of the stationary magnet creates
a magnetic torque on the magnet that is free to
rotate. This magnetic torque τ tends to align a
magnet's poles with the magnetic field lines. A
compass, therefore, turns to align itself with
Earth's magnetic field.
Magnetic torque is used to drive electric
motors. In one simple motor design, a magnet is
fixed to a freely rotating shaft and subjected to
a magnetic field from an array
of electromagnets. By continuously switching
the electric current through each of the electromagnets, thereby flipping the polarity of their
magnetic fields, like poles are kept next to the rotor; the resultant torque is transferred to the
shaft.
As is the case for the force between magnets, the magnetic pole model leads more readily to
the correct equation. Here, two equal and opposite magnetic charges experiencing the
same H also experience equal and opposite forces. Since these equal and opposite forces are
in different locations, this produces a torque proportional to the distance (perpendicular to
the force) between them. With the definition of m as the pole strength times the distance
between the poles, this leads to τ = μ0mHsinθ, where μ0 is a constant called the vacuum
permeability, measuring 4π×10−7 V·s/(A·m) and θ is the angle between H and m.
The Amperian loop model also predicts the same magnetic torque. Here, it is the B field
interacting with the Amperian current loop through a Lorentz force described below. Again,
the results are the same although the models are completely different.
Mathematically, the torque τ on a small magnet is proportional both to the applied magnetic
field and to the magnetic moment m of the magnet:

𝛕 = m x B = µ 0m x H
where × represents the vector cross product. Note that this equation includes all of the
qualitative information included above. There is no torque on a magnet if m is in the same
direction as the magnetic field. (The cross product is zero for two vectors that are in the same
direction.) Further, all other orientations feel a torque that twists them toward the direction
of magnetic field.

Magnetic Field and Electric Currents

All moving charged particles produce magnetic fields. Moving point charges, such
as electrons, produce complicated but well known magnetic fields that depend on the
charge, velocity, and acceleration of the particles.
Magnetic field lines form in concentric circles around a cylindrical current-carrying
conductor, such as a length of wire. The direction of such a magnetic field can be determined
by using the "right hand grip rule" (see figure at right). The strength of the magnetic field
decreases with distance from the wire. (For an infinite length wire the strength is inversely
proportional to the distance.)
Bending a current-carrying wire into a loop concentrates the magnetic field inside the loop
while weakening it outside. Bending a wire into multiple closely spaced loops to form a coil
or "solenoid" enhances this effect. A device so formed around an iron core may act as
an electromagnet, generating a strong, well-controlled magnetic field. An infinitely long
cylindrical electromagnet has a uniform magnetic field inside, and no magnetic field outside.
A finite length electromagnet produces a magnetic field that looks similar to that produced by
a uniform permanent magnet, with its strength and polarity determined by the current
flowing through the coil.
The Biot-Savart Law relates magnetic fields to the currents which are their sources. In a
similar manner, Coulomb's law relates electric fields to the point charges which are their
sources. Finding the magnetic field resulting from a current distribution involves the vector
product, and is inherently a calculus problem when the distance from the current to the field
point is continuously changing.

Important Uses and Examples of Magnetic Field

Earth’s Magnetic Field-The Earth's magnetic field is thought to be produced by convection
currents in the outer liquid of Earth's core. The Dynamo theory proposes that these
movements produce electric currents that, in turn, produce the magnetic field.
The presence of this field causes a compass, placed anywhere within it, to rotate so that the
"north pole" of the magnet in the compass points roughly north, toward Earth's North
Magnetic Pole. This is the traditional definition of the "north pole" of a magnet, although
other equivalent definitions are also possible.
One confusion that arises from this definition is that, if Earth itself is considered as a magnet,
the south pole of that magnet would be the one nearer the north magnetic pole, and vice
versa. The north magnetic pole is so-named not because of the polarity of the field there but
because of its geographical location. The north and south poles of a permanent magnet are
so-called because they are "north-seeking" and "south-seeking", respectively.
The figure is a sketch of Earth's magnetic field represented by field lines. For most locations,
the magnetic field has a significant up/down component in addition to the north/south
component. (There is also an east/west component, as Earth's magnetic and geographical
poles do not coincide.) The magnetic field can be visualised as a bar magnet buried deep in
Earth's interior.
Earth's magnetic field is not constant—the strength of the field and the location of its poles
vary. Moreover, the poles periodically reverse their orientation in a process
called geomagnetic reversal. The most recent reversal occurred 780,000 years ago.

MAGNETIC DIPOLES

A very common source of magnetic field found in nature is a dipole, with a "South pole" and a
"North pole", terms dating back to the use of magnets as compasses,
interacting with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and South on
the globe. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the north pole of a
magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet. The Earth's North
Magnetic Pole (currently in the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a
south pole, as it attracts the north pole of a compass. A magnetic field
contains energy, and physical systems move toward configurations with
lower energy. When diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field,
a magnetic dipole tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby lowering the
net field strength. When ferromagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field, the
magnetic dipoles align to the applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic
domains.
Magnetic Monopoles-Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons
distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the resulting
pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south
pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole—if such a thing
exists—would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as
an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry
"magnetic charge" analogous to electric charge. Despite systematic searches since 1931, as of
2010, they have never been observed, and could very well not exist.
Nevertheless, some theoretical physics models predict the existence of these magnetic
monopoles. Paul Dirac observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a
certain symmetry, just as quantum theory predicts that individual positive or negative electric
charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic
poles should be observable. Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles
exist, then one could explain the quantization of electric charge—that is, why the
observed elementary particles carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron.
Certain grand unified theories predict the existence of monopoles which, unlike elementary
particles, are solitons (localized energy packets). The initial results of using these models to
estimate the number of monopoles created in the big bang contradicted cosmological
observations—the monopoles would have been so plentiful and massive that they would
have long since halted the expansion of the universe. However, the idea of inflation (for
which this problem served as a partial motivation) was successful in solving this problem,
creating models in which monopoles existed but were rare enough to be consistent with
current observations.