Dr. Saeed A.

Dobbah Alghamdi

Department of Statistics
Faculty of Sciences
Building 90, 2ndFloor, Office 26F41
King Abdulaziz University
http://saalghamdy.kau.edu.sa

‫موقع المكتب‬
 Main Reference

Elementary Statistics
A Step by Step Approach
By
Allan Bluman
 Chapter 4

Probability
and
Counting Rules
Objectives
➢ Demonstrate knowledge of basic probability concepts.
➢ Calculate and interpret the probability of an event using classical probability
or empirical probability.
➢ Calculate and interpret the probability of compound events using the addition
rules.
➢ Calculate and interpret the probability of compound events using the
multiplication rules.
➢ Find the total number of outcomes in a sequence of events using the
fundamental counting rule.
➢ Find the number of ways that r objects can be selected from n objects using
the permutation rule.
➢ Find the number of ways that r objects can be selected from n objects without
regard to order using the combination rule.

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Introduction
Probability as a general concept can be defined as the chance of an event
occurring.
▪ Probability are used in games of chance, insurance, investments, weather
forecasting and in various other areas.
▪ Also, probability is the basis of inferential statistics. For example; predictions
are based on probability and hypotheses are tested by using probability.
▪ Rules such as the fundamental counting rule, permutation rule and
combination rule allow us to count the number of ways in which events can
occur.

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Basic Concepts
▪ A probability experiment is a chance process that leads to well-defined results
called outcomes.
▪ An outcome is the result of a single trial of a probability experiment.
▪ A sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment.
▪ An event consists of a set of outcomes of a probability experiment.
▪ An event with one outcome is called a simple event and with more than one
outcome is called compound event.
Number of outcomes
Experiment Outcome Sample Space Event Event Type
in the sample space
Toss a coin T 2^1 = 2 S={H, T} E={H} Simple
Toss two coins HT 2^2 = 2 × 2 = 4 S={HH, HT, TH, TT} E={HT, TH} Compound

Roll a die 4 6^1 = 6 S={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} E={1, 3, 5} Compound

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Basic Concepts
EXAMPLE
Find the sample space for the gender of children if a family has three children
and give an example for a simple event and another one for a compound event.
Use B for boy and G for girl.
There are two genders and three children, so there are 𝟐𝟑 = 𝟖 possibilities as
shown here;
BBB BBG BGB GBB BGG GBG GGG GGB
So, the sample space is
S ={BBB, BBG, BGB, GBB, BGG, GBG, GGB, GGG}
- Simple event as E ={BBB}
- Compound event as E ={BBG, BGB, GBB}

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Basic Concepts
A tree diagram is a device used to list all possibilities of a sequence of events in a
systematic way.

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Basic Concepts
EXAMPLE
Find the sample space for the gender of the children if a family has three
children. Use B for boy and G for girl.
B BBB
B
G BBG
B
B BGB
G
G BGG
B GBB
B
G GBG
G
B GGB
G
G GGG
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Basic Concepts
▪ Equally likely events are events that have the same probability of occurring.
▪ Venn diagrams are used to represent probabilities pictorially.

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Classical Probability
Classical probability uses sample spaces to determine the numerical probability
that an event will happen. It assumes that all outcomes in the sample space are
equally likely to occur. The probability of an event E can be defined as

𝑛(𝐸) 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐸

𝑃 𝐸 = =
𝑛(𝑆) 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
EXAMPLE
Find the probability of two girls in a family that has three children.
The sample space is S ={BBB, BBG, BGB, GBB, GGG, GGB, GBG, BGG}
The event of two girls is E ={GGB, GBG, BGG}
Hence, the probability of two girls is 𝒏(𝑬) 𝟑
𝑷 𝑬 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓
𝒏(𝑺) 𝟖
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Probability Rules
1. The probability of an event E is a number (either a fraction or decimal)
between and including 0 and 1. Thus, 0  P ( E )  1 .
2. If an event E cannot occur (i.e., the event contains no members in the sample
space), the probability is zero.
3. If an event E is certain, then the probability of E is one.
4. The sum of the probabilities of the outcomes in the sample space is one.

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Probability Rules
EXAMPLE
When a single die is rolled, the sample space is S={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Find the probability of getting an even number.
𝟑
Since the event of even outcomes E={2, 4, 6}, then 𝑷 𝑬 = = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟔

Find the probability of getting a 9.

𝟎
It is impossible to get a 9, E={ }=Φ. Hence, 𝑷 𝟗 = = 𝟎
𝟔

What is the probability of getting a number less than 7?

Since all outcomes in the sample space are less than 7, E={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, then
𝟔
𝑷 <𝟕 = =𝟏
𝟔
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Complementary Events
The complement of an event E is the set of outcomes in the sample space that are
not included in the outcomes of event E. The complement of E is denoted by 𝐸ത
(read “E bar”).
Rule for Complementary Events, 𝑃 𝐸 + 𝑃 𝐸ത = 1
Thus, 𝑃 𝐸ത = 1 − 𝑃(𝐸) or 𝑃 𝐸 = 1 − 𝑃 𝐸ത .
Complementary events are mutually exclusive.

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Complementary Events
EXAMPLES
Find the complement of each event.
a. Rolling a die and getting a 4.
Getting 1,2,3,5 or 6
b. Selecting a letter of the alphabet and getting a vowel.
Getting a consonant
c. Selecting a month and getting a month that begins with a J.
Getting February, March, April, May, August, September, October, November or
December
d. Selecting a day of the week and getting a weekday.
Getting a weekend (Friday or Saturday)
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Complementary Events
EXAMPLES
1
If the probability that a person lives in an industrialized country is , find the
5
probability that a person does not live in an industrialized country.
1 4
𝑃 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 = 1 − = = 0.8
5 5

In a study, it was found that 24% of people who were victims of a violent crime
were ages 20 to 24. If a person is selected at random, find the probability that the
person is younger than 20 or older than 24.

𝑃 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑑 20 𝑡𝑜 24 = 1 − 0.24 = 0.76 = 76%

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Empirical Probability
Empirical probability relies on actual experience to determine the likelihood of
outcomes. It doesn't assume that all outcomes in the sample space are equally
likely to occur.
Given a frequency distribution, the probability of an event being in a class is:

𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓

𝑃 𝐸 = =
𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑛
EXAMPLE
A researcher asked 50 people who plan to travel over the holiday how they will
get to their destination. The results can be categorized in a frequency distribution
as shown.
Find the probability that the person will travel by train or bus
over the holiday. 3
𝑃 𝐸 = = 0.06
50
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Empirical Probability
EXAMPLE
In a sample of 50 people, 21 had type O blood. 22 had type A, 5 had type B blood and 2
had type AB blood. Set up a frequency distribution and find the following probabilities:
a. a person has type O blood.
Blood
21 Frequency
𝑃 𝑂 = = 0.42 Type
50 A 22
b. a person has type A or type B blood. B 5
22 + 5 O 21
𝑃 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = = 0.54
50 AB 2
c. a person has neither type A nor type O blood. Total 50
5+2 22 + 21
𝑃 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐴 𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑂 = =1− = 0.14
50 50
d. a person does not have type AB blood.
𝑃(𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝐴𝐵) = 1 − 2/50 = 0.96
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Mutually Exclusive Events
Two events are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time (i.e., they
have no outcomes in common).

EXAMPLES
- Rolling a die and getting an even or an odd number.
- Randomly selecting a student and getting a female student or a male student.

In the case of mutually exclusive and not-mutually exclusive events, the

probability of two or more events can be determined by the addition rules.

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Mutually Exclusive Events
EXAMPLE
When a single die rolled, which of the following events is mutually exclusive and
which is not?
a. Getting a 3 and getting an odd number.
The events are not mutually exclusive, since the first event is a 3 and then second
event is 1, 3 or 5. Hence, 3 is contained in both events.

b. Getting an odd number and getting a number less than 4.

The events are not mutually exclusive, since the first event can be 1, 3 or 5 and
the second event is 1, 2 or 3. Hence, 1 and 3 are contained in both events.

c. Getting a number greater than 4 and getting a number less than 4.

The events are mutually exclusive, since the first event is 5 or 6 and the second
event is 1, 2 or 3.
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Addition Rules
▪ When two events A and B are mutually exclusive,
the probability that A or B will occur is
P (A ) P (B )
𝑃 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑃(𝐵)
P (S ) = 1

▪ When two events A and B are not-mutually exclusive,

the probability that A or B will occur is
P ( A and B )

𝑃 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑃 𝐵 − 𝑃(𝐴 & 𝐵) P (A ) P (B )
P (S ) = 1

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Addition Rules
EXAMPLES
A box contains doughnuts, 3 glazed, 4 jelly and 5 chocolate. If a person selects a
doughnut at random, find the probability that it is either a glazed or a chocolate
doughnut.
The total number of doughnuts in the box is 12 and the events are mutually
exclusive, so 𝟑 𝟓 𝟖
𝑷 𝑮 𝒐𝒓 𝑪 = 𝑷 𝑮 + 𝑷 𝑪 = + = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟕
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
A day of the week is selected at random. Find the probability that it is a weekend
day (Friday or Saturday)
The total number of days in a week is 7 (5 weekday and 2 weekend) and the
events are mutually exclusive, so
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝑷 𝑭 𝒐𝒓 𝑺 = 𝑷 𝑭 + 𝑷 𝑺 = + = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟔
𝟕 𝟕 𝟕
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Addition Rules
EXAMPLE
In a hospital unit there are 9 nurses and 7 physicians; 7 nurses and 3 physicians
are females. If a staff is selected, find the probability that the subject is a nurse or
a male.
The events are not mutually exclusive and the sample space is
Staff Female Male Total
Nurses 7 2 9
Physicians 3 4 7__
Total 10 6 16

𝟗 𝟔 𝟐 𝟏𝟑
𝑷 𝑵 𝒐𝒓 𝑴 = 𝑷 𝑵 + 𝑷 𝑴 − 𝑷 𝑵 & 𝑴 = + − = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟐5
𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟔

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Independent and Dependent Events
▪ Two events A and B are independent if the fact that A occurs does not affect
the probability of B occurring.
▪ When the outcome or occurrence of the first event affects the outcome or
occurrence of the second event in such a way that the probability is changed,
the events are said to be dependent.
▪ The multiplication rules can be used to find the probability of two or more
events that occur in sequence.
▪ When two events are independent, the probability of both occurring is:
𝑷 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 = 𝑷 𝑨 ∗ 𝑷 𝑩
▪ When two events are dependent, the probability of both occurring is:
𝑷 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 = 𝑷 𝑨 ∗ 𝑷 𝑩|𝑨

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Independent and Dependent Events
EXAMPLE
An urn contains 3 red balls, 2 blue balls and 5 white balls. A ball is selected and
its color noted. Then it is replaced. A second ball is selected and its color noted.
Find the probability of each of these:
a. selecting 2 blue balls
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
𝑷 𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 = 𝑷 𝑩 ∗ 𝑷 𝑩 = ∗ = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
b. selecting 1 blue ball and then 1 white ball
𝟐 𝟓 𝟏𝟎
𝑷 𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑾 = 𝑷 𝑩 ∗ 𝑷 𝑾 = ∗ = = 𝟎. 𝟏
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
c. selecting 1 red ball and then 1 blue ball
𝟑 𝟐 𝟔
𝑷 𝑹 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 = 𝑷 𝑹 ∗ 𝑷 𝑩 = ∗ = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

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Independent and Dependent Events
EXAMPLE
An urn contains 3 red balls, 2 blue balls and 5 white balls. A ball is selected and
its color noted (without replacement) , then a second ball is selected and its
color noted. Find the probability of each of these:
a. selecting 2 blue balls
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝑷 𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 = 𝑷 𝑩 ∗ 𝑷 𝑩|𝑩 = ∗ = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟎 𝟗 𝟗𝟎
b. selecting 1 blue ball and then 1 white ball
𝟐 𝟓 𝟏𝟎
𝑷 𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑾 = 𝑷 𝑩 ∗ 𝑷 𝑾|𝑩 = ∗ = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝟏𝟎 𝟗 𝟗𝟎
c. selecting 1 red ball and then 1 blue ball
𝟑 𝟐 𝟔
𝑷 𝑹 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 = 𝑷 𝑹 ∗ 𝑷 𝑩|𝑹 = ∗ = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕
𝟏𝟎 𝟗 𝟗𝟎

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Independent and Dependent Events
EXAMPLE
Approximately 9% of men have a type of color blindness that prevents them
from distinguishing between red and green. If 3 men are selected at random, find
the probability that all of them will have this type of red-green color blindness.

Let C denote red-green color blindness. Then

𝟗 𝟗 𝟗
𝑷 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑪 = 𝑷 𝑪 ∗ 𝑷 𝑪 ∗ 𝑷 𝑪 = ∗ ∗ =0.000729
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Hence, the rounded probability is 0.0007

2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 24
Independent and Dependent Events
EXAMPLE
Approximately 9% of men have a type of color blindness that prevents them
from distinguishing between red and green. If 3 men are selected at random, find
the probability that only the first two of them will have this type of red-green
color blindness.

Let C denote red-green color blindness. Then

𝟗 𝟗 𝟗𝟏
𝑷 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑵𝑪 = 𝑷 𝑪 ∗ 𝑷 𝑪 ∗ 𝑷 𝑵𝑪 = ∗ ∗ = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟕𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Hence, the rounded probability is 0.007

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Independent and Dependent Events
EXAMPLE
A golfer has 12 golf shirts in his closet. Suppose 9 of these shirts are white and
the others blue. He gets dressed in the dark, so he just grabs a shirt and puts it on.
He plays golf two days in a row and does not do laundry.
Let W be the symbol for selecting a white shirt and
B be the symbol for selecting a blue shirt.
What is the likelihood of selecting both white shirts?
P(W and W) = P(W)P(W |W) = (9/12)(8/11) = 0.545

What is the likelihood of selecting a white then a blue shirt?

P(W and B) = P(W)P(B |W) = (9/12)(3/11) = 0.205
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Counting Rule
The multiplication rule can be used to determine the total number of outcomes in
a sequence of events.

Fundamental counting rule

In a sequence of n events in which the first one has k1 possibilities and the second
event has k2 and the third has k3 and so forth, the total number of possibilities of
the sequence will be:
𝑘1 ∗ 𝑘2 ∗ 𝑘3 ∗ ⋯ ∗ 𝑘𝑛
Note: “And” in this case means to multiply.

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Counting Rule
EXAMPLE
A paint manufacturer whishes to manufacture several different paints. The
categories include
Color Red, blue, white, black, green, brown, yellow
Type Latex, oil
Texture Flat, semi gloss, high gloss
Use Outdoor, indoor
How many different kinds of paint can be made if a person can select one color,
one type, one texture and one use?

Since there are 7 color choices, 2 type choices, 3 texture choices and 2 use
choices, then the total number of possible different paints is
𝟕 ∗ 𝟐 ∗ 𝟑 ∗ 𝟐 =84

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Counting Rule
EXAMPLE
The digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are to be used in a four-digit ID card.
How many different cards are possible if
➢ repetitions are permitted?
Since there are 4 spaces to fill and 10 choices for each space, then the number of
possible different cards is
10∗ 𝟏𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
➢ repetitions are not permitted?
Since there are 4 spaces to fill and 10 choices for first space, 9 choices for the
second space, 8 choices for the third space and 7 choices for fourth space, then
the number of possible different cards is
10∗ 𝟗 ∗ 𝟖 ∗ 𝟕 =5040

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Permutations
The arrangement of n objects in a specific order using r objects at a time is called
a permutation of n objects taking r objects at a time.
It is written as nPr , and the formula is
𝑛!
1𝑛 𝑃𝑟 =
𝑛−𝑟 !
where
𝑛! = 𝑛 × 𝑛 − 1 × 𝑛 − 2 × ⋯ × 1
4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
0! = 1

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Permutations
EXAMPLE
Suppose a business owner has a choice of five locations in which to establish his
business. He decide to rank each location according to certain criteria, such as
price of the store and parking facilities. How many different ways can he rank
the five locations?

Since there are 5 choices for the first location, 4 choices for the second location,
3 choices for the third location, 2 choices for the fourth location and 1 choice for
the last location, then the number of ways is
5!
15 𝑃5 = = 5! = 5 ∗ 4 ∗ 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 1 = 120
5−5 !

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Permutations
EXAMPLE Ranking five locations
Step 1: Select “DATA” tab Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Step 6: Type in n value which is 5 in this case

Step 7: Type in r value which is 5 in this case

Step 5: Select “Permutations” tab Step 8: Click “Preview” to see the result

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Permutations
EXAMPLE
A television news director wishes to use three news stories on an evening show.
One story will be the lead story, one will be the second story and the last will be a
closing story. If the director has a total of eight stories to choose from, how
many possible ways can the program be set up?

Since the order is important, then the number of ways to set up the program is

8! 8! 8 ∗ 7 ∗ 6 ∗ 5!
18 𝑃3 = = = = 8 ∗ 7 ∗ 6 = 336
8 − 3 ! 5! 5!

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Permutations
EXAMPLE Selecting 3 from 8 in order
Step 1: Select “DATA” tab Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Step 6: Type in n value which is 8 in this case

Step 7: Type in r value which is 3 in this case

Step 5: Select “Permutations” tab Step 8: Click “Preview” to see the result

2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 34
Combinations
A selection of distinct objects without regard to order is called a combination.
The number of combinations of r objects selected from n objects is denoted nCr
and is given by the formula
𝑛!
𝑛 𝐶𝑟 =
𝑛 − 𝑟 ! ∗ 𝑟!
EXAMPLE
How many combination of 4 objects are there, taken 2 at a time?
Since this is a combination problem, then
4! 4 ∗ 3 ∗ 2! 4 ∗ 3
4 𝐶2 = = = =6
4 − 2 ! ∗ 2! 2! ∗ 2! 2∗1

2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 35
Combinations
EXAMPLE Selecting 2 from 4 regardless of order
Step 1: Select “DATA” tab Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Step 6: Type in n value which is 4 in this case

Step 7: Type in r value which is 2 in this case

Step 5: Select “Combinations” tab Step 8: Click “Preview” to see the result

2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 36
Combinations
EXAMPLE
In a club there are 7 women and 5 men. A committee of 3 women and 2 men is
to be chosen. How many different possibilities are there?

Here, one must select 3 women from 7 women and selects 2 men from 5 men.
Then, using the fundamental counting rule, we can find the total number of
different possibilities.

7! 5!
17 𝐶3 ∗ 5 𝐶2 = ∗ = 350
7 − 3 ! ∗ 3! (5 − 2)! ∗ 2!

2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 37
Combinations
EXAMPLE Selecting 3 from 7 and 2 from 5 regardless of order
Step 1: Select “DATA” tab Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Step 9: OK

Step 6: Type in n value which is 4 in this case

Step 7: Type in r value which is 2 in this case

Step 5: Select “Combinations” tab Step 8: Click “Preview” to see the result

2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 38
Combinations
EXAMPLE Selecting 3 from 7 and 2 from 5 regardless of order
Step 10
Step 11
Step 12

Step 17: OK

C
7 3 Step 14: Type in n value which is 4 in this case

Step 15: Type in r value which is 2 in this case

Step 13: Select “Combinations” tab Step 16: Click “Preview” to see the result

2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 39
Combinations
EXAMPLE Selecting 3 from 7 and 2 from 5 regardless of order

C * 5C2 = 35*10
7 3

C
5 2
350

=B6*B14

2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 40
Summary
✓ The two types of probability are classical and empirical.
✓ Classical probability uses sample spaces and assumes that all outcomes in the
sample space are equally likely to occur.
✓ Empirical probability uses frequency distributions and is based on
observations.
✓ Two events are said to be mutually exclusive if they cannot occur together at
the same time.
✓ Events can be independent or dependent if they occur in sequence.
✓ If events are independent, whether or not the first event occurs does not affect
the probability of the next event occurring.
✓ If the probability of the second event occurring is changed by the occurrence
of the first event, then the events are dependent.
2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 41
Summary

Rule Definition
Multiplication rule The number of ways a sequence of n events can occur; if the first
event can occur in k1 ways, the second event can occur in k2 ways,
k1  k 2  k 3      k n etc.

Permutation rule The arrangement of n objects in a specific order using r objects at

a time (order is important)
n!
n Pr =
(n − r )!

Combination rule The number of combinations of r objects selected from n objects

(order is not important)
n!
n Cr =
(n − r )! r !

2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 42
Review Examples
A combination lock consists of the 26 letters of the alphabet. If a 3-letter
combination is needed and the same letter can be used more than once.
Find the probability that the combination will consist of the letters ABC in that
order.
Find the probability that the combination will consist of the letters ABC.

In a club there are 7 women and 5 men. A committee of 3 women and 2 men is
to be chosen according to their abilities. How many different possibilities are
there?

There are 8 married couples in a tennis club. If a man and a woman are selected
at random to plan the summer tournament, find the probability that they are
married to each other.

2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 43
Review Examples
Given the letters A, B, C, and D, list the permutations and combinations for
selecting two letters.

A school musical director can select 2 musical plays to present next year. One
will be presented in the fall, and one will be presented in the spring. If she has 9
to pick from, how many different possibilities are there?

Suppose a business owner has a choice of 5 locations in which to establish his

business. He decides to rank only the top 3 of the 5 locations. How many
different ways can he rank them?

A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. Find the number of outcomes for the
sequence of events.

2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 44
Review Examples
There are four blood types, A, B, AB, and O. Blood can also be +ve or -ve.
Finally, a blood donor can be classified as either male or female. How many
different ways can a donor have his or her blood labeled?

A Harris poll found that 46% of Americans say they suffer great stress at least
once a week. If three people are selected at random, find the probability that all
three will say that they suffer great stress at least once a week.

A coin is flipped and a die is rolled. Find the probability of getting a head on the
coin and a 4 on the die.

Find the probability of getting identical number of spots when rolling two dice.
2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 45
Review Examples
The probability of a person driving with a friend is 0.32, the probability of a
person having a driving accident is 0.09, and the probability of a person having a
driving accident while driving with a friend is 0.15. What is the probability of a
person driving with a friend or having a driving accident?

The corporate research and development centers for three local companies have
the following number of employees:
U.S. Steel 110
Alcoa 750
Bayer Material Science 250
If a research employee is selected at random, find the probability that the
employee is employed by U.S. Steel or Alcoa.
2023 © All rights are preserved for Dr. Saeed A. Dobbah Alghamdi, Department of Statistics, Faculty of Sciences, KAU 46
Review Examples
A city has 9 coffee shops: 3 Starbuck’s, 2 Caribou Coffees, and 4 Crazy Mocha
Coffees. If a person selects one shop at random to buy a cup of coffee, find the
probability that it is either a Starbuck’s or Crazy Mocha Coffees.

Hospital records indicated that knee replacement patients stayed in the hospital for the
number of days shown in the distribution.
Number of days stayed 3 4 5 6 7 Σ
Frequency 15 32 56 19 5 127
Find these probabilities.
a. A patient stayed exactly 5 days.
b. A patient stayed at most 4 days.
c. A patient stayed less than 6 days.
d. A patient stayed at least 5 days.

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