Chapter 3: Formal Relational Query

Languages

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.1 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Chapter 3: Formal Relational Query Languages

Relational Algebra
Tuple Relational Calculus
Domain Relational Calculus

Textbook: Chapter 6

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relational Query Languages
Procedural vs non-procedural (declarative)
“Pure” languages:
Relational algebra
Tuple relational calculus
Domain relational calculus
Expressive power of a query language
What queries can be expressed in this language?
Relational algebra:
Algebra of relations -> set of operators that take relations as input
and produce relations as output
-> composable: the output of evaluating an expression in relational
algebra can be used as input to another relational algebra
expression
Now: First introduction to operators of the relational algebra

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relational Algebra
Procedural language
Six basic operators

select: 
project: 
union: 
set difference: –
Cartesian product: x
rename: 
The operators take one or two relations as inputs and produce a new
relation as a result.
composable

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Select Operation – Example
Relation r

 A=B ^ D > 5 (r)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Select Operation
Notation:  p(r)
p is called the selection predicate
Defined as:

Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of terms

connected by :  (and),  (or),  (not)
Each term is one of:
<attribute> op <attribute> or <constant>
where op is one of: =, , >, . <. 

Example of selection:

 dept_name=“Physics”(instructor)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Project Operation – Example
Relation r:

A,C (r)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Project Operation
Notation:
 A1 , A2 ,, Ak (r )
where A1, A2 are attribute names and r is a relation name.
The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by erasing
the columns that are not listed
Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets
Let A be a subset of the attributes of relation r then:

Example: To eliminate the dept_name attribute of instructor

ID, name, salary (instructor)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Union Operation – Example
Relations r, s:

r  s:

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Union Operation
Notation: r  s
Defined as:

For r  s to be valid.
1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (example: 2nd column
of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2nd
column of s)
Example: to find all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or in the
Spring 2010 semester, or in both

course_id ( semester=“Fall” Λ year=2009 (section)) 

course_id ( semester=“Spring” Λ year=2010 (section))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set difference of two relations
Relations r, s:

r – s:

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set Difference Operation
Notation r – s
Defined as:

Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.

r and s must have the same arity
attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
Example: to find all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, but
not in the Spring 2010 semester

course_id ( semester=“Fall” Λ year=2009 (section)) −

course_id ( semester=“Spring” Λ year=2010 (section))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Cartesian-Product Operation – Example
Relations r, s:

r x s:

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Cartesian-Product Operation
Notation r x s
Defined as:

Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are

disjoint. (That is, R  S = ).
If attributes of r(R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then
renaming must be used.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Composition of Operations
Can build expressions using multiple operations
Example: A=C(r x s)

rxs

A=C(r x s)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Rename Operation
Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of relational-
algebra expressions.
Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name.
Example:
 x (r)
returns the expression E under the name X
If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then

r x ( A1, A2 ,...,An ) (r)

returns the result of expression E under the name X, and with the
attributes renamed to A1 , A2 , …., An .

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Query
Find the largest salary in the university
Step 1: find instructor salaries that are less than some other
instructor salary (i.e. not maximum)
– using a copy of instructor under a new name d

Step 2: Find the largest salary

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
Find the names of all instructors in the Physics department, along with the
course_id of all courses they have taught

Query 1

Query 2

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Formal Definition (Syntax)
A basic expression in the relational algebra consists of either one of the
following:
A relation in the database
A constant relation: e.g., {(1),(2)}
Let E1 and E2 be relational-algebra expressions; the following are all
relational-algebra expressions:

E1  E2

E1 – E2

E1 x E2

p (E1), p is a predicate on attributes in E1

s(E1), s is a list consisting of some of the attributes in E1

 x (E1), x is the new name for the result of E1

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Formal Definition (Semantics)
Let E be an relational algebra expression. We use [E](I) to denote the
evaluation of E over a database instance I
For simplicity we will often drop I and []
The result of evaluating a simple relational algebra expression E over a
database is defined as
Simple relation: [R](I) = R(I)
Constant relation: [C](I) = C

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Formal Definition (Semantics)
Let E1 and E2 be relational-algebra expressions.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Null Values
It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some
of their attributes
null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Conditions with Null Values
Comparisons with null values return the special truth value: unknown
If false was used instead of unknown, then not (A < 5)
would not be equivalent to A >= 5
Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown:
OR: (unknown or true) = true,
(unknown or false) = unknown
(unknown or unknown) = unknown
AND: (true and unknown) = unknown,
(false and unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
NOT: (not unknown) = unknown
In SQL “P is unknown” evaluates to true if predicate P evaluates
to unknown
Result of select predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to unknown

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Arithmetics with Null Values
The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null.
Aggregate functions simply ignore null values (as in SQL)
For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is treated like any other
value, and two nulls are assumed to be the same (as in SQL)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Additional Operations
We define additional operations that do not add any expressive power to
the relational algebra, but that simplify common queries.

Set intersection
Natural join
Assignment
Outer join
Division

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set-Intersection Operation
Notation: r  s
Defined as:

Assume:
r, s have the same arity
attributes of r and s are compatible
Note: r  s = r – (r – s)
That is adding intersection to the language does not make it more
expressive

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set-Intersection Operation – Example

Relation r, s:

rs

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Natural-Join Operation
Notation: r s

Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.

Then, r s is a relation on schema R  S obtained as follows:
Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.
If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in R  S, add
a tuple t to the result, where
 t has the same value as tr on r
 t has the same value as ts on s
Example:
R = (A, B, C, D)
S = (E, B, D)
Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E)
r s is defined as:
r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E (r.B = s.B  r.D = s.D (r x s))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Natural-Join Operation (cont.)

Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.

Then, r s is defined as:

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Natural Join Example
Relations r, s:

r s

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Natural Join and Theta Join
Find the names of all instructors in the Comp. Sci. department together with
the course titles of all the courses that the instructors teach

 name, title ( dept_name=“Comp. Sci.” (instructor teaches

course))
Natural join is associative
(instructor teaches) course is equivalent to
instructor (teaches course)
Natural join is commutative (we ignore attribute order)
instruct teaches is equivalent to
teaches instructor
The theta join operation r  s is defined as

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Assignment Operation
The assignment operation () provides a convenient way to
express complex queries.
Write query as a sequential program consisting of
 a series of assignments
 followed by an expression whose value is displayed as a
result of the query.
Assignment must always be made to a temporary relation
variable.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join
An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information.
Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation that does not
match tuples in the other relation to the result of the join.
Uses null values:
null signifies that the value is unknown or does not exist
All comparisons involving null are (roughly speaking) false by
definition.
 We shall study precise meaning of comparisons with nulls later

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join – Example
Relation instructor1

ID name dept_name
10101 Srinivasan Comp. Sci.
12121 Wu Finance
15151 Mozart Music

Relation teaches1

ID course_id
10101 CS-101
12121 FIN-201
76766 BIO-101

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join – Example
Join

instructor teaches

ID name dept_name course_id

10101 Srinivasan Comp. Sci. CS-101
12121 Wu Finance FIN-201

Left Outer Join

instructor teaches

ID name dept_name course_id

10101 Srinivasan Comp. Sci. CS-101
12121 Wu Finance FIN-201
15151 Mozart Music null

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join – Example
Right Outer Join
instructor teaches

ID name dept_name course_id

10101 Srinivasan Comp. Sci. CS-101

12121 Wu Finance FIN-201
76766 null null BIO-101

Full Outer Join

instructor teaches

ID name dept_name course_id

10101 Srinivasan Comp. Sci. CS-101

12121 Wu Finance FIN-201
15151 Mozart Music null
76766 null null BIO-101

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join using Joins
Outer join can be expressed using basic operations

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Division Operator
Given relations r(R) and s(S), such that S  R, r  s is the largest
relation t(R-S) such that
txsr
Alternatively, all tuples from r.(R-S) such that all their extensions on
R ∩ S with tuples from s exist in R
E.g. let r(ID, course_id) = ID, course_id (takes) and
s(course_id) = course_id (dept_name=“Biology”(course))
then r  s gives us students who have taken all courses in the Biology
department
Can write r  s as

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Division Operator Example
Return the name of all persons that read all newspapers

reads newspaper
name newspaper newspaper
Peter Times Times
Bob Wall Street Wall Street
Alice Times
Alice Wall Street

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations
Generalized Projection
Aggregate Functions

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Generalized Projection
Extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic functions to be
used in the projection list.

E is any relational-algebra expression

Each of F1, F2, …, Fn are arithmetic expressions and function calls
involving constants and attributes in the schema of E.
Given relation instructor(ID, name, dept_name, salary) where salary is
annual salary, get the same information but with monthly salary
ID, name, dept_name, salary/12 (instructor)
Adding functions increases expressive power!
In standard relational algebra there is no way to change attribute
values

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions and Operations
Aggregation function takes a set of values and returns a single value
as a result.
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
Aggregate operation in relational algebra

E is any relational-algebra expression

G1, G2 …, Gn is a list of attributes on which to group (can be empty)
Each Fi is an aggregate function
Each Ai is an attribute name

Note: Some books/articles use  instead of (Calligraphic G)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Operation – Example
Relation r:
A B C

  7
  7
  3
  10

sum(c )
sum(c) (r)
27

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.43 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Operation – Example
Find the average salary in each department

dept_name avg(salary) (instructor)

avg_salary

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.44 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
What are the names for attributes in aggregation results?
Need some convention!
 E.g., use the expression as a name avg(salary)
For convenience, we permit renaming as part of aggregate
operation
dept_name avg(salary) as avg_sal (instructor)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.45 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Modification of the Database
The content of the database may be modified using the following
operations:
Deletion
Insertion
Updating
All these operations can be expressed using the assignment
operator
Example: Delete instructors with salary over $1,000,000

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.46 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Restrictions for Modification
Consider a modification where R=(A,B) and S=(C)

This would change the schema of R!

Should not be allowed

Requirements for modifications

The name R on the left-hand side of the assignment operator
refers to an existing relation in the database schema
The expression on the right-hand side of the assignment operator
should be union-compatible with R

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.47 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Tuple Relational Calculus

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.48 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Tuple Relational Calculus

A nonprocedural query language, where each query is of the form

{t | P (t ) }
It is the set of all tuples t such that predicate P is true for t
t is a tuple variable, t [A] denotes the value of tuple t on attribute A
t  r denotes that tuple t is in relation r
P is a formula similar to that of the predicate calculus

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.49 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Predicate Calculus Formula

1. Set of attributes and constants

2. Set of comparison operators: (e.g., , , =, , , )
3. Set of logical connectives: and (), or (v)‚ not ()
4. Implication (): x  y, if x is true, then y is true
x  y  x v y
5. Set of quantifiers:
  t  r (Q (t ))  ”there exists” a tuple in t in relation r
such that predicate Q (t ) is true
 t  r (Q (t ))  Q is true “for all” tuples t in relation r

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.50 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries

Find the ID, name, dept_name, salary for instructors whose salary is
greater than $80,000

{t | t  instructor  t [salary ]  80000}

As in the previous query, but output only the ID attribute value

{t |  s  instructor (t [ID ] = s [ID ]  s [salary ]  80000)}

Notice that a relation on schema (ID) is implicitly defined by

the query, because
1) t is not bound to any relation by the predicate
2) we implicitly state that t has an ID attribute (t[ID] = s[ID])

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.51 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries

Find the names of all instructors whose department is in the Watson

building

{t | s  instructor (t [name ] = s [name ]

 u  department (u [dept_name ] = s[dept_name]
 u [building] = “Watson” ))}

Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or in
the Spring 2010 semester, or both

{t | s  section (t [course_id ] = s [course_id ] 

s [semester] = “Fall”  s [year] = 2009)
v u  section (t [course_id ] = u [course_id ] 
u [semester] = “Spring”  u [year] = 2010)}

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.52 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, and in
the Spring 2010 semester

{t | s  section (t [course_id ] = s [course_id ] 

s [semester] = “Fall”  s [year] = 2009 )
 u  section (t [course_id ] = u [course_id ] 
u [semester] = “Spring”  u [year] = 2010)}

Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, but not in
the Spring 2010 semester

{t | s  section (t [course_id ] = s [course_id ] 

s [semester] = “Fall”  s [year] = 2009)
  u  section (t [course_id ] = u [course_id ] 
u [semester] = “Spring”  u [year] = 2010)}

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.53 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Safety of Expressions

It is possible to write tuple calculus expressions that generate infinite

relations.
For example, { t |  t  r } results in an infinite relation if the domain of
any attribute of relation r is infinite
To guard against the problem, we restrict the set of allowable
expressions to safe expressions.
An expression {t | P (t )} in the tuple relational calculus is safe if every
component of t appears in one of the relations, tuples, or constants that
appear in P
NOTE: this is more than just a syntax condition.
 E.g. { t | t [A] = 5  true } is not safe --- it defines an infinite set
with attribute values that do not appear in any relation or tuples
or constants in P.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.54 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Universal Quantification
Find all students who have taken all courses offered in the
Biology department
{t |  r  student (t [ID] = r [ID]) 
( u  course (u [dept_name]=“Biology” 
 s  takes (t [ID] = s [ID ] 
s [course_id] = u [course_id]))}
Note that without the existential quantification on student,
the above query would be unsafe if the Biology department
has not offered any courses.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.55 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Domain Relational Calculus

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.56 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Domain Relational Calculus

A nonprocedural query language equivalent in power to the tuple

relational calculus
Each query is an expression of the form:

{  x1, x2, …, xn  | P (x1, x2, …, xn)}

x1, x2, …, xn represent domain variables

 Variables that range of attribute values
P represents a formula similar to that of the predicate calculus
Tuples can be formed using <>
 E.g., <‘Einstein’,’Physics’>

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.57 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries

Find the ID, name, dept_name, salary for instructors whose salary is
greater than $80,000
{< i, n, d, s> | < i, n, d, s>  instructor  s  80000}
As in the previous query, but output only the ID attribute value
{< i> | < i, n, d, s>  instructor  s  80000}
Find the names of all instructors whose department is in the Watson
building
{< n > |  i, d, s (< i, n, d, s >  instructor
  b, a (< d, b, a>  department  b = “Watson” ))}

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.58 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or in
the Spring 2010 semester, or both

{<c> |  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, t >  section 

s = “Fall”  y = 2009 )
v  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, t >  section ] 
s = “Spring”  y = 2010)}

This case can also be written as

{<c> |  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, t >  section 
( (s = “Fall”  y = 2009 ) v (s = “Spring”  y = 2010))}

Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, and in
the Spring 2010 semester

{<c> |  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, t >  section 

s = “Fall”  y = 2009 )
  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, t >  section ] 
s = “Spring”  y = 2010)}

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.59 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Safety of Expressions

The expression:
{  x1, x2, …, xn  | P (x1, x2, …, xn )}

is safe if all of the following hold:

1. All values that appear in tuples of the expression are values
from dom (P ) (that is, the values appear either as constants in P or
in a tuple of a relation mentioned in P ).
2. For every “there exists” subformula of the form  x (P1(x )), the
subformula is true if and only if there is a value of x in dom (P1)
such that P1(x ) is true.
3. For every “for all” subformula of the form x (P1 (x )), the subformula is
true if and only if P1(x ) is true for all values x from dom (P1).

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.60 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Universal Quantification

Find all students who have taken all courses offered in the Biology
department
{< i > |  n, d, tc ( < i, n, d, tc >  student 
( ci, ti, dn, cr ( < ci, ti, dn, cr >  course  dn =“Biology”
  si, se, y, g ( <i, ci, si, se, y, g>  takes ))}
Note that without the existential quantification on student, the
above query would be unsafe if the Biology department has not
offered any courses.

* Above query fixes bug in page 246, last query

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.61 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relationship between Relational Algebra
and Tuple (Domain) Calculus
Codd’s theorem
Relational algebra and tuple calculus are equivalent in terms of
expressiveness

That means that every query expressible in relational algebra can also
be expressed in tuple calculus and vice versa
Since domain calculus is as expressive as tuple calculus the same
holds for the domain calculus
Note: Here relational algebra refers to the standard version (no
aggregation and projection with functions)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.62 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 End of Chapter 3

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.63 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Recap
Query language
Declarative
Retrieve, combine, and analyze data from a database instance
Relational algebra
Standard relational algebra:
 Selection, projection, renaming, cross product, union, set
difference
Null values
Semantic sugar operators:
 Intersection, joins, division,
Extensions:
 Aggregation, extended projection
Tuple Calculus
safety
Domain Calculus
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.64 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.01

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.65 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.02

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.66 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.03

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.67 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.04

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.68 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.05

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.69 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.06

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.70 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.07

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.71 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.08

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.72 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.09

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.73 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.10

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.74 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.11

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.75 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.12

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.76 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.13

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.77 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.14

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.78 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.15

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.79 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.16

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.80 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.17

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.81 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.18

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.82 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.19

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.83 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.20

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.84 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.21

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.85 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Deletion
A delete request is expressed similarly to a query, except
instead of displaying tuples to the user, the selected tuples are
removed from the database.
Can delete only whole tuples; cannot delete values on only
particular attributes
A deletion is expressed in relational algebra by:
rr–E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra query.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.86 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Deletion Examples
Delete all account records in the Perryridge branch.
account  account –  branch_name = “Perryridge” (account )

Delete all loan records with amount in the range of 0 to 50

loan  loan –  amount  0 and amount  50 (loan)

Delete all accounts at branches located in Needham.

r1   branch_city = “Needham” (account branch )

r2   account_number, branch_name, balance (r1)
r3   customer_name, account_number (r2 depositor)
account  account – r2
depositor  depositor – r3

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.87 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Insertion

To insert data into a relation, we either:

specify a tuple to be inserted
write a query whose result is a set of tuples to be inserted
in relational algebra, an insertion is expressed by:
r r  E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra expression.
The insertion of a single tuple is expressed by letting E be a constant
relation containing one tuple.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.88 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Insertion Examples
Insert information in the database specifying that Smith has $1200 in
account A-973 at the Perryridge branch.

account  account  {(“A-973”, “Perryridge”, 1200)}

depositor  depositor  {(“Smith”, “A-973”)}

Provide as a gift for all loan customers in the Perryridge

branch, a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve
as the account number for the new savings account.

r1  (branch_name = “Perryridge” (borrower loan))

account  account  loan_number, branch_name, 200 (r1)
depositor  depositor  customer_name, loan_number (r1)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.89 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Updating

A mechanism to change a value in a tuple without charging all values in

the tuple
Use the generalized projection operator to do this task

r ¬ ÕF ,F ,… ,F , (r )
1 2 l

Each Fi is either
the I th attribute of r, if the I th attribute is not updated, or,
if the attribute is to be updated Fi is an expression, involving only
constants and the attributes of r, which gives the new value for the
attribute

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.90 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Update Examples

Make interest payments by increasing all balances by 5 percent.

account   account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (account)

Pay all accounts with balances over $10,000 6 percent interest

and pay all others 5 percent

account   account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.06 ( BAL  10000 (account ))

  account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (BAL  10000 (account))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.91 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
Find the names of all customers who have a loan and an account at
bank.

customer_name (borrower)  customer_name (depositor)

Find the name of all customers who have a loan at the bank and the
loan amount

customer_name, loan_number, amount (borrower loan)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.92 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
Find all customers who have an account from at least the
“Downtown” and the Uptown” branches.
Query 1

customer_name (branch_name = “Downtown” (depositor account )) 

customer_name (branch_name = “Uptown” (depositor account))

Query 2
customer_name, branch_name (depositor account)
 temp(branch_name) ({(“Downtown” ), (“Uptown” )})
Note that Query 2 uses a constant relation.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.93 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Bank Example Queries
Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in
Brooklyn city.

customer_name, branch_name (depositor account)

 branch_name (branch_city = “Brooklyn” (branch))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 2.94 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan