UNIT 3: The Moral Actions endeavor to train one’s reaction to situations to arrive to

what is called character. Managing one’s

Feelings and Moral Decision-Making emotions and feelings would require every individual this
process until the individual has attained
The rationalistic point of view that emotion has no place in a mature moral character.
moral decision needs to be examined. No person has the
capacity to be unaffected or separate himself or herself The 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model
completely from one’s feelings or emotions.
Psychologically, it is a condition that is not possible because The following steps are suggested as guides in making
individuals experience the situations of their life in all its moral decision which is called the Seven(7) Step Moral
dimensions –as a rational being, as a feeling being, as a Reasoning Model.
social being, as a religious being and more. And as such
these dimensions can never be compartmentalized or 1.State the problem. Gather the facts
segregated from each other and experience one and put
aside the others. One dimension may dominate the others Before any decision, it is important that decisions makers
but they can never be completely erased or neglected have in their possession all the necessary facts and data
during a particular experience. Where there is a need to concerning an issue. Decisions are based on facts and
make moral decisions, it is impossible to purge the not on opinions neither on hearsay. Facts and data clarify
individual of one’s feelings or emotions that may derail him the issues that need to be resolved. When facts are
or her from making the most appropriate one. After all, incomplete a definite resolution to a problem may not be
human beings are not robots. reached. The acceptability also of a solution to a problem
or issue will depend on the completeness of facts and
Bulaong Jr. Et al (2018) suggests citing the ideas of Aristotle evidences.
that moral virtue is far beyond the pure and simple act of
intellectually determining the right thing to do. Moral 2.Check the facts. Determine the ethical issue (Is it moral
virtue is the character of the person through which a moral if …)
agent is able to have control over one’s emotions or
feelings. Aristotle does not suggest the elimination of In the second step, it is necessary to determine the ethical
feelings but the cultivation of one’s character at the basis of issue. In other words, what is the problem about? It is a
learning how to be able to control them. point of clarifying and distinguishing whether a situation
demands moral valuation or not. Some issues do not really
It would seem that the Filipino agrees to this idea, when he qualify to be considered a moral or ethical issue. When I
or she says: “Huwag kang padadala sa bugso ng iyong have to decide about the time I should eat my breakfast or,
damdamin.” Or, “Huwag mong paiiralin ang iyong when I have to decide whether I have to study for
emosyon.” These suggest that Filipinos have a way in order tomorrow’s examination in my Physics class do not
to tame one’s emotions or feelings. It must be a corollary necessarily require deliberate moral decision. But when
experience that somehow there is a way to be able to contemplating to secretly sell a family property without the
manage one’s emotions. knowledge of the other members is an example of a
situation in which a moral valuation is called for. Here, I
All these tell us that the human being is intellectual as have to ask myself whether my intention to sell the family
much as emotional. Being a human being is to have both property is ethical or unethical. Is it the right thing to do
the rational and emotion aspects and people will always be. even if I have important needs to address?
Aristotle proposes that decisions or moral virtues are
arrived at by the mature moral agent because of habitually 3.What principles have a bearing on the case? Identify
managing one’s emotions in the rightful manner. relevant factors.

Hence, the responsible moral agent accepts that feelings In the case mentioned above about secretly selling a family
cannot be put aside as they will always be there. But what property, I should consider the principles that would be
is necessary so that they will not detract anyone from violated by my decision. It is dishonest to sell a common
making an informed moral decision is learning how to property without the knowledge of my co-owners. I am
cultivate them so that one’s emotional life does not remain violating the principle that I should be honest at all times.
in the, pre-conventional level in which self-interest is the Furthermore, my intention violates the principles about
motivation of decision making. It should be noted that the private properties owned by others. My intention violates
cultivation of one’s character is a process of continuous at least two principles. In the example, there are principles
habit of doing what is right. It is not therefore, a result of that have a bearing on the intention to secretly sell a
an overnight and single attempt but really of a prolonged
communal property and these principles tell us about some and has considered all possible consequences and the
irregularities ethically interest of everybody to be affected by it.
speaking.
UNIT 4: Ethical Frameworks and
4. List down the alternatives. Develop a list of options. Principles in Moral Disposition

Finding a solution to a moral issue may involve several Arete (Virtue) as Moral Excellence
alternatives. Again, in the example above about selling the
family property secretly may not be the only solution to a Values can be good or bad. The good values are virtues and
financial crisis. Other alternatives may be possible like the bad ones are vices. Since virtue has the ability to bring
asking the other co-owners to buy themselves my own positive changes and enhance the quality of life, it is power
share in the property. Or, maybe, if I have an existing in itself. It is power as disposition or state. This power is a
problem in which considerable amount of money is means to attain excellence or human excellence, “the
involved, it is possible that I can have recourse to the ability to function according to reason and to perform an
generosity of my siblings. They may not be the only activity well or excellently” (Bulaong Jr. et al, 2018). It can
alternatives found, others may still be possible. Should my be achieved by developing the good values. Hence, the role
siblings and other members of the family know my of human reason is vital in the discernment in which
situation; they might be able to offer better alternatives manner power has to be used.
other than those I know. By listing down possible
alternatives to resolve a problem, I have created several Individuals do not become virtuous overnight. The power
or a few possibilities from which I can choose a more to attain excellence is nourished by the moral character of a
feasible alternative. person as a result of practicing the virtue. If virtue or the
manner of doing things excellently is achievable only by
5. Compare the alternatives with principles. Test the training oneself or by constant practice, virtue must be
options. something which individuals must strive for. They must
constantly make the habit of practicing them in their day-
It would be interesting to compare the different to-day existence, constantly doing what is good and
alternatives; this involves the examination of the different correcting oneself if one falls short in its practice. In the
alternatives analyzing their advantages and disadvantages. same vein of idea, virtue cannot be the result of a single
It would also require finding which of the alternatives act. The act of honesty is considered virtue if it is done not
would violate less the identified principles with bearing on once, not twice but when it has become part of one’s
the issue. An alternative solution that does not violate any character.
principle would normally be the recommended one.
Virtue as the Golden Mean (Nicomachean Ethics)
6. Assess the consequences. Make a choice
It is not clear whether it is Aristotelian or written by
Having identified the different alternatives, the next step to Aristotle himself but it is clearly dedicated to his son
be undertaken would be the evaluation of the possible Nichomea. The concept of virtue is explained by the golden
consequences of the different alternatives. Which among mean (mesotes or measurement). It is a means by which
the choices would bring about the most benefits? the human person is acting in measured way being rational.
The question therefore to be asked is “where can I find
In the assessment of the consequences, it is suggested that excellence?”. The answer is found in the mean or
the moral agent consider at least the minimum moderation. Example, the lack of love is hatred or
requirement in making a moral decision, referred to as indifference. And excessive love is obsession as illustrated
reason and impartiality. Hence, the task is to consider not below:
only the benefits that could be derived by the moral agent Lack The Mean Excess
himself or herself but also those that would benefit all Hate/indifference Love Obsession
individuals to be affected by the moral decision. Again, it is
important that the moral agent does not only look at his or The mean signifies how strong you are to withstand tension
her interests but also giving fair consideration to the between the lack of and excess of love. It is the test to the
interest of all the people affected by the decision. moral character of an individual. Aristotle is concerned
about achieving the appropriate action which is neither
7. Make a decision (Review steps 1-6) deficient nor excessive. Virtue is found in the middle or
The last and final step involved would be to make a intermediary between extremes. It is the application of the
decision. A responsible and conscientious moral agent right amount of passion or feelings and the exercise of
knows that a morally acceptable decision is well discerned one’s ability to do a particular act. It follows that in
themselves, feelings and passions are neither good nor bad. Conclusion
It is in the manner of applying them that the wrongness or
rightness of the act is manifested. It is alright for instance Moral virtue is first, the condition arrived at by a person
to be angry when it is reasonable but it is not right to be who has a character identified out of the habitual exercise
angry beyond what is required by the situation that of particular actions. One’s character is the result of
triggered it. continuous preference for the good.

Another question that must be settled here is the question Second, in moral virtue, the action done is chosen because
of how to judge the mesotes or the middle. Does it depend it is the middle. The middle does not fall short or is
on the individual? excessive of the proper proportion by which feelings or
passion should be expressed. Aristotle adds that the middle
According to Aristotle, the mean or mesotes does not or mesotes does not totally depend on what the person
depend on the person because it is different from one perceives as the middle because it would imply that he
person to another. Otherwise, the person will be accused adheres to relativism. But the middle depends on the
of relativism or subjectivism. Rather, the mesotes depends situation and the circumstance of the individual. It is the
on the situation. It requires a serious consideration and situation that identifies the proper way of dispensing
examination or the situation. It is the situation that will feelings and passions.
determine where mesotes is found or what is the mesotes
for a particular situation. Again, reason will be important in Third, the proper identification of the middle is through the
order to appropriately assess any given situation, thereby practical wisdom or rational faculty. The virtuous person
appropriately judging as well where mesotes is to be found. has learned from experience and has therefore learned to
know the proper way of carrying out feelings, passions and
Another idea that needs special consideration about virtue actions. It means further that habit is not simply the result
ethics is that it is the counterpart of Duty Ethics. Where of repetitive and mechanical action but is also the product
duty ethics is the power to live virtuously in accordance of the constant application of reason on one’s actions.
with what is right in terms of obligation and duties.
Morality in virtue ethics is procedural and process. Duty It must be said further that not all feelings and passions
ethics is based on what is right and what is wrong which is have a middle point. When a mean is sought, it is the
based on laws and duties. If you do it, you are doing the context that can identify the good act in a situation. As a
right thing. conclusion, for Aristotle, being superfluous with regard to
expression of virtue is no longer ethical, one has gone
Virtue ethics is different. What you set is human excellence. beyond the middle. This has some practical consequences
Virtue implies that you do something more than doing what to Filipino having the inclination of using superlative
is right. Virtue is doing not only following rules and expression such as “sobra,” “super,” etc. in their
therefore, it is not enough to be right (following rules) but description of certain acts that they usually consider as
looking for excellence. As cited by Professor Bitanga, virtuous. Aristotle’s perspective on virtue can clarify better
religion is asymmetrical; it is always giving more to the the Filipino understanding what virtue means.
other. In the same manner, the way in which you treat
someone in a relationship characterized by respect and Below is a list of virtues. The list will be helpful for you
recognition of the importance of the other, you always students, to assess how much you have given to them. It
think in terms of the maximum that you can offer the other will encourage them to give it a try or strengthen them for
person and not simply in accordance to what is dutiful. better commitment and stronger stance.
-Honesty -Humility -Punctuality
Also, moderation is not the same as the mean. Moderation -Patience -Benevolence -Temperance
in the sense of the middle does not apply to all situations. -Courage -Prudence -Discipline
For example, in the use of shabu, moderation or the middle -Righteousness -Courage -Wisdom
is not applicable. We cannot say that moderately using the -Chastity -Integrity -Resilience
drug is the best way. It is simply not applicable since using -Fortitude -Faith -Love
it in any manner is unacceptable. Virtue as the power to -Charity -Obedience -Commitment
stay within the mean calls for reason. Aristotle’s discussion -Religiosity -Knowledge -Prayerfulness
ultimately leads us to the definition of moral virtue which is -Piety -Mindfulness -Patriotism
the “state of character concerned with choice, lying in a -Impartiality
mean and determined by a rational principle.”
The Natural Law Ethics Theory (Divine Law) How do you determine your purpose? The law seems to be
a part of you. Reason tells you that you are doing the right
The natural law is deeply rooted in Christian law theory and thing or its opposite. In an example, it says that it is natural
theology. This idea is also rooted in the divine law. The that you don’t have sex with a dog. Nobody told you about
origin of natural law at its very basis is God’s intention to that.
put order in the world through the moral law which was
made known to man. This moral law is the natural To understand the natural law, one ought to know the
law. essence of a “thing.” What is this about? (Ano ba ito?) I am
a person (my essence), then, you should not kill me.
Illustration: Knowing what the thing is orits nature, guides one to deal
Divine Law with it appropriately and not otherwise. The problem starts
I when one has a distorted idea about the essence or nature
I of things. When that happens, inappropriate dealings
Laws of Nature --------------Moral Law -------------Natural Law follow. But if I know the right value of a thing, I would deal
Example: with it appropriately. Again, the question is how does one
Law of gravity, etc.-Expressed in (Fair and square) human know the essence of things? Reason will help one to
law -Expressed as Church recognize the value of a thing and Natural Law tells us that
law (Ex. Canon law) it is in the nature of human beings to know it.

Points of Consideration: Criticisms on the Natural Law

1.The natural law is a body of unchanging moral principles 1.Rachels (2003) claims that the idea that everything in
regarded as a basis for all human conduct. nature has a purpose is stunningly anthropocentric since
2.An observable law relating to natural phenomena. The everything, as it were, is arranged for the sake of
natural law is a theory that says that there is a set of rules people whose well-being is the point of the whole
inherent in human behaviour and human reasoning that arrangement. By saying this, Rachels seems to imply,
govern human conduct. without saying it directly, that it is too neat to believe. He
3.The natural law is divine law revealed. said: “Humans are a remarkably vain species.”

Guide for Understanding the Natural Law 2.Citing David Hume, Rachels argues that in the discussion
of the laws of nature, there is a confusion of “is” and
How do we understand natural law? To understand it, we “ought.” He tries to point out that they are different
have to look into two elements: the purpose and the notions and that there can be no conclusion that can be
essence. derived or that follows from the other. That is, if for
instance, man was made beneficent, it does not follow that
First, to be able to understand the natural law, one must he ought to be.
look at the purpose, “Para saan ito?” You are created for
what? Example, something is wrong because it is not used 3.Relative to the question of moral knowledge, Rachels
for its natural purpose and vice-versa. Like the male organ suggests that because human are following the laws of
is for the female organ and they are used for reproduction. reason and since God, the author of the natural order has
In the same manner referring to marriage, it is meant to be made us rational beings, it means that the religious believer
consummated and ratified (solemnized). There is no has no special access to moral truth. The holy and the
marriage when one is missing. Honoring the purpose of profane have equal access to moral knowledge.
things is fundamental. Immediately something is out of
track when the purpose of a thing is not respected. For Kant’s Ethics or Ethical Theory
instance, being a student, your main purpose is coming to
school to study. Having put aside this main purpose will Kant’s ethics is the theory of the good (ethics). Kant
jeopardize results. A student may fail in the subjects if not emphasizes the intention or the will which is the intention
given appropriate attention. Those students who excel are to do the good, the duty of every rational person. Hence,
those who had constantly given themselves to their main acts are good only when they are done out of duty more
task which is studying. Or, a driver who continuously does than the end or regardless of the consequence of the act.
texting while driving may meet a vehicular accident and The crucial element for Kant is the intention or motive
may not reach the destination. Thus, the rightness of one’s which is the duty of every individual. Hence, acting in the
action according to natural law depends on whether its sense of duty is the one that makes an act moral. When
purpose is respected for which it is being performed. An someone does something out one’s pleasure for doing it or
action is wrong when it does not express the purpose for it is based on one’s inclination to do it, it does not reflect a
which it is meant for. moral act. It is the sense obligation or duty that makes an
act moral or ethical. Duty or the intention to do what is of person for whom the act is done. An act done to gain the
good is that which one ought to do. Hence, duty is doing recognition of others, no matter how good it appears to be
what one is obliged to do. Duty is also known as obligation. does not belong to this formula of the kingdom of ends.
The presumption is that everybody has good will in which
again, the good will is our duty. The golden rule; therefore, Distinction between a Perfect Duty and an Imperfect Duty
the Golden rule; “Do unto others what you want others do
unto you.” Perfect Duty. It is the duty which we are obliged to do all
the time. Example, no killing, no harming others physically,
The important question that should be asked now is how no lies, etc.
can one know one’s duty in a given situation? To determine
if one acts from the sense of duty, one must judge his or The Imperfect Duty. Imperfect duties are those we should
her action in the light of the universalizability of the act. do as often as possible but cannot be expected to do
This means, act according to the maxim that you would always. Example, be charitable, loving, etc. (Timbreza,
wish all other rational people to follow, as if it were a 2007).
universal law or code of behavior. The universalizability of
an act is verified if it has the characteristic of the Some Kantian Ethical Principles
categorical imperative, meaning the doing of the act is 1. In the medical context for Kant, it is always wrong to lie.
done without mental reservation at all. It says that medical investigators should not lie to their
patients.
The good involves the principle of universalizability. Kant 2.People should be treated as ends and not as means.
argues that there are four formulations of this principle. 3.That we have also a duty to treat ourselves as ends and to
preserve our dignity and worth as human beings.
1.Formula of the law of nature. Act as if you can at the 4.That an action is right insofar as it satisfies the categorical
same time will that it should become a universal law. The imperative.
act implies that it is an acceptable act that can be willed 5.The distinction between perfect and imperfect duties
and be acted upon by every rational moral agent. It reflects suggests that some rights should be recognized.
the idea of modelling. The intention to do good to another
and the act of doing it is first acted upon by the moral Criticisms of the Kantian Ethics
agent. It is not intended for others to do it. Further, what 1.Kant’s principles have no clear way of resolving cases of
you do is acceptable to others. It has the sense of strictness conflicting duties.
because the basis is good will. Example, it is one’s duty to always tell the truth. What if
telling the truth to a patient about the real health status
2.Formula of the end in itself. It means “act in such a way will shorten his or her life.
that you always treat humanity, whether in your own
person or in the person of any other, always as an end, 2.Categorical imperatives fail to establish duties in cases
never simply use the other as a means” (Prof. Bitanga). An involving maxims that cannot be willed to become a
intention and the act itself is good when it has respected universal law for subjective reason.
the dignity of the person to whom the act is intended and
not using the same person of selfish ends (Archimedes, p. 3.The problem related to the notion that we have a duty to
70). It is the humanitarian aspect of the Kantian theory. treat others as rational beings or persons. In bioethics, it is
the question of whether to consider a seriously deformed
3.The formula of autonomy. Act that your will can be fetus a rational being or not (Timbreza, 2007).
regarded at the same time as ifyou are making a universal
law. It is as if you want your action to be legislated. You Utilitarianism
look at it as if an action can become a law. In doing an act
of goodness, the goodness itself is self-evident. It does not Timbreza (2007) claims thatutilitarianismis the most
require another evidence or proof of goodness. important consequentialist theory. This moral theory was
first introduced by Jeremy Bentham and James Mill in
4.Formula of the Kingdom of Ends. It is expressed by the18th century. Later, it was popularized by John Stuart
maxim, “Act as if you were setting yourself as a standard. Mill (1806 –1873. It argues that what makes an act right
Never treat a person as a means but always as an end. is its consequence. If an act has resulted in good
Never exploit anyone for any purpose” (Prof. Bitanga, consequences, then it is moral; if not, then it is immoral.
2018). An act is expressive of this principle when it is
motivated by absolute recognition of the sanctity and John Stuart Mill formulated the Principle of Utility. It claims
dignity to be the only moral principle expressed as: “actions are
good insofar as they tend to promote happiness, bad as
they tend to produce unhappiness.” To determine whether
an action tends to produce happiness, one has to look into
the consequences or result of the act rather than by means
of some features of the action itself, for instance, its
intention. Actions are neither intrinsically right nor wrong,
nor does the goodness or badness of an action depend
uponthe motive or intention or past action of the doer.
Consequences, effects, results are most important. Bearing
in mind the principle, we should consider the possible
effects of each action or moral decision before they are
acted upon. We ought to choose the action that produces
the most benefits at the least cost of pain or unhappiness.

Concerned about the possible cloud of individualism and

subjectivism, Bentham and Mill suggested an alternative
formulation of the utilitarian principle popularly known
asthe “principle of the greatest happiness” –An action is
good insofar as it produces the greatest happiness for the
greatest number of people; bad insofar as it produces more
harm than benefit for the greatest number of individuals.

By introducing the “calculus of pain and pleasure,”

Bentham suggests that the principle of the greatest
happiness is still made more specific in some aspects. This
“calculus of pain and pleasure includes the following
aspects –“ intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity,
fecundity, purity and extent.” So to speak, the more intense
the pleasure is, the better, the longer it lasts, the better.

Criticisms on Utilitarian Ethics

Timbreza (2007) notes several difficulties of utilitarianism

as pointed out below.

1.The principle of utility can sacrifice the few for the sake of
the many. This implies that some individuals are considered
more important than others. Their happiness is more
important than the happiness of the impoverished or
ordinary individuals. It is apparent that the utilitarian
principle lacks the principle of justice.

2.The utilitarian principle comes from its own consideration

that before an action is done, there has to be thorough
investigation on the different possible consequences of the
action. It would be impossible to be able to identify all the
possible legitimate consequences of any act.

3.Lastly, the utilitarian principle does not give consideration

to the intention or motives of the doer of the act. Or, it
ignores the motive from which moral decision are made or
based. This would imply that a person who is acting out
from an evil motive but nonetheless produces some good
benefits is a good individual.